Chapter 2 Mechanics and Thermodynamics of Fluid Flow

Conservation Equations
Conservation of mass Conservation of momentum
d
dt
( m
cv
) = m
in
m
out
F = m
_
du
dt
_
Where m = AV
For a steady ow system
d
dt
m
cv
= 0 m
1
= m
2
1st Law of Thermodynamics
E
in
E
out
= E
system

E
in

E
out
=
dE
sys
dt
For a constant mass system (closed system)
Q = E +W
For a control volume (open system)

in
m =

out
m

Q

W =

out
m
_
h
i
+
V
2
i
2
+gz
i
_

in
m
_
h
i
+
V
2
i
2
+gz
i
_
m
1
= m
2
(AV )
1
= (AV )
2

Q

W = m
_
(h
2
h
1
) +
V
2
2
V
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_
For an ideal-gas we can use the relationship between enthalpy and temperature and get
h
2
h
1
= c
p,avg
(T
2
T
1
)

Q

W = m
_
c
p
(T
2
T
1
) +
V
2
2
V
2
1
2
+g(z
2
z
1
)
_

Q is the rate of heat transfer between the cv and its surroundings, if

Q < 0 then the cv is losing heat
(Q is positive into the system)

W is power. If

W > 0 the work is being done by the system (W is positive out of the system)
2.3 Thermodynamics of Gases
Perfect Gas
Pv = RT Pv =
R
M
T PV = nRT PV = mRT
1
Where R = 8.3143
kJ
kmol K
= 1545.43
ft lb
f

R lb-mol
, and n =
m
M
, P is the absolute pressure, v is the volume
per unit mass, R and M are the universal gas constant, and molecular weight, and V is the total volume
Enthalpy, h is dened as h = e +pv
Specic Heats
c
v
=
de
dT
c
p
=
dh
dT
From the relationship dh = de +R dT we can nd that c
p
= c
v
+R. Constant Specic Heats For a small
range, using the ideal-gas law we can show that
ds = c
p
dT
T
R
dp
p
For the case of constant specic heat and an isentropic process we can integrate and use the ideal-gas
law to get
p
p
1
=
_
T
T
1
_

1

1
=
_
T
T
1
_ 1
1
p
p
1
=
_

1
_

Mixture of Gases
Temperature: T
m
= T
1
= T
2
= = T
n
Pressure: p
m
= p
1
+p
2
+ +p
n
Volume: V
m
= M
m
v
m
= M
1
v
1
= M
2
v
2
= = M
n
v
n
Energy: E
m
= M
m
e
m
= M
1
e
1
+M
2
e
2
+ +M
n
e
n
Entropy: S
m
= M
m
s
m
= M
1
s
1
+M
2
s
2
+ +M
n
s
n
Enthalph: H
m
= M
m
h
m
= M
1
h
1
+M
2
h
2
+ +M
n
h
n
Where M is the mass and the subscript m refers to the mixture
c
vm
=
M
1
c
v1
+M
2
c
v2
+ +M
n
c
vn
M
m
c
pm
=
M
1
c
p1
+M
2
c
p2
+ +M
n
c
pn
M
m
For any constituent gas i the partial pressure, p
i
, it exerts is related to the number of moles present in the
mixture.
p
i
v
i
= R
i
T
m
p
i
v
i
=
R
M
i
T
m
Where M
i
is the molecular weight of constituent i. Since v
i
=
V
m
M
i
p
i
=
M
i
RT
m
M
i
V
m
= n
i
RT
m
V
m
From the Gibbs-Dalton law, the mixture pressure is the sum of the partial pressures, and since this is just
the ratio of the number of moles, we also have the mole fraction X, and we can also nd the mass fraction
so we have
p
i
p
m
=
n
i
n
1
+n
2
+ +n
n
X
i
=
n
i
n
1
+n
2
+ +n
n
2
p
i
p
m
=
V
i
V
m
=
n
i
n
m
= X
i
The mass fraction, y
i
and mole fraction, X
i
can also be given by
y
i
=
M
i
M
m
X
i
=
n
i
n
m
M
m
=

M
i
n
m
=

n
i

y
i
= 1

X
i
= 1
NOTE: When the problem is given in a mass basis
M
m
=
1

_
y
i
M
i
_
NOTE: When the problem is given in a molar (volume) basis
M
m
=

X
i
M
i
2.4 Equilibrium Combustion Thermodynamics; Chemical Reactions
Hydrocarbon combustion in air generally follows the following chemical balance, because my volume air is
79% N
2
and 21% O
2
C
n
H
m
+
_
n +
m
4
_
(O
2
+ 3.76 N
2
) nCO
2
+
m
2
H
2
O +
_
n +
m
4
_
3.76 N
2
The Air-to-Fuel ratio can be given on either a mass, or molar (volume) basis, and is given as
A
F
_
mass
=
m
air
m
fuel
A
F
_
mol
=
n
air
n
fuel
Equivalence Ratio,
=
Ox
fuel
_
sto.
Ox
fuel
_
act.
When = 1 the reaction is said to be stoichiometric
When < 1 the reaction is said to be lean
When > 1 the reaction is said to be rich
3
Heats of Formation
Q
Rel
= H
P
H
Re
=
P

j=1
(n
j
Q
f,j
)
Re

i=1
(n
i
Q
f,i
)
For adiabatic conditions H
P
= H
Re
meaning that Q
Rel
= 0
If T
Re
= T
P
then we can use
Re

i=1
(n
i
Q
f,i
) + (SOME TERM HERE) =
P

j=1
(n
j
Q
f,j
) + (SOME TERM HERE)
But if T
Re
= T
P
Re

i=1
(n
i
Q
f,i
) +
Re

i=1
(n
i
c
p,i
)(T
1
T
f
) =
P

j=1
(n
j
Q
f,j
) +
P

j=1
(n
j
c
p,j
)(T
2
T
f
)

_
_
P

j=1
(n
j
Q
f,j
)
Re

i=1
(n
i
Q
f,i
)
_
_
=
_
_
P

j=1
(n
j
c
p,j
)(T
2
T
f
)
Re

i=1
(n
i
c
p,i
)(T
1
T
f
)
_
_
4
Chapter 3: Steady 1D Flow of a Perfect Gas
General 1D Flow
Conservation Equations
Continuity Momentum Energy
d

+
dA
A
+
du
u
= 0
_
dp
dx
+

0
c
A
_
+X = u
du
dx
(dh +udu) = dq dw
Equation of State
p = RT
The stagnation state is the state that would be reached by a uid if it were brought to rest reversibly,
adiabatically, and without work (isentropically)
h
0
h +
u
2
2
Where h
0
is the stagnation enthalpy.
The stagnation temperature T
0
is the temperature that would be reached with adiabatic, zero-work deceler-
ation and for a perfect gas with constant specic heats is related to the stagnation pressure by
p
0
p
=
_
T
0
T
_

1
The Mach number is given by the ratio of the local velocity, u and the local speed of sound a
M =
u
a
where a =
_
RT
Isentropic Flow
T
0
T
= 1 +
1
2
M
2
p
0
p
=
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_

1

=
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_ 1
1
For M << 1 - Low subsonic ow
Flow is incompressible, therefore

0
= p
0
= p +
1
2
u
2
p
0
p
= 1 +

2
M
2
= 1 +
u
2
2RT
= 1 +
u
2
2p
The mass ow per unit area is
m
A
= u where u = M

RT
0
1 +
1
2
M
2
Substituting in gives
m
A
=
p
0

RT
0
M
_
1
a +
1
2
M
2
_
+1
2(1)
5
For a given uid(, R) and inlet state (p
0
, T
0
) we can show that the mass ow per unit area is at a maximum
for M = 1, and denote those properties at M = 1 with an asterisk (*) the maximum ow per unit area is
given by
m
A

=
p
0

RT
0

_
2
+ 1
_
+1
2(1)
Combining theses equations gives
A
A

=
1
M
_
2
+ 1
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
__
+1
2(1)
Nonisentropic Flow
Let m = 1 +
1
2
M
2
, where M is the local Mach number we can look how T
0
and p
0
change in the
streamwise direction for nonisentropic ow.
dT
T
=
dT
0
T
0

dm
m
dp
p
=
dp
0
p
0

1
dm
m
Substituting these into T ds = dh v dp we see that
dm
m
disappears, leaving
ds
R
=

1
dT
0
T
0

dp
0
p
0
For the case of Isentropic ow(ds=0) we know that dT
0
= 0 so then however much the ow accelerates
or decelerates the stagnation pressure cannot change.
If the work is nonzero, then dT
0
= 0 but from
dp
0
p
0
=

1
dT
0
T
0
if is constant
p
0
p
01
=
_
T
0
T
01
_

1
For Nonisentropic ow. We know from the 2nd law of thermo that entropy is always increasing for a
control mass, so for adiabatic ows ds 0 If there is zero work and zero heat transfer (but an increase in
entropy from friction) we get dT
0
= 0 and ds > 0 which shows
dp
0
p
0
=
ds
R
In general
dp
0
p
0
=

1
dT
0
T
0

ds
R
Frictionless Constant-Area Flow with Stagnation Temperature Change
Continuity Momentum Energy
dp
p
+
du
u
= 0 dp = u du dh
0
= dh +u du
Integration of the continuity and momentum equations gives
u =
1
u
1
p p
1
= (u)(u u
1
) = (
1
u
1
)(u u
1
)
6
Where the subscript 1 is an initial condition. The momentum equation can be expressed as
p p
1
=
1
u
2
1
u
2
Using Mach number, we can show this to be
p
p
1
=
1 +M
2
1
1 +M
2
Using this we can nd the stagnation pressure ratio
p
0
p
01
=
_
1 +M
2
1
1 +M
2
_
_
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
_
_
_

1
For temperature we can show
T
T
1
=
_
1 +M
2
1
1 +M
2
1
_
M
M
1
__
2
And the stagnation temperature ratio is given by
T
0
T
01
=
_
1 +M
2
1
1 +M
2
1
_
M
M
1
__
2
_
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
_
_
_
Since for a given ow (i.e. a given p
01
, T
01
, M
1
) the conditions for unity Mach number are constant so then
for M = 1 we have
T
T

=
_
1 +
1 +M
2
_
2
M
2
and
T
0
T

0
=
2( + 1)M
2
_
1 +
1
2
m
2
_
(1 +M
2
)
2
p
p

=
1 +
1 +M
2
and
p
0
p

0
=
_
2
+ 1
_

1
_
1 +
1 +M
2
__
1 +
1
2
M
2
_

1
Given particular entrance conditions T
01
, p
01
, M
1
we can nd the exit conditions after a given change in
stagnation temperature using the following
T
02
T

0
=
T
01
T

0
+
T
0
T

0
or
T
02
T

0
=
T
01
T

0
+
q w
c
p
T

0
Constant-Area Flow with Friction
Conservation Equations
Continuity Momentum Energy
d

+
du
u
= 0
dp
p
=

0
cdx
pA

udu
p
0 = dh+udu
The wall shear stress
0
can be correlated by

0
u
2
/2
= f
_
uD

,
A
D
_
or C
f
= f
_
Re,
A
D
_
7
Where C
f
is the skin friction coecient

0
u
2
/2
, A is the average height of surface roughness elements, and
D is the duct diameter.
Substituting these into the conservation equations gives
Continuity Momentum Energy
dp
p

dT
T
+
1
2
du
2
u
2
= 0
dp
p
=
M
2
2
_
4
C
f
dx
D
_

u du
RT
0 =
dT
T
+
1

u du
RT
Using these denitions we can nd the continuity and energy relations
T
T

=
+ 1
2
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_
p
p

=
1
M
_

_
+ 1
2
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_
_

_
1/2
p
0
p

0
=
1
M
_
2
+ 1
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
__
+1
2(1)
Shocks
Normal Shocks
Conservation Equations
Continuity Momentum Energy

1
u
1
=
2
u
2
p
1
p
2
=
1
u
1
(u
2
u
1
) T
01
= T
02
Where the subscripts 1 and 2 indicate initial and nal states. Using the equations M =
u

RT
and p = RT
we can transform these into
p
2
p
1
=
M
1
M
2
_
T
2
T
1
p
2
p
1
=
1 +M
2
1
1 +M
2
_
T
2
T
1
=
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
After solving for M
2
2
and some rearranging we get
p
2
p
1
=
2
+ 1
M
2
1

1
+ 1
p
02
p
01
=
__
+ 1
2
M
2
1
_
/
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
__

1
_
2
+ 1
M
2
1

1
+ 1
_ 1
1
T
2
T
1
=
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
__
2
1
M
2
1
1
_
( + 1)
2
2( 1)
M
2
1
Oblique Shocks Conservation Equations
Continuity Energy

1
u
1n
=
2
u
2n
T
01
= T
02
Momentum normal to the shock p
1
p
2
=
2
u
2
2n

1
u
2
1n
Momentum parallel to the shock 0 =
1
u
1n
(u
2t
u
1t
)
8
Where subscripts n, t represent the directions normal and parallel to the shock.
tan( ) =
2
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
1
sin
2

_
( + 1)M
2
1
sin cos
9
Chapter 4: Heat Transfer
There are three modes of heat transfer:
1. Conduction - Dominate in solids
2. Convection - Dominate in uids (conduction in uid boundary layers)
3. Radiation - Doesnt require a medium
Conduction
1D Conduction
1D conduction is governed by the Fourier Equation

Q
A
= k
dT
dx
Where k is the thermal conductivity which is a property of the material.
Which has units of
_
Btu
hr ft

F
_
or
_
kW
m K
_
If the temperature is a linear variation, the equation simplies to

Q =
kA
L
(T
1
T
2
) =
T
_
L
kA
_ =
Thermal Potential
Thermal Resistance
Where A is the cross-sectional area, and L is the length
For a composite wall the heat ux, q

Q
A
, is given by
T
1
T
2
R
1
=
T
2
T
3
R
2
= q =
T

R
i
If we let the thermal resistance be given by R =
L
kA
the total resistance of a composite wall is given by
R = R
1
+R
2
+. . .
Conduction with Cylindrical Geometry
The thermal resistance for a circular geometry is given by
R =
ln
_
r
o
r
1
_
2kL
Where r
o
and r
i
are the outer and inner radii, respectively.
10
Convection
Forced Convection
The heat ow for forced convection problems depend on

Q = f(velocity, k, , c
p
, T, geometry)
We know that Reynolds number is given by
Reynolds number Prandtl number Nusselt number
Re =
ud

=
ud

Pr =
c
p
k
Nu =
h
c
x
k
f
Where h
c
is the lm heat transfer, x is the characteristic linear dimension, k
f
is the uid thermal conductivity
of the uid
The Nusselt number is the ratio of convective heat transfer to conductive heat transfer, it is a function of
Reynolds number and the Prandtl number, Nu = f(Re, Pr).
The heat transfer is given by

Q
c
= h
c
A(T)
Flat Plate Laminar Flow Flat Plate Turbulent Flow
Re
L
< 5 10
5
510
5
< Re < 10
7
Nu
L
= .664(Re)
1/2
(Pr)
1/3
Nu =
.037Re
.8
L
Pr
1 + 2.443Re
.1
L
(Pr
2/3
1)
For a ow that is both laminar and turbulent the Nusselt number is given by
Nu
lam+turb
=
_
Nu
2
lam
+ Nu
2
turb
Natural (free) Convection
The heat ow for natural (free) convection problems depend on

Q = f(geometry, T, k
uid
, , c
p
)
For natural convection we need to know the Grashof Number
Gr
L
=
g(T
w
T

2
L
3
Where g is the gravitational acceleration, is the volumetric expansion coecient, is the kinematic
viscosity, and L is the characteristic dimension And we also need the Raleigh number which is simply
Ra = (Gr Pr)
Laminar Vertical Flat Plate Turbulent Vertical Flat Plate
Nu
L
= .68 +.67(Ra
L
(Pr))
1/4
Nu
turb
= .15 [Ra (Pr)]
1/3
Where (Pr) =
_
1 +
_
.492
Pr
__
16/9
11
Combined forced and natural convection
Nu =
_
Nu
3
forced
+ Nu
3
nat
_
1/3
Horizontal Flat Plat
Nu
L
= .54Ra
1/4
L
for 10
4
<Ra
L
< 10
7
Nu
L
= .15Ra
1/3
L
for 10
7
<Ra
L
< 10
11
Combined Conduction and Convection

Q =
T

R
=
Temperature Dierence
Total Thermal Resistance
Where
R
cond
=
L
kA
R
conv
=
1
hA
Radiation
An ideal surface is known as a Black Body
Planks Equation is given by
E
b

=
c
1

5
e
c2/T
1
Where c
1
= 3.742 10
8
_
W
m
4
_
, c
2
= 1.439 10
4
(m)
After integration of a curve we get the Stean-Boltzman equation
E
b
= T
4
Where = .1714 10
8
_
Btu
hr ft
2

R
4
_
= 5.67 10
8
_
W
m
2
K
4
_
From Wiens displacement law we have that
max
(the wavelength where peak radiation occurs) we get

max
= 2900m K = 5215m

R
Real Surfaces
For real surfaces the Stean-Boltzman equation becomes
E
b
= (T
4
)
Where is the emissivity. Also the variable is the absorptivity. Both of which are independent of the wave
length. The maximum value of both and is 1. At thermal Equilibrium =
The net heat ow is given by
q
net
= (E
b1
E
b2
)F
12
Where F
12
is the geometry(shape/form) factor
12
Chapter 5: Thermodynamics of Aircraft Jet Engines
Summing the forces in the x direction we get

F
x
= (p
a
p
e
)A
e
+J
Far upstream the air that is drawn into the engine crosses the control surface through area A
i
at a rate of
m
a
given by m
a
= uA
i
The mass ux crossing the exhaust area, A
e
is m
e
=
e
u
e
A
e
Taking into account
he fuel ow rate, m
f
we have
m
e
= m
a
+ m
f
m
f
=
e
u
e
A
e
uA
i
The momentum equation becomes
J = m
e
u
e
m
a
u + (p
e
p
a
)A
e
If we dene the fuel-air ratio as f =
m
f
m
a
we get
J = m
a
[(1 +f)u
e
u] + (p
e
p
a
)A
e
The term (p
e
p
a
)A
e
is not zero only if the exhaust jet is supersonic and the nozzle doesnt expand the
exhaust to ambient pressure. But it can be a substantial contribution to the thrust if p
a
<< p
e
For engines that have 2 distinct exhaust streams, such as the turbofan and turboprop, the streams may be
labeled as hot ow or cold ow then neglecting pressure terms the thrust equation becomes
J = ( m
aH
+ m
f
)u
eH
m
aH
u + m
a
C(u
eC
u)
Basing the denition of the fuel-air ratio on the air that is actually mixed with the fuel f
m
f
m
aH
, we then
have
J = m
aH
[(1 +f)u
eH
u] + m
aC
(u
eC
u)
Engine Performance
Assuming the engine has only a single propellant stream (i.e. a turbojet or ramjet)
Propulsion Eciency
The product of thrust and ight velocity Ju can be called thrust power. The ratio of thrust power to the
rate of production of propellant kinetic energy is commonly known as the propulsion eciency,
p
and is
given by

p
=
Ju
m
a
_
(1 +f)
_
u
2
e
2
_

u
2
2
_
Using 2 approximations this can be simplied. The rst being that, in general, f << 1 and the second is
that the pressure term (p
e
p
a
) in the thrust equation is usually much smaller so it becomes J m
a
(u
e
u)
giving

p

(u
e
u)u
1
2
(u
2
e
u
2
)
=
2u/u
e
1 +u/u
e
13
Thermal Eciency
The thermal eciency,
th
, for ramjet, turbojet, and turbofans is dened as the ratio of the rate of addition
of kinetic energy to the propellant to the total energy consumption rate, m
f
Q
R
where Q
R
is the heat of
reaction of the fuel. So for a single propellant stream we get

th
=
m
a
_
(1 +f)
(u
2
e
u
2
)
2
_
m
f
Q
R

th
=
_
(1 +f)
(u
2
e
u
2
)
2
_
fQ
R
The output of a turboprop or turboshaft engine is largely shaft power, so for shaft-power devices the thermal
eciency is given by

th
=
P
s
m
f
Q
R
Where P
s
is the shaft power
Propeller Eciency
Shaft power is converted to thrust power of a moving a/c by a propeller. The propeller eciency
pr
is the
ratio of thrust power to shaft power
pr
=
J
pr
u
P
s
where J
pr
is that portion of thrust due to the propeller.
Many turboprop engines derive appreciable thrust from the hot exhaust, the equivalent shaft power P
es
is
dened as the product of
pr
and P
es
and is equal to the total thrust power so

pr
=
Ju
P
es
Overall Eciency
The product of
p

th
(or
pr

th
) is called the overall eciency, and is given as

o
=
p

th
=
Ju
m
f
Q
R
Using the denition of propulsion eciency, and if f << 1 we have

o
= 2
th
_
u/u
e
1 +u/u
e
_
Aircraft Range
In level ight at constant speed, engine thrust and drag are equal, as with lift and weight so we get
J = D = L
_
D
L
_
=
mg
(L/D)
The thrust power is given by Ju =
mgu
(L/D)
and using the overall eciency equation we can get
m
f
=
mgu

o
Q
R
(L/D)
Using the Brequet range equation, assuming the the denominator is constant, we get the range, s, to be
s =
o
_
L
D
_
ln
_
m
1
m
2
Q
R
g
_
14
Again, if we let f << 1 and neglect the pressure term in the thrust equation, for a single propellant stream
we see

o
=
(u
e
u)u
fQ
R
For a double propellant stream,

o
=
_
1 +
m
aC
m
aH
_
(u
e
u)u
fQ
R
Where u
e
=
m
aH
(1 +f)u
eH
+ m
aC
u
eC
m
aH
(1 +f) + m
aC
We can also transform the range equation to
s =
L
D
ln
_
m
1
m
2
J
m
f
u
g
_
The thrust specic fuel consumption, TSFC, is dened as TSFC =
m
f
J
, for a turbojet (with P
a
P
e
) we
can show
TSFC =
m
f
m
a
[(1 +f)u
e
u]
For turbine engines that produce shaft power, a brake specic fuel consumption, BSFC, is dened by
BSFC =
m
f
P
s
To account for the thrust of the hot gases, we dene an equivalent brake specic fuel consumption, EBSFC
as
EBSFC =
m
f
P
es
=
m
f
P
s
+J
e
U
15
5.3: The Ramjet
If we assume an ideal ramjet, where the compression and expansion processes in the engine are reversible
and adiabatic, and the combustion takes place at constant pressure.
From the T-s diagram we see that the compression process take the air from its condition at a isentropically
to the stagnation state 02 at station 2 . The combustion process is represented by a constant-pressure heat
and mass addition process 02 to 04 , up to the maximum temperature T
04
. The exit nozzle expands the
combustion products isentropically to the ambient pressure.
The idea thrust is the same as from earlier
J = m
a
[(1 +f)u
e
u]
Since the compression and expansion processes processes are isentropic, and constant-pressure heat and mass
addition then we know the stagnation pressures are constant throughout the engine, p
0a
= p
06
P
0a
p
a
=
p
06
p
e
=
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_
/(1)
With the condition that p
e
=
a
we know that M
e
= M
a
, so we can nd the exhaust velocity to be
u
e
=
a
e
a
a
u
16
So can show that
a
e
a
a
=
_
T
e
T
a
, but for the case M
e
= M
a
,
T
e
T
a
=
T
06
T
0a
and since T
04
= T
06
then,
u
e
= u
_
T
04
T
0a
The energy equation for the combustion process (neglecting the enthalpy of the incoming fuel) is
(1 +f)h
04
= h
02
+fQ
R
Where Q
R
is the heating value of the fuel, then solving for f, if the specic heat is assumed constant we get
f =
T
04
T
0a
1
Q
R
c
p
T
0a

T
04
T
0a
Combining this expression with the thrust equation we can nd the specic thrust to be
J
m
a
= M
_
RT
a
_
(1 +f)
_
T
04
T
a
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_
1/2
1
_
And the thrust specic fuel consumption is given by
TSFC =
m
f
J
=
f
J/ m
a
Eect of Aerodynamic Losses
In a real ramjet the propellant has stagnation pressure losses because the ow is not reversible. The com-
pression process, a to 02 , is no longer isentropic so the stagnation pressure at the end of the process is
lower than it would be ideally. The performance of diusers, combustors, and nozzles is characterized by a
stagnation pressure ratio is given by
Diusers Combustors Nozzles
r
d
=
p
02
p
0a
r
c
=
p
04
p
02
r
n
=
p
06
p
04
Then the overall stagnation pressure ratio is
p
06
p
0a
= r
d
r
c
r
n
Using the isentropic ow properties for the stagnation pressure ratio, the exhaust Mach number is given as
M
2
e
=
2
1
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
__
p
06
p
0a
p
a
p
e
_
(1)
1
_
or in terms of stagnation pressure ratios
M
2
e
=
2
1
_
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
__
r
d
r
c
r
n
p
a
p
e
_
(1)
1
_
17
The exhaust velocity, in terms of the exhaust stagnation temperature is
u
e
= M
e

_
RT
04
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
e
_
Since irreversibilitys dont eect the stagnation temperatures the fuel-air ratio to give the needed T
04
is
f =
T
04
T
0a
1

b
Q
R
c
p
T
0a

T
04
T
0a
Where
b
is the combustion eciency, and
b
Q
R
is the actual heat release per unit mass of rule, the specic
thrust becomes
J
m
a
= [(1 +f)u
e
u] +
1
ma
(p
e
p
a
)A
e
or
J
m
a
= (1 +f)

2RT
04
(m1)
( 1)m
M
_
RT
a
+
p
e
A
e
m
a
_
1
p
a
p
e
_
Where
m =
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
__
r
d
r
c
r
n
p
a
p
e
_
(1)/
The thrust specic fuel consumption is still given by
TSFC =
f
J/ m
a
18
5.4: Turbojet Engines
a - 1 Far upstream, where u = u

1 - 2 Air velocity is decreased as it moves into the compressor inlet, through the diuser
2 - 3 Air is compressed
3 - 4 Air is heated by the mixing and burning of fuel in the air
4 - 5 Air is expanded through a turbine to get power to drive the compressor
5 - 6 Air may or may not by further heated by the afterburner
6 - 7 Air is accelerated and exhausted through exhaust nozzle
- In the T-s diagram it is assumed that all components except the burners are reversible and adiabatic,
and the velocities at sections 2 through 6 are negligible.
- For the ideal case from a to 1 the pressure rises, and again from 1 to 2 when the air is decelerated
(relative to the engine).
- From our assumptions, the velocity at 2 is 0, and the decelerate is isentropic, we have p
2
, and T
2
as
the stagnation pressure and stagnation temperature for a through 2
- The power consumed in compression from 2 to 3 is supplied through the turbine expansion from 4
to 5 . So if the compressor and turbine mass-ow rates are equal, h
3
h
2
= h
4
h
5
, therefore the
temperature dierences are also equal
- For the nonafter-burning case, 5 and 6 are identical, and the enthalpy drop from 5 to 7 or 6a
to 7a is proportional to the square of the exhaust velocity
- For the after-burning case, the air is reheated between 6 and 6a .
19
For the real turbojet, there are again losses due to the non-isentropic processes. We can estimate the
adiabatic component eciencies using the following equations.
Diuser Compressor Turbine Nozzle

d
=
h
02s
h
a
h
02
h
a

c
=
h
03s
h
02
h
03
h
02

t
=
h
04
h
05
h
04
h
05s

n
=
h
06
h
7
h
06
h
7s
0.70 <
d
< 0.90 0.85 <
c
< 0.90 0.90 <
t
< 0.95 0.95 <
n
< 0.98
- For the diuser the ratio is the ideal to the actual enthalpy change (for the same pressure ratio (p
02
/p
1
))
- For the compressor the ratio is the work required in an isentropic process to that required in the actual
process (for the same stagnation pressure ratio and inlet state)
- For the turbine the ratio is the actual turbine work to that of an isentropic expansion (at the same
exhaust stagnation pressure)
There is also a burner eciency,
b
, which is the fraction of the chemical energy of the fuel that is released
in the combustor, which has a range of 0.97 <
b
< 0.99
If we use the thrust equation where the exhaust pressure is atmospheric p
e
= p
a
then specic thrust, and
thrust specic fuel consumption are given by
J
m
a
= [(1 +f)u
e
u] TSFC =
m
f
J
=
f
(1 +f)u
e
u
1. Compressor Inlet Conditions
With ight mach number M =
u

RT
a
, we nd the stagnation temperature by
T
02
= T
a
_
1 +
1
2
M
2
_
Using
d
we can nd the stagnation pressure
p
02
= p
a
_
1 +
d
_
T
02
T
a
1
__

d
/(
d
1)
20
2. Compressor Outlet Conditions
Since the compressor pressure ratio, p
rc
=
p
03
p
02
, is given we can nd the outlet stagnation pressure, and
temperature
p
03
= p
02
p
rc
T
03
= T
02
_
1 +
1

c
_
p
(c1)/c
rc
1
_
_
Where
c
is the specic heat ratio (assumed constant) for the compression process.
3. Burner fuel-air ratio
With the burner outlet temperature, T
04
, given we can nd the fuel-air ratio
f =
_
T
04
T
03
1
_
Q
R
c
p
T
03

T
04
T
03
4. Turbine Inlet Pressure
Given the pressure ratio
p
04
p
03
across the burner, the turbine outlet stagnation pressure is
p
04
= p
03
_
p
04
p
03
_
5. Turbine Outlet Conditions
Since the turbine must supply the power require by the compressor, we have
m
t
(h
04
h
05
) = m
c
(h
03
h
02
) or m
t
c
pt
(T
04
T
05
) = m
c
c
pc
(T
03
T
02
)
The mass ow ratios m
t
and m
c
, and the average specic heats arent equal since fuel is added in the burner
and air is extracted from the compressor for turbine cooling. With the approximation that m
f
c
pt
m
c
c
pc
we then have
T
05
T
04
(T
03
T
02
)
Now we can nd the stagnation pressure
p
05
= p
04
_
1
1

t
_
1
T
05
T
04
__
t/(t1)
6. Nozzle Inlet Conditions
With no afterburner,
T
06
= T
05
and p
06
= p
05
7. Nozzle Exit Velocity
The nozzle exit KE is
u
2
e
2
= h
07
h
7
=
n
(h
07
h
7s
)
With steady adiabatic ow in the nozzle h
07
= h
06
giving
u
e
=

_
2
n

n
1
RT
06
_
1
_
p
a
p
06
_
(n1)/n
_
21
5.5: Turbofan Engines
Since we know that the range is directly proportional to the overall eciency
0
=
p

th
. For f << 1 the
propulsion eciency and thrust are given by

p
=
2u
u
e
+u
J = m
a
(u
e
u)
Eleminating u
e
gives

p
=
1
1 +
J
2 m
a
u
To analyze fan engine performance we modify the turbojet performance analysis by allowing for the bypass
ratio B, where its assumed the core engine ow and bypass ow expand separately to ambient pressure.
The specic thrust and TSFC equations become
J
m
a
= (1 +f)u
e
+Bu
ef
(1 +B)u TSFC =
m
f
J
=
f
(1 +f)u
e
+Bu
ef
(1 +B)u
Where u
e
is the core exhaust velocity, and u
ef
is the bypass stream exhaust velocity.
For the internal analysis is the same as the turbojet for steps 1-4. The following are the steps for the rest of
the analysis
5. Fan Inlet Conditions
The fan and core engine compressor get air from the same diuser so the fan inlet stagnation conditions are
T
02
and p + 02 that we found earlier from the ight Mach number, ambient pressure and temperature, and
diuser eciency, p
a
, T
a
,
d
6. Fan Outlet Conditions
Assume the fan has a design pressure ratio, p
rf
=
p
08
p
02
and an adiabatic eciency,
f
where the fan outlet
stagnation pressure and temperature are
p
08
= p
02
p
rf
T
08
= T
02
_
1 +
1

f
(p
(
f
1)/
f
rf
1)
_
Where
f
is the ratio of specic heats for the fan stream
7. Fan Nozzle Exit Velocity
The fan nozzle exit velocity is given by
u
ef
=

_
2
fn

f
1
RT
08
_
1
_
p
a
p
08
_
(
f
1)/
f
_
8. Turbine Outlet Conditions
Allowing for the work done by the core engine on the fan stream, the turbine power balance is written as
m
t
c
pt
(T
04
T
05
) = m
a
c
pc
(T
03
T
02
) +B m
a
c
pc
(T
08
T
0a
)
22
Where the second term on the RHS is the power absorbed by the fan stream. Using the approximation
m
t
c
pt
m
a
c
pc
giving
T
05
= T
04
(T
03
T
02
) B(T
08
T
0a
)
Where T
08
is the fan outlet stagnation temperature, and the stagnation pressure is
p
05
= p
04
_
1
1

t
_
1
T
05
T
04
__
t/(t1)
9. Nozzle Inlet Conditions
With no afterburner T
06
= T
05
and p
06
= p
05
10. Nozzle Exit Conditions
We can again nd that
u
ef
=

_
2
n

n
1
RT
06
_
1
_
p

p
06
_
(n1)/n
_
Where p

= p
a
unless the exit nozzle is choked.
23
d
24
Extras
Adiabatic process occurs without heat transfer
Isentropic process is a reversible adiabatic process that occurs at constant enthalpy
Common Molar Masses
Molecule Molar Mass (g/mol)
CO 28
CO
2
44
H
2
O 18
N
2
28
O
2
32
Relationships
m = AV v = AV =
m

For air ( = 1.4)

1
= 3.5
1
1
= 2.5
+ 1
2( 1)
= 3
Conversions
mph to ft/s mph to m/s km/hr to m/s
1 mph =
22
15
ft/s 1 mph = .447 m/s 1 km/hr =
5
18
m/s
atm to kPa atm to lb/ft
2
psi to lb/ft
2
bar to kPa
1 atm = 101.3 kPa 1 atm = 2116 lb/ft
2
1 psi = 144 lb/ft
2
1 bar = 100 kPa

F to

R

C to K

R =

F + 459.67 K =

C + 273.13
lbs to g
1 lb = 453 g
25