Sensing and Sensors: Acoustic Sensors

version 1.1 MediaRobotics Lab, January 2008

$ac!ground: sound /aves Sound /aves are created by a(ternate co.,ression and e0,ansion of so(ids, (i1uids or gases at certain fre1uencies. Longitudina( .ec*anica( /aves: osci((ation in t*e direction of /ave ,ro,agation 2Sound2 are (ongitudina( .ec*anica( /aves bet/een 20 and 20!*', based on(y on our o/n *earing abi(ities 3 (i.itations... Mec*anica( /aves be(o/ 20*'. Are ,erceived by dogs and ca((ed )nfrasound by *u.ans. %*ec! your *earing and your audio e1ui,.ent *ere: *tt,:33///.audioc*ec!.net3audiotests4fre1uencyc*ec!(o/.,*,
References: Fraden: andboo! of Modern Sensors "rafts, Acoustic #ave Sensors $uff, SA# Sensors %ady. &ie'oe(ectricity: An )ntroduction to t*e +*eory and A,,(ications of -(ectro.ec*anica( &*eno.ena in %rysta(s.

+*e S,eed of Sound +*e s,eed of sound de,ends on t*e .ediu. t*roug* /*ic* t*e /aves are ,assing, and is often 1uoted as a funda.enta( ,ro,erty of t*e .ateria(. )n genera(, t*e s,eed of sound is ,ro,ortiona( to t*e s1uare root of t*e ratio of t*e e(astic .odu(us 5stiffness6 of t*e .ediu. to its density. +*ose ,*ysica( ,ro,erties and t*e s,eed of sound c*ange /it* a.bient conditions. For e0a.,(e, t*e s,eed of sound in gases de,ends on te.,erature. )n air at sea (eve(, t*e s,eed of sound is a,,ro0i.ate(y 787 .3s, in /ater 1882 .3s, and in stee( about 9:;0 .3s 5at 20 <%6. +*e s,eed of sound is a(so s(ig*t(y sensitive 5a second=order effect6 to t*e sound a.,(itude, /*ic* .eans t*at t*ere are non(inear ,ro,agation effects, suc* as t*e ,roduction of *ar.onics and .i0ed tones not ,resent in t*e origina( sound.

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Sound as an /avefor. can be described in ter.s of its energy and t*e fre1uencies it can be deco.,osed into

sound /ave of a *u.an voice in t*e ti.e do.ain

Signa(s are converted fro. ti.e or s,ace do.ain to t*e fre1uency do.ain usua((y t*roug* t*e Fourier transfor.. +*e Fourier transfor.5s6 describe a deco.,osition of a function in ter.s of a su. of sinusoida( functions 5basis functions6 of different fre1uencies t*at can be reco.bined to obtain t*e origina( function. +*e Fourier transfor. and its various derivatives for. an i.,ortant ,art of t*e art and science of digita( signa( ,rocessing 5.ore on t*is (ater in t*e course6.

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u.an voice signa( 59 seconds6 and t*e corres,onding fre1uency co.,onets

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&o/er s,ectru. of a *u.an /*ist(e versus a *u.an 5.a(e6 voice

Sound as a 1ua(itative .easure is often described as *aving t*e fo((o/ing co.,onents AMusic co.,onentsA: B &itc* B +i.bre B ar.onics B Loudness B R*yt*. ASound enve(o,e co.,onentsA: B Attac! B Sustain B "ecay

+*e pitch of a sound is deter.ined by t*e fre1uency of t*e sound. B (o/ 5bass6 = sounds of t*under and guns*ots B .idrange = a te(e,*one ringing B *ig* 5treb(e6 = s.a(( be((s and cy.ba(s

Timbre is t*at uni1ue co.bination of funda.enta( fre1uency, *ar.onics, and overtones t*at gives eac* voice, .usica( instru.ent, and sound effect its uni1ue co(oring and c*aracter. +*e harmonic of a /ave is a co.,onent fre1uency of t*e signa( t*at is an integer .u(ti,(e of t*e funda.enta( fre1uency. 1f 2f 7f 8f 880 880 1720 1C;0 ' ' ' ' funda.enta( fre1uency first overtone second overtone t*ird overtone first *ar.onic second *ar.onic t*ird *ar.onic fourt* *ar.onic

Rhythm is a recurring sound t*at a(ternates bet/een strong and /ea! e(e.ents

-nve(o,e of a sound

(oudness Dd$E

,ea!

ti.e DsecondsE attac! sustain decay

Loudness, a subHective .easure, is not e1uiva(ent to obHective .easures of sound ,ressure suc* as decibe(s or intensity. Researc* suggests t*at t*e *u.an auditory syste. integrates intensity over a ;00=1000 .s /indo/. +*e abstraction of (oudness is sound intensity. Li!e severa( ot*er ,*ysica( ,ro,erties 5(ig*t and noise6 sound intensity is .easured in decibe(, a (ogarit*.ic sca(ing. +*e decibe( sca(e (ineari'es a ,*ysica( va(ue in /*ic* e0,onentia( c*anges of .agnitude are ,erceived by *u.ans as being .ore or (ess (inear(y re(atedI a doub(ing of actua( intensity causes ,erceived intensity to a(/ays increase by roug*(y t*e sa.e a.ount, irres,ective of t*e origina( intensity (eve(. sound intensity is described by convention in "ecibe(s : =10 log10 P1 / P0 /*ere t*e unit of F is t*e decibe( 5d$6 and p0 =1012 W / m2 , t*e 2sound t*res*o(d2 -0a.,(e: 70d$ is t*e ratio bet/een a base sound and a sound 1000 ti.es .ore intensive 10 log10 1000 W / 1 W =30dB ere so.e notab(e sound (eve(s +*res*o(d of *earing *eavy traffic Giagara Fa((s t*res*o(d of ,ain *ydrau(ic ,ress at 1. 0d$ 5F > 06 80 d$ 89 d$ 120d$ 170d$

Microphones Micro,*one: acoustic sensors for air /aves in t*e audib(e range ydro,*one: acoustic sensor for (i1uid /aves .icro,*one 3 *ydro,*one are ,ressure sensors /it* a /ide dyna.ic range... A .icro,*one 3 *ydro,*one is a ,ressure transducer, ada,ted for t*e transduction of sound 3 (i1uid /aves. A(( .icro,*ones 3 *ydro,*ones *ave a .oving dia,*rag. and a dis,(ace.ent tranducer t*at converts t*is .otion into an e(ectric signa(. Micro,*ones 3 *ydro,*ones differ by : sensitivity, direction c*aracteristics, fre1uency band/idt*, dyna.ic range

condensor microphones / capacitive microphones bac!ground: ca,acitance, c*arge and vo(tage across t/o conducting ,(ates a distance d a,art

area A @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @ @1 = = = = = = = = = = = = =1

V = qd / eme0 A
e.: .ateria( constant e0: ,er.itivity constant
8.854210
12C2

/ Nm

vo(tage ? distance d

A ca,acitive .icro,*one (inear(y converts a distance bet/een ,(ates into an e(ectric vo(tage. +*e device re1uires a source of e(ectric c*arge 516 /*ose .agnitude direct(y deter.ines t*e .icro,*one sensitivity. Many ca,acitive 3 condenser .icro,*ones are fabricated of si(icon dia,*rag.s t*at convert t*e acoustic ,ressure of t*e sound /ave into a 5distance6 dis,(ace.ent

Mec*anica( feedbac!: i.,roves t*e fre1uency range of t*e .icro,*one, but reduces def(ection =J (o/er sensitivity

fiber-optic microphones &referab(e /*ere ca,acitive .easure.ents are i.,ossib(e 5inside a roc!et engine6 "esign: a sing(e=.ode te.,erature insensitive interfero.eter @ ref(ective ,(ate dia,*rag.. +*e interfero.eter e.its a (aser bea. t*at is used to detect t*e ,(ate def(ection /*ic* is direct(y re(ated to t*e acoustic ,ressure. +*e ,*ase of t*e ref(ected (ig*t /i(( vary and differ fro. t*at of t*e 5ref(ected reference (ig*t6. Since bot* sensing and reference (ig*t trave( in t*e sa.e (ig*t guide, t*ey interfere resu(ting in (ig*t intensity .odu(ation. Suc* .icro,*ones can detect dia,*rag. .ove.ent in t*e order of 1010 m

piezoelectric microphones bac!ground: t*e ,ie'oe(ectric effect A ,ie'oe(ectric crysta( is a direct converter of .ec*anica( stress to e(ectric c*arge. #*en co.,ressed or ,u((ed, a ,ie'oe(ectric crysta( /i(( bui(d u, a(ternate c*arges on o,,osite faces, t*us acting (i!e a ca,acitor /it* an a,,(ied vo(tage. A current 5,ie'oe(ectricity6 can t*en be generated bet/een t*e faces. #*en subHected to an e0terna( vo(tage, t*e crysta( /i(( e0,and or contract according(y. 1880 = 1882 +*e first e0,eri.enta( de.onstration of a connection bet/een .acrosco,ic ,ie'oe(ectric ,*eno.ena and crysta((ogra,*ic structure /as ,ub(is*ed in 1880 by &ierre and Jac1ues %urie. +*eir e0,eri.ent consisted of a conc(usive .easure.ent of surface c*arges a,,earing on s,ecia((y ,re,ared crysta(s 5tour.a(ine, 1uart', to,a', cane sugar KsicL and Roc*e((e sa(t6 subHected to .ec*anica( stress. +*ese resu(ts /ere obtained using tinfoi(, g(ue, /ire, .agnets and a He/e(er2s sa/. Mt*er areas of scientific ,*eno.eno(ogica( e0,erience t*at /ere noted around t*e sa.e ti.e: Acontact e(ectricityA 5friction fro. static e(ectricity6 A,yroe(ectricityA 5e(ectricity fro. crysta(s via *eating6
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+oday piezoceramics are ,referred as t*ere s,ecifications can be .ore tig*t(y contro((ed 5and synt*esi'ed6. A(so, ,ie'ocera.ics can o,erate u, to *ig*er fre1uencies. +y,ica((y, a ,ie'oe(ectric dis! /it* t/o e(ectrodes serves as t*e in,ut to a *ig* i.,edance a.,(ifier. )nco.ing acoustic /aves generate .ec*anica( stress in t*e dis! and a corres,onding ,ie'oe(ectric current.

Electret microphones An e(ectret .icro,*one is a ,er.anent(y e(ectrica((y ,o(ari'ed crysta((ine die(ectric .ateria(. )t is an e(ectrostatic transducer consisting of .eta(i'ed e(ectret and a bac!,(ate se,arated fro. t*e dia,*rag. by an air ga,.

$ecause t*e e(ectret is ,er.anent(y e(ectrica((y ,o(ari'ed, t*ere is an e(ectric fie(d in t*e air ga,. #*en an acoustic /ave *its t*e device, t*e air ga, is a(tered 5reduced6:

V = sds / e0 s es1
Fraden states 5after a fe/ derivations6 t*at t*e sensitivity does not de,end on t*e area of t*e die(ectric.

fr =1 / 2pi po / soM

M: .ass of .e.brane ,o: at.os,*eric ,ressure so: effective t*ic!ness of .e.brane

+*is fre1uency s*ou(d be set suc* t*at it is (arger t*an t*e *ig*est fre1uency to /*ic* t*e .icro,*one is e0,ected to ,ro,er(y res,ond. -(ectret .icro,*ones do not re1uire a "% bias vo(tage for o,eration.

Acoustic wave sensors Acoustic /ave sensors are so na.ed because t*eir detection .ec*anis. is a .ec*anica(, or acoustic, /ave. As t*e acoustic /ave ,ro,agates t*roug* or on t*e surface of t*e .ateria(, any c*anges to t*e c*aracteristics of t*e ,ro,agation ,at* affect t*e ve(ocity and3or a.,(itude of t*e /ave. %*anges in ve(ocity can be .onitored by .easuring t*e fre1uency or ,*ase c*aracteristics of t*e sensor and can t*en be corre(ated to t*e corres,onding ,*ysica( 1uantity being .easured. ?irtua((y a(( acoustic /ave devices and sensors use a ,ie'oe(ectric .ateria( to generate t*e acoustic /ave. &ie'oe(ectricity refers to t*e ,roduction of e(ectrica( c*arges by t*e i.,osition of .ec*anica( stress. +*e ,*eno.enon is reci,roca(. A,,(ying an a,,ro,riate e(ectrica( fie(d to a ,ie'oe(ectric .ateria( creates a .ec*anica( stress. &ie'oe(ectric acoustic /ave sensors a,,(y an osci((ating e(ectric fie(d to create a .ec*anica( /ave, /*ic* ,ro,agates t*roug* t*e substrate and is t*en converted bac! to an e(ectric fie(d for .easure.ent. A.ong t*e ,ie'oe(ectic substrate .ateria(s t*at can be used for acoustic /ave sensors and devices, t*e .ost co..on are 1uart' 5SiM26, (it*iu. tanta(ate 5Li+aM76, and, to a (esser degree, (it*iu. niobate 5LiGbM76. An interesting ,ro,erty of 1uart' is t*at it is ,ossib(e to se(ect t*e te.,erature de,endence of t*e .ateria( by t*e cut ang(e and t*e /ave ,ro,agation direction.

+*e advantage of using acoustic /aves 5vs e(ectro.agnetic /aves6 is t*e s(o/ s,eed of ,ro,agation 59 orders of .agnitude s(o/er6. For t*e sa.e fre1uency, t*erefore, t*e /ave(engt* of t*e e(astic /ave is 100,000 ti.es s*orter t*an t*e corres,onding e(ectro.agnetic s*ort/ave. +*is a((o/s for t*e fabrication of very s.a(( sensors /it* fre1uencies into t*e giga*ert' range /it* very fast res,onse ti.es. So(id state acoustic detectors *ave t*e e(ectric circuit cou,(ed to t*e .ec*anica( structure /*ere t*e /aves ,ro,agate. +*e sensor genera((y *as t/o 5,ie'oe(ectric6 transducers at eac* end. Mne at t*e trans.itting end 5generator6 and one at t*e receiving end 5receiver6 /*ere t*e /ave is converted into an e(ectric signa(.

A ty,ica( acoustic /ave device consists of t/o sets of interdigita( transducers. Mne transducer converts e(ectric fie(d energy into .ec*anica( /ave energyI t*e ot*er converts t*e .ec*anica( energy bac! into an e(ectric fie(d.

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