Theories of development

By:
Billy Keith M. Tan
Mark James Ado
Gerald Hingpis
Ann Charlaine Buenaventura
 Theories Of Development
• There are several difference in the human
development this is categorized according
to age.
• There are 4 most known theorist of human
development.
• Erik Erikson
• Sigmund Freud
• Jean Piaget
• Lawrence Kohlberg
 Theories of Development
Overview:
• Erik Erikson- The one who develop the
psychosocial theory.
• Sigmund Freud – Developer of the
Psychosexual theory.
• Jean Piaget- the – The one who develop
the Cognitive development theory.
• Lawrence Kohlberg- Developer of the
Moral development theory.
Erik Erikson
 Erik Erikson
• Was a Jewish German developmental
psychologist and psychoanalyst known
for his theory on social development of
human beings, and for coining the
phrase identity crisis.
• Erik Erikson believed that every human
being goes through a certain number of
stages to reach his or her full
development.
 Erik Erikson
• According to his theory, there are 8
stages, that a human being goes
through from birth to death.
• Each of Erikson's stages of
psychosocial development are
marked by a conflict, for which
successful resolution will result in a
favourable outcome.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial
development is one of the best-known
theories of personality in psychology.
• Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson
believed that personality develops in a
series of stages.
• Unlike Freud’s theory of psychosexual
stages, Erikson’s theory describes the
impact of social experience across the
whole lifespan.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• One of the main elements of Erikson’s
psychosocial stage theory is the
development of ego identity.
• Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social
interaction.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• According to Erikson, our ego identity
is constantly changing due to new
experience and information we
acquire in our daily interactions with
others.
• In addition to ego identity, Erikson
also believed that a sense of
competence also motivates behaviors
and actions.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• Each stage in Erikson’s theory is
concerned with becoming competent
in an area of life.
• If the stage is handled well, the
person will feel a sense of mastery. If
the stage is managed poorly, the
person will emerge with a sense of
inadequacy.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• In each stage, Erikson believed
people experience a conflict that
serves as a turning point in
development.
• In Erikson’s view, these conflicts are
centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to
develop that quality.
 Psychosocial Development
Theory
• During these times, the potential for
personal growth is high, but so is the
potential for failure.
 Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs.
Mistrust
• The first stage of Erikson’s theory of
psychosocial development occurs
between birth and one year of age and
is the most fundamental stage in life.
• Because an infant is utterly dependent,
the development of trust is based on the
dependability and quality of the child’s
caregivers.
 Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs.
Mistrust
• If a child successfully develops trust, he
or she will feel safe and secure in the
world. Caregivers who are inconsistent,
emotionally unavailable, or rejecting
contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children they care for. Failure to develop
trust will result in fear and a belief that
the world is inconsistent and
unpredictable.
 Psychosocial Stage 2 -
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Between the ages of one and three,
children begin to assert their
independence, by walking away from
their mother, picking which toy to play
with, and making choices about what
they like to wear, to eat, etc.
 Psychosocial Stage 2 -
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• If children in this stage are
encouraged and supported in their
increased independence, they
become more confident and secure in
their own ability to survive in the
world.
 Psychosocial Stage 2 -
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• If children are criticized, overly
controlled, or not given the
opportunity to assert themselves, they
begin to feel inadequate in their ability
to survive, and may then become
overly dependent upon others, lack
self-esteem, and feel a sense of
shame or doubt in their own abilities.
 Psychosocial Stage 3
Initiative vs. Guilt
• Around age three and continuing to
age six, children assert themselves
more frequently
• They begin to plan activities, make up
games, and initiate activities with
others. If given this opportunity,
children develop a sense of initiative,
and feel secure in their ability to lead
others and make decisions.
 Psychosocial Stage 3
Initiative vs. Guilt
• Conversely, if this tendency is
squelched, either through criticism or
control, children develop a sense of
guilt
• They may feel like a nuisance to
others and will therefore remain
followers, lacking in self-initiative.
 Psychosocial Stage 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
• From age six years to puberty,
children begin to develop a sense of
pride in their accomplishments
• They initiate projects, see them
through to completion, and feel good
about what they have achieved.
 Psychosocial Stage 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
• During this time, teachers play an
increased role in the child’s
development.
• If children are encouraged and
reinforced for their initiative, they
begin to feel industrious and feel
confident in their ability to achieve
goals.
 Psychosocial Stage 4
Industry vs. Inferiority
• If this initiative is not encouraged, if it
is restricted by parents or teacher,
then the child begins to feel inferior,
doubting his own abilities and
therefore may not reach his potential.
 Psychosocial Stage 5
Identity vs. Confusion
• During adolescence, the transition
from childhood to adulthood is most
important.
• Children are becoming more
independent, and begin to look at the
future in terms of career,
relationships, families, housing, etc.
 Psychosocial Stage 5
Identity vs. Confusion
• During this period, they explore
possibilities and begin to form their
own identity based upon the outcome
of their explorations.
• This sense of who they are can be
hindered, which results in a sense of
confusion ("I don’t know what I want
to be when I grow up") about
themselves and their role in the world.
 Psychosocial Stage 6
Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Occurring in Young adulthood, we begin
to share ourselves more intimately with
others.
• We explore relationships leading toward
longer term commitments with someone
other than a family member.
• Successful completion can lead to
comfortable relationships and a sense
of commitment, safety, and care within
a relationship
 Psychosocial Stage 6
Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Avoiding intimacy, fearing
commitment and relationships can
lead to isolation, loneliness, and
sometimes depression.
 Psychosocial Stage 7
Generativity vs. Stagnation
• During middle adulthood, we
establish our careers, settle down
within a relationship, begin our own
families and develop a sense of being
a part of the bigger picture.
 Psychosocial Stage 7
Generativity vs. Stagnation
• We give back to society through
raising our children, being productive
at work, and becoming involved in
community activities and
organizations. By failing to achieve
these objectives, we become
stagnant and feel unproductive.
 Psychosocial Stage 8
Integrity vs. Despair
• As we grow older and become senior
citizens, we tend to slow down our
productivity, and explore life as a
retired person.
• It is during this time that we
contemplate our accomplishments
and are able to develop integrity if we
see ourselves as leading a successful
life.
 Psychosocial Stage 8
Integrity vs. Despair
• If we see our lives as unproductive,
feel guilt about our pasts, or feel that
we did not accomplish our life goals,
we become dissatisfied with life and
develop despair, often leading to
depression and hopelessness.
Sigmund Freud
 Sigmund Freud
• Sigismund Schlomo Freud (May 6,
1856 – September 23, 1939)
• Freud is commonly referred to as "the
father of psychoanalysis" and his
work has been highly influential.
• The founder Of the Psychosexual
Development Theory.
 Sigmund Freud
• Freud advanced a theory of
personality development focussing on
the effects of the sexual pleasure
drive on a person's emerging
personality.
 Psychosexual Theory
• According to this theory, parts of the
personality develop as we move
through a series of psychosexual
stages. Each stage is characterized
by different demands for sexual
gratification and different ways of
achieving that gratification.
Oral stage (birth to about 15
months)
 Oral stage (birth to about 15
months)

• A newborn is governed only by its

drives. Only the id is present at this
stage, so the infant seeks immediate
gratification, achieved through its
mouth - feeding, crying, and oral
exploration of the world.
Result of oral stage disturbance

• According to Freud, disturbance of

the oral stage may result in a
permanent fixation on the oral
channel for gratification. Examples of
resulting adult behaviors include
smoking, overeating, thumb-sucking,
and pencil chewing.
Result of oral stage disturbance

• Typical resulting personality traits

include impatience, passivity,
greediness, dependence and a
preoccupation with giving and taking.
Anal stage (15 months to about 3
years)
Anal stage (15 months to about 3
years)
• The focus of gratification shifts from
the mouth to the anus.
• The child experiences pleasure from
the elimination of feces.
• According to Freud, this brings them
into conflict with their parents.
• The resolution of this conflict requires
the development of the ego, and as
such has important implications for
behaviors later in life.
Result of anal stage disturbance

• Freud suggests that fixations may be

caused by either exceptionally strict
toilet training or intense pleasure
associated with taboos such as
smearing feces on the wall.
Result of anal stage disturbance

• Too little gratification in this stage

results in an 'anal' or obsessive
character who has a wish to make a
terrible mess and therefore must build
defenses against this, such as
orderliness, rigidity, and hatred of
waste.
Result of anal stage disturbance

• They are also obstinate, stingy,

punctual and possessive.
• Too much gratification will result in
opposite behaviors, untidiness, a hot
temper and destructiveness.
Phallic stage (3 years to about 5
years)
Phallic stage (3 years to about 5
years)
• According to Freud, the focus of
gratification is now on the genitals,
although this gratification is not the
same as that experienced by adults.
• Children take an increasing interest in
their own genitals, and show a
curiosity about other people's bodies.
Phallic stage (3 years to about 5
years)
• Freud implies that the major conflict
faced during this stage is the
Oedipus/Electra conflict.
• Freud suggests that an Oedipus
conflict applies to boys. A boy wants
his mother and therefore is jealous of
his father and wants to remove him.
Phallic stage (3 years to about 5
years)
• The fear that his father will discover
the son's feelings are expressed in
terms of fear of castration, but is
finally resolved through identifying
with the father.
Phallic stage (3 years to about 5
years)
• For girls, the Freudian Electra
complex describes the events leading
up to gender resolution. The young
girl has 'penis envy' and resents the
mother for not providing her with one.
 Result of phallic stage
disturbance
• According to Freud, the conflicts may
result in homosexuality, authority
problems, and rejection of appropriate
gender roles if not resolved.
Latency stage (around five years
until puberty)
Latency stage (around five years
until puberty)
• The drives that have been
responsible for gratification in the
previous stages appear relatively
inactive.
• This is partly due to the repression of
sexual drives that is accomplished
during the Oedipal stage.
 Result of latency stage
disturbance
• Freud suggests that these repressed
drives may be redirected into other
activities, such as the formation of
friendships, or hobbies.
Genital stage (puberty onwards)
Genital stage (puberty onwards)

• With puberty there is re-emergence of

the earlier drives.
• Drive energy is focused on the
genitals once more, but this time with
an adult expression of sexuality.
Genital stage (puberty onwards)

• Although the term 'genital' suggests

that gratification during this stage
must inevitably be sexual, Freud
emphasized the importance of
secondary process thinking as a form
of symbolic gratification in this stage.
Genital stage (puberty onwards)

• Thus, forming loving relationships or

assuming the responsibilities of adult
life may all be seen as symbolic ways
of satisfying the drive energy of this
stage.
 Result of genital stage
disturbance
• If too much libidinal energy is taken
up in the first three stages, the
individual cannot reach maturity,
cannot shift the focus from their own
body, their own parents and their
immediate needs to larger
responsibilities involving others.
Jean Piaget
 Jean Piaget
• Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean
Piaget (1896-1980)
• Renowned for constructing a highly
influential model of child development
and learning.
 Jean Piaget
• Piaget's theory is based on the idea
that the developing child builds
cognitive structures-in other words,
mental "maps," schemes, or
networked concepts for
understanding and responding to
physical experiences within his or her
environment.
 Jean Piaget
• Piaget further attested that a child's
cognitive structure increases in
sophistication with development,
moving from a few innate reflexes
such as crying and sucking to highly
complex mental activities.
 Cognitive learning theory
• Jean Piaget's Cognitive-
Development Theory gives us the
background for developmentally
appropriate practices.
• The idea that children's thinking is
qualitatively different than adults
comes from Piaget.
 Cognitive learning theory
• This theory also shows us that children
need to construct or reconstruct
knowledge in order to learn and that
they also need rich opportunities to
interact with the physical world and with
their peers
• Piaget's theory identifies four
developmental stages and the
processes by which children progress
through them.
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy)
• In this period (which has 6 stages),
intelligence is demonstrated through
motor activity without the use of
symbols.
• Knowledge of the world is limited (but
developing) because its based on
physical interactions / experiences.
Sensorimotor stage (Infancy)
• Children acquire object permanence
at about 7 months of age (memory).
• Physical development (mobility)
allows the child to begin developing
new intellectual abilities.
• Some symbolic (language) abilities
are developed at the end of this
stage.
 Pre-operational stage
(Toddler and Early Childhood)
• In this period (which has two sub
stages), intelligence is demonstrated
through the use of symbols, language
use matures, and memory and
imagination are developed, but
thinking is done in a non-logical,
nonreversible manner.
• Egocentric thinking predominates
 Concrete operational stage
(Elementary and early adolescence)
• In this stage (characterized by 7 types
of conservation: number, length,
liquid, mass, weight, area, volume),
intelligence is demonstrated through
logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols related to concrete objects.
 Concrete operational stage
(Elementary and early adolescence)
• Operational thinking develops (mental
actions that are reversible).
Egocentric thought diminishes.
 Formal operational stage
(Adolescence and adulthood).
• In this stage, intelligence is demonstrated
through the logical use of symbols related
to abstract concepts.
• arly in the period there is a return to
egocentric thought.
 Formal operational stage
(Adolescence and adulthood).
• Only 35% of high school graduates in
industrialized countries obtain formal
operations; many people do not think
formally during adulthood.
Lawrence Kohlberg
 Lawrence Kohlberg
• Lawrence Kohlberg (October 25,
1927 – January 19, 1987)
• An American psychologist born in
Bronxville, New York.
• Famous for research in moral
education, reasoning, and
development, he developed stages of
moral development.
 Lawrence Kohlberg
• A close follower of Jean Piaget's
theory of cognitive development
• Kohlberg's work reflects and extends
his predecessor's ideas, at the same
time creating a new field within
psychology: "moral development".
 Kohlberg's stages of moral
development
• Are planes of moral adequacy
conceived by Lawrence Kohlberg to
explain the development of moral
reasoning.
• The theory was inspired by the work
of Jean Piaget and a fascination with
children's reactions to moral
dilemmas.
 Kohlberg's stages of moral
development
• This theory holds that moral
reasoning, which is the basis for
ethical behavior, has six
identifiable developmental
constructive stages - each more
adequate and responding to
moral dilemmas than the last.
Moral develoment stages
Level 1 (Pre-Conventional)
1. Obedience and punishment orientation
(How can I avoid punishment?)
2. Self-interest orientation
(What's in it for me?)
 Pre-Conventional
• The pre-conventional level of moral
reasoning is especially common in
children, although adults can also
exhibit this level of reasoning.
• Reasoners in the pre-conventional
level judge the morality of an action
by its direct consequences.
 Pre-Conventional
• The pre-conventional level consists of
the first and second stages of moral
development, and are purely
concerned with the self in an
egocentric manner.
 Stage 1. Obedience and punishment
orientation
• Individuals focus on the direct
consequences that their actions will
have for themselves.
• For example, an action is perceived
as morally wrong if the person who
commits it gets punished.
• This stage may be viewed as a kind
of authoritarianism.
 Stage 2.
Self-interest orientation
• Espouses the what's in it for me
position, right behavior being defined
by what is in one's own best interest
• Stage two reasoning shows a limited
interest in the needs of others, but
only to a point where it might further
one's own interests, such as you
scratch my back, and I'll scratch
yours
Level 2 (Conventional)
3. Interpersonal accord and conformity
(The good boy/good girl attitude)
4. Authority and social-order
maintaining orientation
(Law and order morality)
 Conventional
• The conventional level of moral
reasoning is typical of adolescents
and adults.
• Persons who reason in a
conventional way judge the morality
of actions by comparing these actions
to societal views and expectations.
 Stage 3 Interpersonal accord and
conformity
• Individuals are receptive of approval
or disapproval from other people as it
reflects society's accordance with the
perceived role.
• They try to be a good boy or good girl
to live up to these expectations,
having learned that there is inherent
value in doing so.
 Stage 3 Interpersonal accord and
conformity
• Desire to maintain rules and authority
exists only to further support these
stereotypical social roles.
• The intentions of actions play a more
significant role in reasoning at this
stage; 'they mean well...'
 Stage 4. Authority and social-order
maintaining orientation
• It is important to obey laws, dictums
and social conventions because of
their importance in maintaining a
functioning society.
• If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would - thus there is an
obligation and a duty to uphold laws
and rules.
Level 3 (Post-Conventional)

5. Social contract orientation

6. Universal ethical principles

(Principled conscience)
 Post-Conventional
• also known as the principled level,
consists of stages five and six of
moral development.
• Realization that individuals are
separate entities from society now
becomes salient.
• One's own perspective should be
viewed before the society's. It is due
to this 'nature of self before others'
 Stage 5. Social contract
orientation
• Individuals are viewed as holding
different opinions and values.
• Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed
when necessary to meet the greatest
good for the greatest number of
people.
 Stage 5. Social contract
orientation
• This is attained through majority decision,
and inevitably compromise.
• In this way democratic government is
ostensibly based on stage five reasoning.
 Stage 6
Universal ethical principles
• Moral reasoning is based on abstract
reasoning using universal ethical
principles.
• Laws are valid only insofar as they are
grounded in justice, and that a
commitment to justice carries with it an
obligation to disobey unjust laws.
 Stage 6
• While Kohlberg insisted that stage six
exists, he had difficulty finding participants
who consistently used it.
• It appears that people rarely if ever reach
stage six of Kohlberg's model.