D&A 22-1 "The Time To Act Is Now"

The Time to Act is Now
Frank Kaufmann. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
DHARM IN INDIAN and GLOBAL PANORAMA

Raj Kumar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
A New Paradigm of Socio-Economic World

Order From a Jain Perspective
S. L. Gandhi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Our King Must Hear about this: Practicing Recon-

ciliation in the Nigerian Socio-religious sphere
Enoch Olújídé Gbádégesin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Revelation Is Not a Zero Sum Game

Allen S. Maller. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Religion and the Effort to Sustain Peace in a

Nigerian University Community
M. O. Adeniyi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Shanti, Shalom, Salaam: REFLECTIONS ON THE QUEST

FOR A CULTURE OF PEACE
M. Darrol Bryant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Epistemology of the Exact Science(s):

Mathematical Knowledge vis-à-vis Spiritual
Knowledge
Hector Rosario.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
The Greatest is Love

Jo Ann Crooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Dialogue & Alliance

Vol. 22, No. 1 • Spring/Summer 2008 1
D&A 22-1.indd 1 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

2 Dialogue & Alliance
Book Reviews
Mending a Torn World: Women in Interreligious Dialogue
By Maura O’Neill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Reviewed by Vivian Nyitray
Gandhi & Jesus: The Saving Power of Nonviolence

By Terrence J. Rynne. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Reviewed by Anantanand Rambachan
Conflict and Reconciliation: The Contribution of Religions

Edited by John W. Bowker. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Reviewed by Gene G. James
Book Notices
Beyond Compare: St. Francis De Sales and Sri Vedanta Desika on
Loving Surrender to God
By Francis X. Clooney. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the

Neighbor
By Amos Yong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
A Palestinian Cry for Reconciliation

By Naim Stifan Ateek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Religion and Human Fulfillment

By Keith Ward. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Mothers of Promise: Women in the Book of Genesis

By Tammi J. Schneider. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
D&A 22-1.indd 2 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

The Time to Act is Now
 
T he current flourishing of interfaith activity and idealism is

now about 112 years old.
Most people conversant with contemporary interfaith are
willing to allow its inception to be the 1893 Chicago Parliament of
Religions, not so much thanks to the interreligiously anemic and frac-
tious behavior of the largely Christian groups dominant on that occa-
sion, as to the spellbinding opus offered by the Hindu seer, Swami
Vivekenanda. He recommended that “spiritual harmony is realized by
deepening our consciousness, and that a Christian be a true Christian,
a Hindu a true Hindu, a Buddhist a true Buddhist, a Jew a true Jew,
Moslem a true Moslem.” [http://www.ramakrishna.org/sv_sa.htm]
This marked a point of no return for religions in the modern
period. Though religions persist in blinkered, veiled and not-so-veiled
imperialisms, they now are forced to do so measured against the ideal
of mutual affirmation. Religious aggression has not abated (sadly),
rather (apart from violent radical fringes) it has had to shift from cen-
ter stage as normal religious behavior, to now operating more surrepti-
tiously, fist in glove.
The Vedantist insight (itself not without enticement toward feel-
ing “truer than thou”), has been much like Tinkerbell in the century
since it first captured the imagination of the religious world at the
1893 Chicago Parliament. In dark and troubled times its light flickered
powerlessly, seeming on the brink of demise. But each time the world
dared to hope, ideals of interfaith struggled back to brighter life with
its magic wand and dreams of wonderful things.
Periods of interfaith growth and energy coincided with the cycles
of political dreams of international harmony. Ghandi’s elusive reli-
gious and multi-religious identity coincided with the harmony dream
of the League of Nations after the leaden aggression and destruction of
WWI. The origins of Word Congress of Faiths, the World Conference
on Religion and Peace, and the Temple of Understanding coincided
with the UN dream of human rights and the determination to save
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 3 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

succeeding generations from the scourge of war. The grand spray of

Sun Myung Moon’s juggernaut of interfaith organizations coincided
with the equality vision of the Gandhian, Martin Luther King, and the
Peace-obsessed era of the 1960s.
Most recently the Chicago Parliament Centennial (1993) provided
the occasion of this generation’s new family of interfaith organiza-
tions. These reflect the impulses of Web 2.0 (de-centered collabo-
ration), and include in their number such meta groups as URI (the
United Religions Initiative), CPWR (Council for a Parliament of the
World’s Religions), NAIN (North American Interfaith Network), and
others.
These most recent organizations represent positive progress by nat-
urally reflecting the evolution and emerging spirit of the time, namely
that the ability to share knowledge and information equals power,
rather than the ability to conceal or horde information equals power.
The Western non-heirarchical impulses dominate the avante garde of
communications technology and seep into concepts and doctrines of
leadership and management. This is good for the most part, except for
the tendency for egalitarian democracies to degenerate into legalism,
and surreptitious and concealed vying. This curse has infected the
magnificent dream of Wikipedia in which ideologues suffocate and
strangulate politically incorrect points of view by exploiting process,
technicalities, and the mechanics of trying to contribute. The impact
of a tyrannical minority at Wikipedia, for example, is now well docu-
mented. The dreamy egalitarianism of new “non-centered” interfaith
consortia suffer from the same “secret authoritarianism,” even though
noble souls in abundance strive valiantly to be better than that.
The problem we face is that non-centered egalitarianism is only
half good, just as enlightened and beneficent “despotism” is also
only half good. These impulses must find, love, and surrender to one
another, bonding toward a higher concept for ideal order and organi-
zation. The pendulum swing between this impulse or that should not
be the ground of hope, any more than the foolish imagination that
eight years of Democrats or eight years of Republicans will finally
bring the flowering of God’s long awaited Kingdom.
Evolution in the philosophies and styles for how interfaith organi-
zations act are good, but they will not bring about the quantum spir-
itual leap urgently needed for our time. What is needed rather is a
D&A 22-1.indd 4 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Kaufmann: Introduction 5
fundamental change in the purpose and goal of religious and interfaith

leaders and organizations. It must be established that particular reli-
gious identity is inconsequential. Particular religious identity should
be vigorously preserved and intensified but only so that the unique
contribution of each religion to human affairs is not lost. Particular
religious identity is significant only to the extent that each tradition
has something unique to offer in our shared obligation to alleviate
human suffering and liberate all people to pursue our collective divine
purpose. Apart from representing a unique range of insights and bene-
fits, particular religious identity rapidly should come to be recognized
as no more consequential than if one is black or white, tall or short,
blond hair or black hair. The interfaith community that advances this
agenda is the one that will flourish and will speak successfully to the
reality of this current time in history. At present everything is being
remade, and a world in which people imagine random and accidental
associations to be superior or greater blessed by the divine quickly
should become a thing of the past.
This current issue of Dialogue and Alliance follows a trajectory
from particular to universal, from case study to purely theoretical.
Articles range from single religion testimony through two and three
tradition dialogue, out to trans-religious universals.
The single religion testimonies come from authors who seek to
communicate what in their particular traditions they imagine to be
either essential or universal enough to speak compellingly of a peace
language embraceable by adherents across the spectrum of religious
belief and affiliation. Raj Kumar presents an attempt to codify a sys-
tem of “the Dharm” that will provide for people greater facility to
“exalt our [humanness] to the highest level of divinity.” S.L. Gandhi
presents Jainism in a piece he holds provides “an example to all [that
there does] exist a successful, ecologically responsible way of life
which is abundantly nonviolent in thought, word, and deed.” Enoch
Olujide examines the Nigerian situation from the perspective that the
“Yoruba peace paradigm” offers insight by which “violence could be
reduced to the barest minimum in the Nigerian nation.”
The second set of articles shift from single religion testimony
to two, three, and multi-religion dialogue reflections. Rabbi Allen
S. Maller provides thoughts taking up founders, scriptures, and the
divine in the three religions of Abraham, presenting somewhat of
D&A 22-1.indd 5 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

a perrenialist intuition into the similarities we find across the great

scriptures. M.O. Adeneyi grounds his interfaith reflections in the case
study of a Nigerian University. Professor Adeneyi finds resources for
peace in both Biblical and Qu’ranic resources and argues that these
represent potential aid to broader social arenas in which religious and
social strife is present. The veteran interfaith pioneer Darrol Bryant
contributes a sweeping investigation into the full range of all contem-
porary religions to find common roots through which each informs
and guides the longing for peace.
An essay that stands on its own in this issue is the exquisite work
of Hector Rosario who explores epistemologies of mathematical and
spiritual knowledge. Hector’s [writing] embodies a critique of the
categorical error in mathematics that logical truth is absolute in its
inferred unification of mind and spirit. To my sense, Hector charts
important forward-looking lines for contemporary spiritual query.
To conclude, it gives me pride to offer the second piece of inter-
faith fiction ever carried by Dialogue and Alliance. Jo Ann Crooks
debuts on the pages of Dialogue and Alliance with a creative and
moving parable of the stunning experiences of a 9/11 suicide bomber
arriving in the spiritual world expecting a martyr’s reward.
We are deeply grateful to our readership, and pray that our work
not only edifies, but moves us forward to a better world that endures
in its gains. Please recommend Dialogue and Alliance to your friends,
and please have your universities and appropriate institutions sub-
scribe. Thank you as always for your loyal and encouraging support.
Frank Kaufmann
Editor-in-Chief
D&A 22-1.indd 6 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Dharm in Indian & Global Panorama
Raj Kumar
T
he various ingredients of Dharm—the Indian way of living—
is fragmented and haphazardly scattered in human conscience.
This essay represents an effort to bring about a systematic
consolidation of this way. The shape of the skeleton of Dharm, that
has thus emerged, enables one to assess fairly how far he stands away
from its (the Dharm’s) various fronts. This assessment, by and large,
reveals that the task of bringing oneself near to these fronts is not as
difficult as he hitherto considered and, as such, his in-born instinct to
be as near to Dharm as possible is awakened. As a result, conspicuous
changes take place in his way of thinking and interacting with others,
thereby adding substantially to his present and future quality of life,
and thus moulding him into a better person.
Awareness in respect of Dharm conveyed by the article will, there-
fore, steadily increase the number of “men of quality” on this earth.
This will bring much more peace and tranquility all around and thus
this earth, truly, will become a far better and more worthwhile place.
Dharm in Indian & Global Panorama

Out of the four ancient civilizations of the world, viz., the Egyptian
civilization of Nile valley, the Mesopotamian civilization of Euphra-
tes–Tigris valley, the Indian civilization of Indo-Gangetic valley and
the Chinese civilization of Huang and Yang-tse valleys, the Indian civ-
ilization is considered to be the oldest one. One most outstanding con-
tribution of this Indian civilization is that our sacred soil gave birth to
what is called “Dharm.” The world “Dharm” comprises a set of cardi-
nal principles codified by our wise ancestors—Rishis and Munis—as a
result of their extensive studies in respect of life and long-term experi-
mentations therewith, to suitably channel our attitudes and behaviour,
and day-to-day activities to make our lives healthy, happy, contented,
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 7 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

peaceful, and purposeful. These principles, if followed with utmost

honesty and sincerity, are also said to exalt our manhood to the highest
level of divinity. All our visits to temples, reciting prayers and hymns,
and observance of various rituals and the traditions we are instructed
to follow, are meant exclusively to motivate and to lead us to live our
lives in conformity with the principles laid down by Dharm.
These principles are to live with: (1) Truth, (2) Non-violence
(Ahimsa), (3) Tolerance, (4) Rationality, (5) Up-rightness, (6) Service
to mankind as well as to animals, including lower animals, and, (7)
Austerity.
Non-violence also includes not causing injury to other’s feelings;
rationality means our approach based on sound logic, and our attitude
or behaviour conforming to the principle of dispensation of natural
justice to those with whom we deal; austerity includes also the conser-
vation of one’s physical as well as intellectual energies to be gainfully
utilized by him for noble pursuits. It also includes not overspend-
ing nor wasting our resources so that the others, for whom these are
scarce, could be shared. Further, uprightness includes (1) Sobriety, (2)
Discipline, (3) Kindness, (4) Simplicity, (5) Honesty, (6) Integrity, (7)
Humility, (8) Magnanimity, (9) Trust-worthiness, (10) Urge for taking
responsibilities, (11) Upkeep of promise, (12) No double-speaking,
(13) No jealousy for others’ gains, (14) No ill-will towards others,
(15) No avarice, (16) No anger, (17) Acceptance of one’s mistakes
with all grace and frankness, (18) Painstaking spirit, (19) Helping atti-
tude, and, (20) Patience and perseverance. In fact the remaining six
componenets of Dharm, to a fair extent, are also included in the sense
of uprightness and hence an upright person is invariably accepted as
an embodiment of Dharm.
The Dharm being very old, was called “Sanatan Dharm”; Sanatan
means very old. It has been dealt with at length in our ancient scrip-
tures, e.g., Vedas, Upanishads and Purans; it was also called “Vedic
Dharm.” Further, because of historical reasons we were called “Hin-
dus” hence Dharm was also called “Hindu Dharm,” or more briefly,
“Hindutav” or “Hinduism.” Since Dharm carries along with it an all-
prevailing sense of universality, it stands to be quite different from
the words like “religion” or “mazhab” that have sectarian connota-
tions and, therefore, needs an entirely different place in the diction-
aries of foreign languages. Since Dharm originated in our country,
D&A 22-1.indd 8 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Kumar: Dharm in India & Global Panorama 9
people residing outside, by and large, do not have a clear conception

of Dharm and they, perhaps, found it convenient to dovetail it with
words like “religion” or “mazhab.”
In the B.C. era and also during the first millennium A.D., favour-
able conditions existed for our scholars to move out to other lands to
serve people there by the way of educating them in respect of Dharm
and also otherwise, but our history of the long period right after the
downfall of Prithvi Raj Chauhan, up to the date of our country’s
independence did not offer such types of opportunities. Further, in
the post-independence era, history being favourable notwithstanding,
other factors cropped up and the correct sense for which the Dharm
stands could not be adequately conveyed to people and they continue
to misinterpret it.
Dharm is most unfettered by time and space in the sense that it
has relevance right from the time of its birth to continue ad infinitum,
and also at each and every point of the universe—on loftiest moun-
tain peaks, in deepest oceans, on vast sandy deserts and desolated ice-
lands, in volcanoes and on and inside of all stars, planets and satellites
and in all the vast empty spaces. Consequently, the word “Dharm”
always carries the concept of “Universality” about it and it is, there-
fore, also known as “Universal Dharm.”
Ordinarily Dharm is extremely tolerant and allows one to commit
acts in contravention thereof, if done out of sheer ignorance. It also
remains unconcerned even if such excesses are done deliberately pro-
vided the person concerned makes sincere determination not to repeat
the same. In cases of severe defaults, however, he has the option to
undergo the requisite penance, failing which he is sure to face the
wrath of the Almighty—the Omnipotent, the Omnipresent and the
Omniscient—because Dharm stands firmly by the proverb “as you
sow, so you must reap.” This is adequately established by our every-
day life experiences.
Dharm is an integral and hence inseparable part of our body, not
in physical form but in an invisible state. Within us, its realisation
steadily grows along with the growth of our body and because of hav-
ing abundance of spirituality, it adequately enables us to appreciate
the privileges that we derive from those around us, living as well as
non-living, including nature, and motivates us to pay back, with grati-
tude. In the absence of this sensitivity, however, life goes meaningless
D&A 22-1.indd 9 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

and hence Dharm has been aptly described as “A Way of Living.”

Indeed this way of living provides us with due guidance and guards us
against making all abusive wastage of our body and intellect, thereby
bringing all solace, comfort and peace upon us. This is, de facto, the
divine bliss that sensible people invariably aspire for.
It is, indeed, very unfortunate that our bountiful heritage, Dharm,
inherited from our learned forefathers, has been given a derogatory
meaning by our present-day political leaders, most obviously to suit
their selfish interests. They have conveyed, in abundance, and con-
tinue to convey day in and day out, in most unambiguous language,
that Dharm stands only for “Communalism,” and in case it is made to
guide them in their pubic dealings, it is bound to bring annihilating
consequence upon the country. They have coined the word “Secular”
to misleadingly stand for “Anti-communalism” and have made this
word the key of their public administration.
The old dictionary meanings of the word secular1 is profane, unsa-
cred, something devoid of spirituality, something not ordained by the
religion. The term secular, unfortunately, has conveyed very incorrect,
totally absurd and truly disastrous signals thereby causing greatest dis-
service to the nation. The result is that a present-day youth, who takes
abundant pride in declaring himself secular, has conveniently shaken
off all his responsibilities to the society as well as to the country. No
discipline remains binding upon him and he feels quite free to indulge
in all sorts of anti-national, inhumane, selfish and utterly mean activi-
ties with the sole aim to provide himself with plentiful easy money
and all luxuries of life. There is an all around crisis of Dharm and
crisis of character and the entire nation finds itself fully engulfed in a
whirlpool of total destruction.
The present-day pitiable scenario of our country makes us remem-
ber our noble kings of the olden past who, though monarchs, admin-
istered their public affairs with the yard-stick of Dharm for all the
well-being, safety, security and satisfaction of their people. Dharmraj
Raja Harish Chandra, Lord Ram, Lord Krishna and King Yudhister—
all Paragons of Dhram—may be said to be legendary figures and,
therefore, their existence may be denied, but our subsequent history
of the period before the onset of Christian era and a millennium there-
after, is full of praises of the exalted kings like Chandragupta Maurya,
1. The Oxford Illustrated Dictionary—1962 Ed.
D&A 22-1.indd 10 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Ashoka the Great, Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Harsh and the like.

These kings were truly great, most successful and were greatly loved
and respected by their people and this is because they always used the
touchstone of Dharm to weigh the propriety of their personal as well
as administrative decisions and actions.
We have been copying the west to give shape to the administrative
system of our country’s governance but we have miserably failed in
our efforts. The reason is that this is being done ad nauseam, without
appreciating the fact that the virtues of competence, honesty, integrity
and supremely good character, to be possessed by our political lead-
ers, are sine-qua-non for carrying on with our democracy to the true
satisfaction of our people. Revival of Dharm, only and exclusively,
will do the needful.
Today’s world is in a firm grip of a series of miseries brought
about by abject poverty, wars, and wanton acts of global terrorism.
We had the League of Nations after World War I and now we have the
United Nations (U.N.) after Word War II for the peaceful solution of
national-level hostilities. The U.N. has also undertaken several other
beneficial global-level activities, e.g., eradication of poverty, health-
care, literacy, environmental protection and the like, but whereas the
League of Nations failed in toto, the contribution so far made by the
U.N. has also left much to be desired. Our selfish attitudes, coupled
with mad materialistic approaches, being the raison d’etre for this sor-
did state of affairs, has thus made our quest for a peaceful existence a
utopian vision. Hopefully a day will come when our continued frus-
tration will bring us to our senses to take recourse to Dharm for all
around everlasting peace and prosperity.
Quest for Peace—A Realistic Approach

Peace, the main ingredient for high quality life of an individual as well
as that of a nation, has ever been sought after right from the dawn of
civilization. The large-scale devastations related to the last two centu-
ries’ warfares, caused by the use of sophisticated missiles—especially
nuclear ones—have added considerably to man’s concerns to bring
about sustained peace.
Inclusion of the “Nobel Peace Prize” by Alfred B. Nobel’s Nobel
Prize Trust, to be awarded annually along with the other Nobel Prizes,
has, perhaps, been the first such effort made a century plus back at
D&A 22-1.indd 11 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

the international level. Later on, the League of Nations after World
War I and, subsequently, the United Nations after World War II, also
emerged at this level, mainly to bring about peace amongst the war-
ring nations. .
After gaining independence in the year 1947, our government
framed its constitution with the inclusion of Article 51, wherein, inter
alia, it has undertaken to endeavour to promote international peace
and security and to maintain just and honourable relations between
nations.
During the second half of the last century several peace forums,
peace missions, peace trusts, peace brigades and peace committees
have sprung up at national as well as regional levels all over the world
and these are actively engaged to evolve mechanisms to create peace-
conducive environments. Further, the concepts of the phrases like
“world government,” “world citizenship,” “all-religion meets,” etc.
also developed as a sequel thereof.
To our dismay, however, the result of all such vigorous time,
money and man-power consuming efforts have invariably been far
from favourable and the paradox “the more the peace efforts the more
the drifting away of peace,” needs be carefully looked into.
The objective assessment of the situation has revealed that peace
efforts have been made and are being made by keeping them in isola-
tion from Dharm—the most perfectly rational and the most exalted
and elegant way of living. Unfortunately, “Dharm” is the most vaguely
understood and most variantly interpreted word in today’s world.
Moreover, the derogatories attributed by our present day politicians
to this sacredly spiritual word “Dharm” has made it to be interpreted
quite oppositely. This has resulted in individuals, corporates, sects and
nations to become indifferent to their responsibilities towards others
and a state of extreme mistrust, cheating, collecting of plentifuls of
easy money by all possible dishonest, fraudulent, abysmally foul and
corrupt means, and wasteful and lavishly vulgar spending thereof,
has emerged thereby exposing our lives to all sorts of rude behaviour,
loots, plunders, violences and devastating lethal attacks.
Officially, as it stands today, seven nations of the world have, col-
lectively, stockpiles of about 36,000 nuclear warheads and even 1 per-
cent of these missiles—each being a giant in comparison to the “atom
bomb” of World War II—is sufficient to cause total global destruction.
D&A 22-1.indd 12 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Further, the cost of diffusion of any such missile, being several times
that of its production, is not only prohibitive but we do not also have
the requisite technology for safe disposal of its wastes, and, in absence
thereof, these types of wastes continue to inject several vital com-
ponents of our environment, e.g., air, water, soil, and the flora and
fauna—both terrestrial and aquatic—with lethal doses of toxic nuclear
fall-outs, for long spells of time, thereby rendering the entire earth
most unfit to sustain life. Very many nations have also developed and
are in possession of deadly chemical and biological W.M.D.s (weap-
ons of mass destruction) and it is noteworthy that accidental fall-out
from any type of the above war material can never be ruled out.
The saddest part of the situation is that the U.N., so far, has not
been adequately empowered to take legal action against erring nations
and, as a result, its role stands sufficiently diluted, mostly as sugges-
tive or advisory.
Dharm—that has been elucidated in the main article—is, de facto,
the prerequisite or forerunner of peace. More pertinently, Dharm may
be taken as the sole originator and carrier of the latter. Thus, in a sense
Dharm is like a railway engine that always has the “peace-wagon”
attached to its rear and, therefore, it carries this wagon everywhere
it goes but will leave this wagon behind whenever it is made to get
detached therefrom. It would, perhaps, not be incorrect to accept that
posterity, if not the present generation, would like to have the follow-
ing statement as a proverb for its peaceful living:
With Dharm Ever Peace, Without Dharm Never Peace.
(The word “peace” means every kind and all forms of peace.)
And this is the writer’s message to the entire humanity, and, in

particular, to the Nobel Prize Trust, the U.N. and the government of
India.
D&A 22-1.indd 13 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

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D&A 22-1.indd 14 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

A New Paradigm of Socio-Economic World
Order From a Jain Perspective
Dr. S. L. Gandhi 
At the Zenith of Materialistic Progress,

Social Values Reach Their Nadir
O
ur age is marked by mounting unrest, unprecedented eco-
nomic disparities, abject poverty, severe hunger, increasing
threat of global warming, gross violation of human rights,
rapidly expanding ethos of terrorism, ever-increasing population,
unsustainable human lifestyle, gradual disintegration of the institu-
tion of family, and a swiftly widening web of vengeance and violence.
This dark reality stares us in the face. Twenty-five years ago Fritjof
Capra, the eminent physicist and philosopher, wrote the following
lines to start the first chapter of his popular book, The Turning Point:
At the beginning of the last two decades of our century, we find

ourselves in a state of profound, worldwide crisis. It is a complex,
multi-dimensional crisis whose facets touch every aspect of our
lives—our health and livelihood, the quality of our environment
and our social relationships, our economy, technology, and poli-
tics. It is a crisis of intellectual, moral and spiritual dimensions;
a crisis of a scale and urgency unprecedented in recorded human
history. For the first time we have to face the very real threat of
extinction of the human race and of all life on this planet.1
When I look at today’s world, eight years into “the third millen-
nium,” I find Mr. Capra’s warnings of 25 years ago more prescient
than ever before. More distressing than the possibility of human
extinction would be a survival worse than death. Globalization seems
to be bringing some level of prosperity to upper and middle classes,
but the poor are becoming poorer and their woes continue to multiply.
Dialogue & Alliance

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Moreover, the so called rich also do not experience a state of blessed-

ness. Rather they live a dreary, mechanical life steeped in abundant
resources and material comforts but bereft of happiness and satisfac-
tion. As a result they carry only the burden of life. They do not realize
that life is a precious gift, a celebration. The conclusion is that the
poor are afflicted by want whereas the rich grow indifferent to the
feeling of consciousness.
We have made phenomenal progress since our advent here on
earth. With the help of science and technology we have reached a high
point of materialistic progress. We now have supersonic jets, space-
craft, and bullet trains. We already landed on the moon and diminished
its mystery. Now we seek Mars. The latest scientific marvel is the
internet providing instant communication with any part of the world.
This has radically altered life. Computers, cinema, television, radio,
mobile phones and print and electronic media have made our lives
interdependent and interconnected but also make us highly vulnerable
and unsafe. The atom bomb caused unprecedented nuclear holocaust
at Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1945. The world now grapples with the
problems of nuclear terrorism and nuclear proliferation. Our dream of
a nuclear weapons-free world remains unrealized.
The question arises of whether it is possible for us to reverse
the trend. Jainisnm is a religion that enjoins its followers to practice
values like restraining propensities for wealth, over-consumption,
violence and ostentation, and has the potential to offer a new socio-
politico-economic world order embedded in the current social ethos.
Can it provide a new paradigm of socio-economic order and ensure
prevention of escalation of politico-military and economic crises?
Can it offer a solution to the problems of climate change and environ-
mental and ecological degradation? It is the view of this author that
practicing the Jain doctrine of ahimsa, anekant and non-possession
can reverse the threat of human extinction and improve the quality of
life considerably.
Jainism and the Present Crisis

In the wake of problems generated by climate change, pollution, envi-
ronmental hazards and escalating terrorist strikes in USA, India, Sri
Lanka, and Indonesia, more and more people have shown interest in
Jainism which is known for its philosophy of ahimsa (nonviolence)
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Gandhi: A New Paradigm from a Jain Perspective 17
and ichha primaan (limiting one’s desires, wants and possessions).

Since Jainism enjoins its followers to refrain from killing not only
humans but also from killing plants, trees, birds, all forms of bio-
logically diverse species including insects and microbes and also
from polluting air, water, fire and earth as it involves injury to life, it
increasingly is being recognized as one of the world’s most ecology-
friendly religions. Reverence for all forms of life is the essence of
Jaina belief. Mr. Michael Tobias writes in his book Life Force: The
World of Jainism:
Jainism is a momentous example to all of us that there can, and

does exist a successful, ecologically responsible way of life which
is abundantly nonviolent in thought, word and deed. We might
misread our history, go forward confusedly to perpetrate other fol-
lies but we will do so knowing that there is a viable alternative.2
Michael Tobias is but one example. When he became familiar with

Jain Doctrine, he realized that the only way to prevent the extinction of
the human race is to live in harmony with nature. Jainism champions
the cause of all sentient beings. It considers the earth a secret refuge
for plants and animals. It offers a practical outline for a new model of
a nonviolent socio-politico-economic world order. Violence destroys
everything while nonviolence preserves life and ensures durable
peace. Jainism goes to the root. The seeds of physical violence first
sprout in the human mind. They later manifest themselves in injurious
physical activities. The root of the crisis that we face today lies in the
excessive rise of passions (kasaya) such as ego, hypocrisy, greed and
anger in human nature. Jainism believes that the dissipation of kasaya
alone will result in universal peace.
In the preface to his treatise Jain Darsan: Manan Aur Mimansa
(Jain Philosophy: An Analytical Study and Commentary), His Holi-
ness Acharya Mahapragya, a celebrated Jain thinker and social
reformer writes:
Jainism is neither bound by caste nor by any institution. It is an

awakening or consciousness of dharma. Jainism has declared that
any individual, irrespective of his caste, creed and dress, is entitled
to moksa (liberation or salvation) provided his religious conscious-
ness has been awakened and his passions of raaga (attachment)
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and dvesa (aversion or hatred) have been completely annihilated.

The dharma (religion) that keeps dharm-chetana (religious con-
sciousness) free from sectarian confines can be described as the
spiritual dharma. Anekant Drishti (non-absolutist attitude) to
know the truth and the spiritual dharma to accomplish it are the
two fundamental achievements of Jainism.3
Acharya Mahapragya makes a clear distinction between sect and

dharma. A sect may serve as an infrastructural facility but it is not
dharma in the real sense of the word. Attachment to a sect only gen-
erates fanaticism and creates deluded beliefs. The two basic features
of Jainism as highlighted by Acharya Mahapragya provide a strong
foundation for a harmonious society.
According to Jainism the main challenges presented by the exist-
ing model of the world order are sedentary lifestyle, ostentation, con-
sumption, starvation, social and economic disparities, corruption, lack
of integrity, bad governance, fast-spreading culture of violence and
vengeance, ecological and environmental degradation and, above all,
wanton race for arms including nuclear arms. Despite persistent efforts
made by the United Nations, nuclear disarmament remains a distant
dream. The five nations which created huge piles of nuclear weapons
including nuclear missiles and atom bombs before the Nuclear Test
Ban Treaty came into existence are not ready to destroy their weap-
ons of mass destruction. This situation has created a big obstacle in
our endeavor to achieve world peace. We have now nuclear and non-
nuclear nations. It means that the non-nuclear nations, many of which
have achieved nuclear technology but are not allowed to manufacture
nuclear weapons, remain subservient to the nuclear nations. This dis-
parity also causes great concern.
The Jain Paradigm of Socio-Economic World Order

The Jain paradigm of a socio-economic world order is based on the
enlightened worldview smyaktava4 (according to Jain terminology).
This worldview emphasizes the power and autonomy of conscious-
ness against the brute force of matter. It is, therefore, wrong to inflict
misery on any living being for any material gain. This concept of
ahimsa is central to the sustainability of a socio-economic order. Lord
Mahavira said:
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All souls (jivas) are equal. After having known this truth man
may become indifferent to killing all forms of life that inhabit the
world. All living beings love to live. They want to taste happiness.
They are dismayed by sorrow or suffering. They dislike killing and
love life. They want to live.5
He further states that a wise man should think of all jivas. Since all
jivas dislike suffering, he should not kill any living being. His message
is crystal clear. It asks us to be careful since we is not alone. We are sur-
rounded by jivas. But Mahavira also knew very well that for a householder
it is not possible to completely abstain from violence so he exhorts him
to at least abstain from avoidable violence. It means he should not kill
innocent living beings, desist from cutting trees and destroying plants
and minimize and limit his needs. He shouldn’t waste food. He should
eat less and save water and other resources on this planet. A vow (com-
mitment) is considered essential. To begin with the householder can take
a small vow (anuvrat) which may be developed gradually.
The Jain View of Samsara and Suffering

Jains believe that hankering after mundane objects only leads to frus-
tration and that samsarah (the “world”) is asarah (vain). This is the
sum total of Jaina precepts and beliefs. All jivas, whether they live
on the planet earth or in hells or in heavens, are subject to suffering.
Humans suffer on account of our unworthy deeds. Poverty, slavery,
disease, old age and fear of death envenom our lives. Horrible torment
begins as soon a jiva enters the womb and experiences oppressive
narrowness. Even gods suffer. The jivas of hell undergo indescribable
pain on account of the bad deeds in their previous existences. Worldly
life bereft of spirituality is synonymous with suffering. In samsara
suffering is like the mountain Meru and joy is small like a grain of
mustard. It quickly disappears like a wave.
Intensity of suffering and increase in joy depend on man’s bad
or good deeds. The Jain theory of karma makes it clear that a jiva
can come out of the cycle of suffering if he knows the causes which
bind the soul in karmic bondage and strives to remove them. They are
mithyatva (heterodoxy), avirati (non-restraint), kasaya (passions) and
yoga (activities). This karmic belief of the Jains strives to create social
excellence, regulating social life in as much as it advocates coopera-
tion rather than competition.
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Vision of a Casteless Society: Equality of All Souls

Jaina doctrine visualizes a casteless society in which all jivas are con-
sidered equal. Lord Mahavira said that every jiva has the potential to
become paramatma (great soul or God). Even an insect may attain
this level when it is born a human in the next birth. Though Jainism
grants equality to all souls, in reality we find classes and subclasses
in society determined by their previous karmas. Jainism prohibits its
laity from looking down upon any individual on account of his profes-
sion or caste or poverty.
Practical Ethics
The doctrine of karma is the basis of the theoretical dispensation of
the Jainas. In the same way it controls the whole system of practical
ethics. All of our activities have a corresponding response in subtle
matter. Good or bad activities (in thought, word and deed) cause the
influx of karmic matter into the soul. However, karmic dust can be
removed from the soul by purifying the mind and emotions by avoid-
ing all sinful physical, mental or vocal activities. One can stop the
influx of this harmful matter by righteous conduct and the practice of
equanimity.
Jain ethics lays down clearly what one should do and what one
should avoid in order to minimize worldly suffering. It also lays down
a moral code of conduct for laymen and laywomen (shravaks and
shravikas) consisting of twelve anuvrats (small vows). Five of them
are anuvrats (small or basic vows), three are gunavratas (qualitative
vows) and four are siksavratas (instructive vows). They are as follows:
(a) Five small vows (anuvrats)
Gross vow of Refraining from Violence (sthula pranatipatavira-
mana). It is difficult for the householder to avoid injury to life in the
daily routine of cultivating land, cooking food, grinding corn, clean-
ing the toilet and so on. The Swopajna Bhasya Tika by Siddhasena-
gani says that a householder should desist at least from intended or
deliberate acts of gross violence.
Gross vow of Refraining from Lying (sthula mrsavadaviramana).
The householder cannot refrain from all forms of falsehood. He should
at least take the small vow of refraining from false statements.
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Gross vow of Abstaining from Taking anything that is not given

(sthula adattadanaviramana). He should not take anything without
the consent of the owner.
Gross vow of Refraining from all Illicit Sexual Contacts (sthula
maithunaviramana). The householder should desist from sexual activ-
ity with anyone other than one’s spouse.
Vow of Limiting One’s Possessions (parigrahaparimana). The
householder should limit his possessions voluntarily.
The above anuvrats (small vows) which are the exact counterparts
of mahavratas (big vows) are supported by seven supplementaries.
They include three gunavratas and four siksavratas.
(b) Three gunavratas
Vow of Limiting the Area of one’s Activities (digvrata). The house-
holder should take a vow to restrict his travel and movement to a lim-
ited area.
Vow of Limiting the Quantity of Things One Will Use (bhogop-
abhogaparimana). The householder should take a vow to make use of
only a definite number of things for sustaining life.
Vow to Abstain from Purposeless Harmful Activities (anartha-
dandaviramana). The householder should take a vow to refrain from
all such purposeless activities as are harmful to others. He should not
think ill of anyone nor cause injury to anyone.
(c) Four siksavratas
Vow of Remaining Completely Equanimous for a Fixed Period of
Time (samayika). The householder should take a vow to keep aloof
from sinful conduct for a set period of time (48 minutes at a time).
Vow of Reducing for a Limited Period of Time the Limits of the
Area Set Forth in the Sixth Vow (desavakasikavrata). The householder
should take a vow to restrict his movement to an even more limited
area for a fixed period than the one fixed under vow No. 6 above.
Vow of Observing Fast and Living Like a Monk for Certain Days
(posadhavrata). The householder should take a vow to observe com-
plete fast for a whole day and night and pass that period in religious
meditation and behave practically like a sadhu.
Vow of Sharing with Deserving Guests (atithismvibhaga-vrata).
The householder should take a vow to share his food or clothes with
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wandering monks.
The observance of these practical precepts by individuals of soci-
ety leads to the advent of a society in which life becomes a journey
towards peace rather a struggle for mundane prosperity at the cost of
moral values.
The Three Pillars of a Socio-Economic World Order
According to Jainism the main cause of human suffering is unre-
strained desire and man’s greed for possessions—be they animals,
land, wealth and buildings. Even while aiming at worldly prosper-
ity gross ethical principles are not to lie violated. If a businessman
follows the law of the land, refrains from deceiving and adopts fair
means to earn wealth, he will serve as a model of a responsible citi-
zen for others. I find that the Jain message of ahimsa (nonviolence),
aparigrah (non-possession) and anekant (non-absolutist attitude) can
provide a framework for a Jain paradigm of socio-economic world
order based on the twin principles of co-existence and cooperation.
The three principles stated above are the pillars on which the edifice
of a new model of socio-economic world order can be built.
Ahimsa—As already stated ahimsa or abstinence from violence in
thought, word and deed is the hallmark of Jainism. The main problem
that humanity faces today is that of violence. It has become a power-
ful weapon of those who believe that it is only by the use of force
and coercion that they can suppress dissent and make their opponents
kneel before them. Others think that even a valid demand can only be
met by use of force against authorities. Today everyone wants a gun
to settle an old score or protect himself. The gun culture is percolating
through schools, colleges and universities. Under the pretext of secu-
rity all nations are vying with one another to manufacture or buy the
arms that can kill more.
The culture of violence that we find predominant in the modern
society has made our life difficult and insecure. The United Nations
is deeply concerned about the growing trends of violence among chil-
dren. It has created “a decade of a culture of peace and nonviolence
for the children of the world” (2001 to 2010).6 It is the first time that
world leaders recognized the power of nonviolence and declared an
action plan to promote a culture of ahimsa. Subsequently the U.N.
body has also declared October 2, the Birth Day of Mahatma Gandhi,
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as World Nonviolence Day. So far so good, but Jainism warns that

nonviolence and austerity go together; where there is lust for luxuries,
violence is bound to follow. That is why Mahatma Gandhi led a life
of austerity and preached dignity of labour not only in words but in
practice also.
Jainism believes that diversity is the beauty of the universe. If we
can pledge ourselves to avoid unnecessary and deliberate violence and
coexist despite diverse beliefs, cultures and languages, we can dream
of a harmonious global society.
Lord Buddha and Lord Mahavira have shown us the right path.
Gandhi was influenced by the Jain concept of ahimsa to which he
refers in his autobiography. He has demonstrated to the world that
ahimsa alone can solve many problems. By creating an awareness of
reverence for all form of life we can preserve our ecological harmony
and control further degradation of our environment.
The Jain term for nonviolence is ahimsa which means abstinence
from violence. The Tattvartha Sutra makes clear that “taking life away
out of passion is violence.”7 It means that if an injury is caused with-
out any motivation or deliberate intention and if we act with utmost
care and vigilance, it in itself does not constitute an evil act. If an
individual, driven by anger, pride, deceit and greed, takes someone’s
life away, it is violence. The Jain view attaches enormous significance
to mental, emotional and verbal violence. All forms of physical vio-
lence result from them only. According to Jainism it is this aspect of
violence and nonviolence that governs a society.
Non-possession or aparigraha is the most important Jaina prin-
ciple which if adhered to sincerely by the people can usher in an era
of lasting peace and happiness. Acharya Mahapragya often says that
instead of ahimsa parmodharma (nonviolence is the greatest dharma),
we should say aparigraha parmodharma (non-possession is the great-
est dharma).8 Unrestrained desire to possess everything that fascinates
us—be it women, wealth or edibles (possessiveness) is the main cause
of the imbalance in our life. The crisis of the shortages of commodi-
ties that sustain our life has also been caused by the excessive rise of
kasaya (passions) in human nature. We have scarcity of food, water,
houses and clothes. They are sufficient to sustain the people on the
planet but the tendency of hoarding creates artificial scarcity. The Jain
principle that enjoins us to limit our possessions voluntarily can help
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us to combat the problems of poverty, hunger and shortages. On the

one hand we find the number of billionaires increasing, but still the
number of the poorest of the poor seems to be growing fast. If the mil-
lionaires or billionaires can limit their possessions, the excess can be
utilized to meet the challenge of poverty and hunger.
The Tattvarth Sutra describes parigraha as muccha (7.12 Tattvarth
Sutra-English) i.e. clinging is possessiveness. Clinging to the animate
and the inanimate is possessiveness. A feeling of attachment to mate-
rial objects is at the root of all problems. The more we are detached,
the nearer the goal we are. The intensity of “mineness” makes it nec-
essary for a person to have possession which inevitably involves vio-
lence, falsehood and theft. Jainism lays emphasis on the restraint of
a desire to possess and hoard. The ideal is complete non-possession
which can be attained only by ascetics but a householder is taught to
fix a limit to his possessions.
The third principle, that of anekant (non-absolutist outlook) is a
most significant feature of Jainism. The world is full of contradictory
beliefs. But Lord Mahavira says that contradictory viewpoints and
beliefs can co-exist. There is no need for disputation and rejection.
The truth in its entirety is known only to perfect souls or omniscient
beings. The Jains call them arhats (the souls that have destroyed their
karmic bondage by purifying the self through austerities and equanim-
ity). Each seeker of truth experiences a grain of truth and propounds
a philosophical standpoint. A standpoint is a way of approaching the
truth. It is an individual observation or experience. These angles and
ways of approach lead to partial truths. Conflict arises when the fol-
lower of a particular faith insists that what his faith says alone is truth
and the rest are heretic beliefs. According to Lord Mahavira, truth is
many-sided. One may be true from one standpoint and wrong from
another standpoint.
He said, “I salute Anekantavada (the doctrine of non-absolutism),
the only Guru of the world, because without it worldly activities come
to a standstill.”9 Leave apart the question of realizing the truth, but one
is unable to maintain a relationship even between a family and society.
Acharya Mahapragya says, “Anekant is the axis of all, it is the
only world teacher or spiritual administrator (anushashta). Since the
whole truth and the entire sphere of worldly activities are governed by
it, I bow before it.”10
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Our life is dependent on pairs of opposites. If the pairs of contrar-

ies are eliminated, life will come to an end. Lord Mahavira’s doctrine
of non-absolutism not only recognizes the philosophical standpoints
put forward by other religious groups, but also asks its followers not
to disparage the contrary beliefs or the beliefs propounded by other
groups. Anekant thus becomes the most powerful instrument of reli-
gious reconciliation. Without this non-absolutist attitude democracy
cannot succeed. Anekant is a source of durable peace in a democratic
society.
Dr. Nathmal Tatia, an eminent Jain scholar and translator of Tat-
tvarth Sutra [published as That Which Is in English], observes in his
note on this dual aspect of truth:
It was due to the doctrine of philosophical standpoints that Jainism

became a veritable repository of philosophies that originated and
flourished in India.11
Relative Economics and Socio-Economic World Order

Though Lord Mahavira did not make any direct comment on eco-
nomics, his message has in it a fundamental basis of sustainable eco-
nomics—a new model of economics that is inclusive and that ensures
justice to all and, unlike globalization, marginalizes none.
The modern system of economics based on production, distribu-
tion and consumption is one in which, if any one of these functions
slows down, may affect our economy adversely and even may dis-
rupt it altogether. In order to create and multiply demand, consump-
tion becomes an important factor. The people living in rich countries
have enough money to buy and consume. They were encouraged to
consume excessively so that industrial production could be boosted
and the growth rate could be increased. Fierce marketing by compa-
nies led the Western society to believe that consumerism was in the
national interest. As mass consumerism swept the developed nations;
it caused unprecedented damage to the environment of the earth and
contributed greatly to excessive emissions of greenhouse gases. Holes
in the ozone layer trigger global warming. Until recently 85 percent
of the resources of the planet earth were consumed by the people of
USA, Europe, Japan and South Korea, leaving only 15 percent of all
remaining material resources available for a vast remaining majority
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of the human race. This is changing now, but not because aforemen-
tioned countries consume less, but because the latter raise their levels
of consumption with frightening speed. The victim of this develop-
ment is the planet itself, with all beings on it. It is ethically wrong and
beyond sane reasoning.
The modern economic system, of course, has contributed to sus-
tained growth and development but it has affected our ecosystem and
environment badly and also gives rise to widening disparities. It has
now been acknowledged by eminent economists that this growth is
unsustainable. The crisis of sustainability is so grave that UN had to
declare another decade for the education of sustainable development
(ESD) (2005 to 2015).
His Holiness Acharya Mahapragya, the author of Economics of
Mahavira, and the spiritual Patron of Anuvrat Movement—a move-
ment which inspires people to pledge themselves to observe small
vows (basic vows) enjoining them to refrain from inessential violence,
war, ostentation, religious intolerance, injury to trees, environmental
pollution, dishonesty and deception in business, intoxicants like alco-
hol and drugs like heroin etc.—is deeply concerned about this self-
inflicted deplorable plight of the people of this planet.
He is of the view that the root of the problem lies in our lifestyle,
propelled by competitive modern economics, but totally devoid of
ethical values. It is making people self-centered, greedy, insensitive
and violent. Economic power wielded by multinationals is contributing
greatly to a cult of violence and hatred. The current model of economic
systems being followed all over the world is accelerating the slide to
eco-catastrophe. Let us listen to what Acharya Mahapragya says:
If economics continues to remain merely the economics of utility,

it will not be possible for us to remove social disparities. If the
basic human values like nonviolence, peace, purity of means, self-
restraint as propounded by Lord Mahavira are integrated with the
modern economic principles, it will bring about a big change in
social outlook towards production, distribution and consumption.
It will also result in the fulfillment of the primary needs of the poor
and weaker sections of society. Lord Mahavira had laid down the
vow of non-possession for ascetics. He knew that it was not pos-
sible for the house-holders to refrain completely from possession,
so he propounded the principle of limiting individual desires and
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needs. If an individual can limit his desires and needs, it will pave
the way for an economically sustainable society.12
Mahapragya’s new model of economics is based on Lord Mahavi-

ra’s philosophy rooted in nonviolence, which is an all-encompassing
human trait indispensable and inevitable for the sustainability of the
world. Relative Economics rooted in ahimsa is being advocated as
complementary to the modern economic system which doesn’t rec-
ognize ethics and emphasizes only wealth creation by earning profit.
It ignores those who cannot compete and helps only those who are
already rich. Acharya Mahapragya has laid down thirteen principles
of relative economics.
Parigraha—man’s desire to acquire material resources and
hoard—is responsible for the increasing trends of violence in society.
Relative economics believes that if parigraha is limited, violence will
decrease automatically.
Dishonesty and corruption dominate the world of business. The
increase in unethical business practices is causing social unrest. We
need to integrate ethics into business.
Increasing greed for wealth must be controlled. Only big indus-
tries are promoted and small industries are neglected. This practice
increases unemployment at the lower level. Relative economics advo-
cates bridging this gap. Rampant mechanization contributes to gallop-
ing unemployment. A way has to be found to reduce mechanization
in industry.
Wealth is becoming an end in itself. Our perverted view that
wealth is a source of happiness needs to be changed. Material comforts
have become our priority. Greed for accumulating wealth needs to be
curbed. Policy of investment is faulty. Relative economics pleads for
judicious investment. Limitless consumption gives rise to reactionary
violence. Those who are not able to get two meals a day tend to resort
to violence.
Industrial development is instigating individualism at the cost of
society. A self-centered attitude has no place in relative economics. It
inspires people to rise above selfishness. Hedonistic mentality is det-
rimental to society. It needs to be curbed through moral awakening.
The stream of compassion is drying up gradually. Development of
humaneness and sensitivity in society can meet this challenge.
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The problems of hunger and disparity are the by-products of mod-

ern economic system. Relative economics attaches great significance
to the alleviation of hunger and poverty.
Concluding Remarks
Acharya Mahapragya is of the view that the principle of aparigraha is
central to relative economics. It touches the core of our consciousness.
It does not mean that individual wealth and profit are altogether pro-
hibited. One can earn wealth but the means adopted should be honest.
Each person should voluntarily fix a limit to possessions. The basis
of aparigraha is that we are not attached to our material possessions
and are free from deluded belief. We call the present age materialis-
tic because there isn’t any limit to consumption. Consumption is an
inevitable social process. Without it our worldly interaction will come
to an end. What is necessary is that we change our outlook on life and
minimize our murchha (deluded belief) towards material objects. The
Jain model of socio-economic world order is based on samyaktava
i.e. right understanding of the reality of life. One who has samyaktava
believes in the existence of the soul and interdependence of jivas. He
also has reverence for all life forms, avoids unnecessary violence and
limits his consumption and needs. Governed by this general attitude
the Jain model of society remains free from incidents of deliberate
violence involving murder and rape. There is no exploitation and the
needs of the poor receive attention. It permits reasonable competitive-
ness but asserts that excess of everything is bad.
Acharya Tulsi’s Anuvrat Movement13 which was launched in Delhi
in 1949 to rid the world of violence and immorality, aimed at creating
a new paradigm of socio-economic world order. Acharya Mahapra-
gya has given it a new form by presenting this as the basis of relative
economics.
Man accepts the concept of parigraha. He also recognizes the

importance of the value of an object and the joy that he derives
from it. As a matter of fact the fulfillment of a need is neither joy
nor sorrow. The idea of joy beyond it is a psychological belief. A
material object is neither parigraha nor is it the cause of bond-
age, nor can it be said to be full of sorrow. It is only when it is
D&A 22-1.indd 28 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

associated with our desire, that it becomes the cause of bondage or

sorrow. In reality parigraha is synonymous with desire.14
—Acharya Shri Mahapragya in Anuvrat Darshan
These words of wisdom have in them an eternal message for poli-

ticians, citizens and economists. If they can listen to them, violence in
society will diminish and social excellence will prevail.
Notes
1. The Turning Point: Science, Society and the Rising Culture by Fritjof Capra,
page xvii, an imprint of Flamingo 1983 published in Great Britain.
2. Life Force: The World of Jainism by Michael Tobias, page 1, published by
Asian Humanities Press, 1991, New York.
3. Jain Darsan Manan aur Mimansa by Acharya Mahapragya, published by
Adarsh Sahitya Sangh, 1994, preface page iv.
4. The term samyaktva is used to mean right faith. Dr. Nathmal Tatia has trans-
lated it as “enlightened worldview” in the English rendering of Tattvarth Sutra.
It is true understanding of the ethical and spiritual problems of worldly bond-
age, pp. 5-11.
Muni Shri Nyayavijayaji defines it as faith in the existence of soul, in its
good and bad states or births and in the possibility of its attaining spiritual
perfection (kevalya). In Hisyoesastra 11.15 Acharya Hemchandra lays down
characteristics of samyaktva (i) sama (tranquility); (ii) sam.... (intense desire);
(iii) nirveda (disgust for evil and sinful activities); (iv) anukampa (compas-
sion) and (v) astikya (belief in righteous conduct).
5. Atma Ka Darsan (Jain Dharma: Tattva aur Aachaar) page 254 published by
Jain Vishva Bharati (Ladnun) 2005.
6. Realizing the gravity of the situation the Noble Peace Laureates signed an
appeal for the children of the world in 1997 and called for an international
decade of peace. The UN General Assembly endorsed their appeal and
passed resolutions (UN Resolutions A/RES/52/13: Culture of Peace and A/
RES/53/243: declaration and programme of action on a culture of peace) UN
declared “A Decade of a Culture of Peace and Nonviolence for the Children of
the World” (2001-2010).
7. Tattvarth Sutra (That Which Is) published by Harper and Collins, USA in 1994
in association with the Institute of Jainology, UK.
8. Ghat Ghat Deep Jale published by Jain Vishva Bharati 1980, page 452.
9. Atma Ka Darsan published by Jain Vishva Bharati (Ladnun) in 2005, page
503.
D&A 22-1.indd 29 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

10. Anekant Hai Tisara Netra published by Tulsi Adhyatm Needam JVB Ladnun
1982, page 2.
11. Tattvarth Sutra published by Harper & Collins USA in 1994, page 140, sutra
5-31.
12. This extract has been taken from Acharya Mahapragya’s speech on Sapeksh
Arthshastra delivered at a conference in Delhi in 2005.
13. Anuvrat Darshan published in 1954 by Adarsh Sahitya Sangh.
14. The word anuvrat has been used in Jain scriptures for the twelve small vows
meant for Jain votaries. Anu means small and vrata means a vow i.e. small
vow. Acharya Tulsi gave the anuvrat the form of a mass movement which is
not restricted to Jain laity. Taking a cue from the twelve vows of shravaks laid
down by Lord Mahavira, Acharya Tulsi formulated a new code of ethical con-
duct for the followers of all faiths. Its main aim is to awaken moral conscious-
ness of an individual and thus work for the regeneration of moral and spiritual
values in society. It enjoins an individual to pledge himself to the observance
of eleven small vows and join the worldwide network of self-transformed
people. An anuvrati—one who commits himself to anuvrat—refrains from
unnecessary violence, false statements, illicit sexual behaviour, destruction of
environment and disparagement of the principles of other faith traditions.
References
1. Atma Ka Darsan by Acharya Mahapragya.
2. Economics of Mahavira by Acharya Mahapragya.
3. Anekant Hai Tisra Netra by Acharya Mahapragya.
4. Philosophical Terms: Glossary and Sources by Dr. Kala Acharya.
5. The Life Force by Michael Tobias.
6. Nonviolence to Animals Earth and Self by Christopher Chapple.
7. Ahimsa Anekantvad and Jainism by Dr. Tara Sethia.
8. Tattvarth Sutra by Dr. N. Tatia.
9. “Contribution of Acharya Mahapragya to Indian Culture” by Dr. Dayan and

Bhargava (unpublished).
10. Jain Darshan Manan aur Mimansa by Acharya Mahapragya.
D&A 22-1.indd 30 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

Our King Must Hear about This: Practicing
Reconciliation in the Nigerian Socio-religious Sphere
Enoch Olújídé Gbádégesin
 
Abstract
T
his paper is a critical examination of the causes of violence
in Nigeria. It looks at the role of religion in violence that can
be applied to any nation. It also evaluates the efforts of secu-
lar and religious leaders in their efforts to reduce violence in Nigeria
since it has become a nation. It re-examines and analyzes peace strate-
gies that have been employed by various organizations. The paper rec-
ommends the Yoruba peace paradigm and various other methods by
which peace-building efforts could be achieved in twenty-first century
Nigeria. The paper concludes that violence could only be reduced to
its barest minimum in the Nigerian nation through the reconciliatory
efforts of religious and secular leaders.
Introduction
One is tempted to assert that, more than anywhere else in the
world, religion above all has contributed to large scale violence in the
Nigerian socio-political spheres. Religious crisis has lead to uncon-
trollable violence. Toyin Falola wrote in 1998 that: “Nigeria, one of
the largest and most important countries in the third world, has been
in the news in the last fifteen years as a major African theater of reli-
gious violence and aggression, as have Sudan and Algeria.” (1998:1)
There is no doubt that there are various other causes1 of violence, yet
1. The Civil War of 1966-1970 in Nigeria, it is observed, has nothing to do with
religion and most ethnic crisis and violence. For example, the Ife-Modakeke crisis
leading to violence in most cases which began more than two hundred years ago has
nothing to do with religion; it concerns a land dispute and the issue of autonomy.
The Niger-Delta crisis and violence is purely a case of resource allocation and con-
trol. There are other pockets of violence that have riddled the fabric of the nation but
have not been as bad as the crisis and violence that religion precipitate.
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 31 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

this notwithstanding, religion has contributed more to the disintegra-

tion of the socio-economic and political situations of the country than
any other cause. In recent times, religious crisis and violence have
contributed to the destruction of innocent lives and properties worth
billions of dollars. One tends to assume that as more educated elites
are being made in Nigeria, violence of any kind, and that of religion in
particular, would have been reduced radically to its barest minimum
or eradicated altogether.
Almost every religious and/or political discussion at local and
global levels has serious negative implications for Nigeria. The 9/11
event that took the American troops to Iraq was violently protested
against by the Muslims especially in the Northern part of the country
which led to people losing their lives. As recently as 2002 there were
protests from Muslims in the North over the Miss World contest which
was to take place in Nigeria, again leaving hundreds of people dead in
Nigeria alone, while just six dead were recorded for the entire rest of
the world regarding this incident. The purpose of this paper is know-
ing how religious violence could be effectively managed and curtailed
in Nigeria, thereby allowing the socio-political and economic spheres
to become more viable. One of the peace-building strategies already
started in Nigeria was discussed at the University of Massachusetts,
Boston, on May 7, 2008, by Pastor James Wuye and Imam Ashafa
both from Kaduna State in Nigeria.2 Here I hope to shed more light on
their activities and efforts.
Many scholarly works and information through paper and elec-
tronic media have appeared on the topic of violence and how it is
managed in Nigeria. Yet, religious violence remains. We must con-
tinue to update new methods of stemming the tide of religious and
secular violence, with a view to applying them to particular situations.
This paper focuses on the Yoruba aphorism “Èsìn kò ye kí o fá ìjà”
“Religion ought not to cause fight or lead to violence.”
The Heart of the Matter

Observers note that in pre-colonial Nigeria, religious violence was
not known because, according to them, the Nigerian nation was
2. The duo had been constant enemies of each other because of their religious differ-
ences, in fact they claimed that they have killed many people of opposite faiths and
they have also lost their relatives in the process.
D&A 22-1.indd 32 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

Olujide: Our King Must Hear About This 33
monolithic so far as religious tradition was concerned (J.K.Olupona,

1988; Toyin Falola, 1998; Jude C. Aguwa, 1997; Ilesanmi Simeon
O., 1997). Not only was this so but one could also safely suggest
that nobody saw any reason why religion should cause any crisis in
the public sphere as it is being witnessed in modern day Nigeria.3
Religion as it was practiced was not as powerful as ethnic identi-
ties for Nigerian people. Again, connected to this is the role played
by the king; the king embodied both religious and the secular life.
Because of the absolute power possessed by the king, and because he
embodied religion and political life of the communities, he decided
for his city. For this reason the people of those days said, “The king
is the owner of the land, and as God’s vicegerent he dictated and
controlled what he wanted in his domain.”4 This system has been
moderated but not totally eradicated in modern times. In fact, kings
still play active advisory and mediatory roles in the religio-political
discourse of Nigeria. As the custodian of cultural values, the kings
were not expected to belong to any particular religion; they practice
all religions of the domain, especially in respect to the Yoruba cul-
tural society. Hence, this qualifies them to be impartial arbitrators and
mediators in matters that have to do with religious crisis.5
But as Islam and Christianity came to be planted in Nigeria and
have successfully trumped the indigenous religious tradition, things
have been going from bad to worse for the nation. Unfortunately, these
two religions each claim to have better “salvific promises” for the very
people whose innocent lives become destroyed rather than protected.
3. While one could say that religion is everything to the Nigerian people in the past
and present, the people place more priority on ethnicity than religion. Most espe-
cially among the Yoruba, they are fond of saying, “religion should not be a basis for
any crisis or violence.”
4. This assertion, I am sure, is open to serious criticism, but then, it was a better
option for the people at that time, and it was working for them. I believe that there
is no system that has no weakness or fault of its own. The paraded democracy in
many developed nations of the world has been exposed to sharp criticisms by many
observers.
5. Frank A. Salamone’s article titled: “Ethnic Identities and Religion” and Dean S.
Gilliland’s article titled: “Kings, Priests and Religion in Northern Nigeria”; both in
Jacob K. Olupona and Toyin Falola eds., Religion and Society in Nigeria: Histori-
cal and Sociological Perspectives (Ibadan: Spectrum Book Limited 1991) addresses
this issue of the roles of Kings in both Northern and Southwestern Nigeria very well.
See chapter 3 and 4 of this book.
D&A 22-1.indd 33 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

The nation has never been worse in the area of religious violence than
we find now in twentieth century Nigeria. Worse still, widespread cor-
ruption that tears at the nation’s fabric is now linked to the combat-
ive presence of these two, major, world religions (Christianity and
Islam).6 Christianity is more implicated in this matter of corruption,
which now becomes a slippery slope argument for Muslims. Muslims
identify Christianity with colonialism and Euro-American liberal cul-
tures of loose living, unbridled freedom, and strange democratic struc-
tures that separate sectarian and secular life from one another. All this
departs radically from the Islamic holistic and totalizing way of life.
In respect to Islamic religion, one writer notes:
The word religion in Western usage falls short of expressing the
totality of Islam as a comprehensive system influencing all as-
pects of life, individual as well as communal. The total address
of Islam to its followers is called the Shar‘iah, and the division
of the Shar‘iah into three compartments of worship, moral code
and legal system is an arbitrary one, since these are closely inter-
related and integrated (Hassan Hathout 1996:41).
The heart of the religious crisis or violence is this issue of Muslim

insistence on the use of Shar‘iah to govern, which Christians constantly
resist, especially as inappropriate for the whole nation. Equally of inter-
est is the fact that major violence being witnessed in the nation takes
place in virtually all cases in the Northern States of Nigeria. This is not
peculiar to Nigeria either. Similar ethno-religious violence in India also
is geographically located (Martha Nussbaum 2007: 5). The only differ-
ence between the Indian and the Nigerian case is that in the Indian case,
“the threat to democracy comes not from Muslims or from any ‘clash’
between European and non-European civilizations, but from some-
thing more sad: a romantic European concept of nationalism based on
ideas of blood, soil, purity and the volksgeist.” (Nussbaum 2007:5) In
the Nigerian case, it is a religious war between Islam and Christianity,
which begs on the question of whether Nigeria is a secular state or not.
6. This is one strong argument the indigenous religious tradition uses to condemn
Christianity and Islam whose teachings hold that judgment is in the afterlife and not
here, especially when corrupt people are supposed to face divine judgment (that was
already extant before the arrival of Islam and Christianity). I see this as one of the
various ways religious groups stereotype one another.
D&A 22-1.indd 34 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

The Shar‘iah Debate in a Plural Nigerian Society

In preparation for the return to constitutional rule,7 the Olusegun
Obasanjo military administration (1976-1979) established a Constitu-
ent Assembly (with members partly elected and partly nominated) to
debate the draft constitution for Nigeria’s Second Republic. A Consti-
tution Drafting Committee made up largely of legal experts submit-
ted the draft constitution to the Constituent Assembly. Of the issues
that generated the greatest heat, but little light, was discussion about
Shar‘iah laws and the legal system. The protagonists (largely Muslim
members of the assembly) argued that a Federal Shar‘iah Court of
Appeal should be established as an intermediary between the State’s
Shar‘iah courts and the Supreme Court of Nigeria. Their reason was
that the Shar‘iah courts are the principal avenues for justice in the
Islamic world and the symbol of political freedom for Muslims in
Nigeria, who constitute over half of the total population. On the oppo-
site side, many Christians viewed the issue of Shar‘iah and the pro-
posed (federal) court of appeal as designed to create the potential for
Muslim domination in Nigeria.8 This issue presents open and hid-
den suspicions between these two major religions. On the one hand,
Muslims saw no reason why Christians should deny them their reli-
gious prescription for a holistic life and, on the other, Christians in the
assembly who opposed the court saw Muslim proponents as “religious
fanatics,” “neojihad” advocates in disguise who, unless they were
checked, would seek the expansion of Shar‘iah law until it penetrated
the whole ship of state.9
Shar‘iah debates continue to generate serious problems in Nige-
ria, especially as the nation enters into her third republic. The 1999
election that gave Olusegun Obasanjo, the former military ruler, the
7. Nigeria, just like many African nations, has been ruled by the military for most
of her political adventure. The first democratic politics practiced by the Nigerians
did not last long. The military took over the government from the civilians under
the guise that the nation was not safe politically under the civilians. See S.K. Panter-
Brick (ed.), Nigerian Politics and Military Rule: Prelude to the Civil War (London:
Institute of Commonwealth Studies/Athlone Press, 1971). Or Ademoyega Adewale,
Why We Struck: The Story of the First Nigerian Coup. Ibadan: Evans Brothers Pub-
lishers, 1981.
8. David D. Laitin, Hegemony and Culture: Politics and Religious Change among
the Yoruba. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986, p6.
9. Ibid. p. 6.
D&A 22-1.indd 35 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

political mandate to be the president ushered in the reintroduction of

the Shar‘iah issue. President Obasanjo made an attempt to introduce a
new political programme designed to construct democracy, stability,
and a flourishing economy. But it has been noted that the President was
only working in response to World Bank and IMF requisite demands
(Kamari M. Clarke 2007:4). His administration enacted trade liberal-
ization measures, strict democracy measures and constitutional reform,
and drafted an agenda for international and national cooperation. But
the result has been substantive declines in the economic standard of
living (Geo-Jaja and Magnum 2003 in Kamari M. Clarke 2007:4).
The effects are the loss of many social services, the decrease in
currency value, the increase in prices of imports, and constrained
negotiations for land rights and entitlements. This led to the crafting
of new political identities. In fact, Kamari Clarke notes:
In the midst of ongoing economic and social crises, various
Nigerians continue to exert pressure for significant political
change, shaping the development of new strategies to balance
power within a country where different communities attempt
to build a nation reflective of their own socio-religious values.
These strategies once took the form of military coups, but they
are now manifested in measures such as the recent reintroduction
of the strict Islamic criminal code known as the Shar‘iah (cur-
rently implemented in 12 of Nigeria’s 36 states). This legal sys-
tem reflects an alternative moral economy, which both parallels
and challenges the federal strategy for crafting a liberal subject
governed through democratic constitutionalism (2007:5).
Protest and Violence

Perhaps the most serious tragic example of religious and political pro-
test overlapping came with the Yan Tatsine (popularly known as Mai
Tatsine) rebellion led by Marwa in Kano at the end of 1980. This
violence spread to three states over the course of five years.10 In May
1999 violence erupted in Kaduna State over the succession of an Emir
resulting in more than 100 deaths. Still in Kaduna, from February to
May 2000, over 1,000 people died in rioting over the introduction of
criminal Shar‘iah in the state. Hundreds of ethnic Hausa were killed in
10. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secu-
lar Ideologies. Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998, pp. 137-162.
D&A 22-1.indd 36 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

reprisal attacks in southeastern Nigeria. In September 2001, over 2000

people were killed in inter-religious rioting in Jos. In October 2001,
hundreds were killed and thousands were displaced in communal vio-
lence that spread across the middle-belt states of Benue, Taraba, and
Nasarawa. Plateau State has the highest number of displaced people as
a result of clashes between Christians and Muslim communities there.
The predominantly Christian Tarok farmers consider the mostly
Hausa Muslim cattle herders as outsiders, and accuse them of stealing
land and trying to usurp political power. This led to the burning down
of over 72 villages between 2002 and the end of 2003. More than
1000 people were killed in sectarian clashes between Christians and
Muslims in Jos, the Plateau State capital, in September 2001. Subse-
quently, a low intensity conflict spread to the surrounding countryside,
where mainly Christian farmers clashed repeatedly with predomi-
nantly Muslim livestock herders. Several hundred more people died
in these skirmishes, which forced several thousand people to abandon
their homes. Most of the clashes in Plateau have been portrayed as
being between Christians and Muslim communities, but have often
assumed an ethnic dimension.
As said earlier, the protest about the Miss World contest, which
was to take place in Nigeria in 2002 left hundreds of people dead. The
BBC put the death toll at 10,000 from 1999 till 2003 during the years
the former president Olusegun Obasanjo was in office. The causes of
this violence were also attributed to other factors, namely:
1. Many link the Maitatsine violence or revolt to Islamic Funda-
mentalism.
2. Some say that it is political corruptions, decadence and rivalries
that account for violence.
3. Some others trace violence to government mismanagement and
rampant capitalism.
4. Others believe that it is a reaction to an ailing economy and
growing disillusionment with the performance of the national
economy, and the cynicism about the elite’s competence to revi-
talize it.
5. The Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) introduced in 1986,
which led to inflation, made life unbearable.
D&A 22-1.indd 37 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

6. Some observers note that many youths following Marwa (the

Leader of Maitatsine group) were very poor and jobless. The only
survival strategy for these poor youths was to have recourse to
religion as a means of compensation. We need to remind our-
selves that one of the useful points of religion is that it shows that
religion provides compensation in the face of deprivation. Karl
Marx11 defined religion as “the sign of the oppressed creature, the
heart of a heartless world, and the soul of soulless conditions. It
is the opium of the people.” By this Karl Marx means, as inter-
preted by Freud, that, “religious suffering is at the same time an
expression of real suffering and a protest against real suffering.”12
7. Added to the political issue is that many cities lacked moral or
traditional authorities to check irresponsible religious leaders.13
I have gone this length to show the troublesome and negative impli-
cation of religion on the political discourse of the Nigerian nation. In
the next section, I will show how the Yoruba people have been deal-
ing with the issue of violence in the public sphere, which especially
has helped them in forestalling religious violence. These methods are
likely to have paralleled other efforts in other cultures of the world.
Other recent peace-building efforts, especially the Pastor James Wuye
and Imam Ibrahim Ashafa’s method will also be highlighted.
Practicing Reconciliation: Yoruba Peace Paradigm

More than any other ethnic groups in Nigerian socio-cultural and eco-
nomic milieu, the Yoruba ethnic group has been successfully manag-
ing well its religio-political and economic crises. According to Frank
A. Salamone,14 “the Yoruba have long been the most urbanized of
all sub-Saharan people and among the most urbanized people in the
world.” William Bascom (1955: 446-454) notes that “ethnic heteroge-
neity is not essential to urbanism. What is essential is social structural
11. Marx, K., Early Writings. New York: McGraw Hill, 1964, pp. 43-44.
12. Freud, S., The Future of an Illusion. London: Hogwarts Press, 1927.
13. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria: The Crisis of Religious Politics and Secu-
lar Ideologies. (Rochester: University of Rochester Press, 1998, pp. 137-162).
14. Frank A. Salamone, “Ethnic Identities and Religion,” in Religion and Society
in Nigeria: Historical and Sociological Perspectives. Jacob K. Olupona and Toyin
Falola eds. (Ibadan: Spectrum books Limited, 1991:56).
D&A 22-1.indd 38 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

heterogeneity and elaboration of the political structure. For Bascom

therefore, the essence of urbanism lies in the flexibility of primary
groups and their ability to accommodate different bases of authority
and leadership. Frank A. Salamone also notes that, “thus for the Yor-
uba, it is not necessary to have one religion or one set of lineage rules
governing each situation.”15 William Bascom also points to the fact
that, “unlike Hausa-Fulani towns, such as Kano, Sokoto and Katsina,
Yoruba towns are not merely political and commercial capitals serv-
ing larger rural areas. Traditional Yoruba towns served psychological
as well as material needs.”16 It must also be pointed out here that, in
contrast with Hausa-Fulani and other Sudanic towns, Yoruba towns
enjoyed a more cordial relationship with their environs. This is very
possible because of the following reasons, which are borne out of my
own personal introjections, observation and hermeneutic.
Religion Ought Not to Cause Fights or Lead to Violence

The Yoruba people, just like any Africans, are incurably religious. They
carry their religion to every sphere of their life situation. In fact, every
favorable and unfavorable life situation is interpreted religiously. In
spite of this fact, however, religion has never been used as a divisive
means among the people. Hence, they say: Èsìn kò ye kí o fá ìjà. (Reli-
gion ought not to cause fight or lead to violence). This is possible, in
the observation of Akiwowo that: “There are constant interpersonal
and inter-subjective relationships of the people with, ‘àjobí’, ‘co-san-
guinity’ and the ‘àjogbé’, ‘co-residency’ (Akiwowo 1983),” which, as
Fadipe also notes “are personal obligations” (Fadipe, 1970:301). The
Akiwowo’s “àjobí” is at once ethnic and familiar, which people can-
not compromise; but also, the fact of constant inter-subjective interac-
tion of the Yoruba people with other ethnic and cultural groups, which,
to them is part of human nature to interact together in the continuum
of existence makes “àjogbé,” a necessary part of their belongingness
to other neighboring cultures. In this case, religion is not given any
priority over and above intersubjective relationships.
The ethnic and interpersonal relationship ties that bind the people
together are considered more important than religious splinter groups
15. Ibid, p. 56.
16. William Bascom, “Yoruba Urbanism: A Summary,” 58, 253, quoted in Frank
Salamone’s Ethnic Identities and Religion. p. 56.
D&A 22-1.indd 39 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

to which people are distributed. The Yoruba must have noted that reli-
gion is not as complicated as people would want us to believe. In fact,
they have a phrase that shows this very clearly. They say “Òrun ló mo
eni tí yóó là” (It is only heaven that knows who will be saved at the
end of the day). I see this resonating with Thich Nhat Hanh’s Interbe-
ing: Fourteen Guidelines for Engaged Buddhism, which is another
perspective and dimension in human religious experience that could
lead to harmonious religious and cultural relationships. One in par-
ticular says, “Do not be idolatrous about or bound to any doctrine,
theory, or ideology, even Buddhist ones. Buddhist systems of thought
are guiding means; they are not absolute truth.” It is therefore possible
in our observation and experience that in a family, father and mother
can be practicing Christianity, whereas their daughter may choose to
marry a Muslim. In another instance, it is common for the people in
the same family lineage to be distributed into various religious tradi-
tions without any need for crisis at all.17 We could see this aspect also
in line with Ashis Nandy’s18 description of Indian “cosmo-vision,”
…which protects Indian culture—against cosmologies which
are proselytizing, hegemonistic and committed to some secular
or nonsecular theories of cultural evolution—projecting the idea
that the Indian is compromising; he has fluid definition, and he
is willing to learn the ways of his civilized brethren uncondition-
ally, provided such learning is profitable (p.104).
Principle of Overlooking the Ugly Past

The above phrase which is adapted from the Yoruba, Tí a kò bá gbàgbé
Òrò àná a kò ní rí eni bá s’eré, can also be translated to mean: “If we
do not overlook unpleasant or ugly assault (being done to us or we do
to people) which happened yesterday (could be further than yesterday)
we would not find anybody to play with” is another means by which
the Yoruba people settle their disagreements and grievances. These
17. In my lineage, family members are distributed to all the three major religions
(Christianity, Islam and Indigenous Yoruba religion). All these family members
cooperate together to celebrate each religious festival every year, until recently,
when people are no more practicing Indigenous Yoruba religion. The practice is not
peculiar to my family; this is a common practice in virtually all Yoruba families.
This is the plural understanding of the Yoruba socio-religious and political life.
18. Ashis Nandy,The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism.
D&A 22-1.indd 40 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

kinds of disagreements or grievances usually may be about something

else other than religion, and it could also be religion. It could be a
borderland dispute between one sub-ethnic group and the other. For
example, the Ife-Modakeke inter-ethnic crisis is a borderland dispute
which has continued for many years and has been interpreted by some
keen observers as politically motivated. It could also be as a result of
differences in political associations. While it could be a false assump-
tion to think that the Yoruba people have not had any occasion to fight
over who gets what as far as political position is concerned, they usu-
ally find quick means of resolving their various crises. They always
remember that everybody cannot think the same way; doing so will
make the world itself very boring and uninteresting. The Yoruba will
say: Gbogbo wa a kò lee sùn kí á k ‘ojú sí ibì kan naà. (All of us can-
not sleep and face the same angle).
Overlooking “a wrong done yesterday” is, however, not as auto-
matic as it may seem here, it is predicated upon certain gesture(s).
The disputants are usually called together for hearing, mediation and
reconciliation. The “transgressors” or the “victimizers” are made to
confess and ask for forgiveness, while the “wronged” or the “victims”
are asked to overlook and forgive.19 This is when and where the role of
the king is needed in bringing about a lasting solution to any crisis.20 It
needs to be pointed out here that this kind of practice is not peculiar to
the Yoruba cultural society only; it is also part of what goes on in other
parts of the country. All cities and villages in Nigeria are ruled by the
kings who are directly responsible to the people and represent their
people at both the state and federal levels. At certain occasions, kings
from the east, the north and the south of Nigeria, have had reasons
19. It has been rightly suggested that forgiveness does not preclude or exclude jus-
tice to be done. The kind of justice advocated which seems appealing is the one
where the victimizer will be willing to own up to misdeeds and be ready to ask for
forgiveness. See Michael Battle, Practicing Reconciliation in a Violent World (Lon-
don: Morehouse Publishing, 2005: 9-35); see also Raymond G. Helmick et. al. eds.
Forgiveness and Reconciliation: Religion Public Policy and Conflict Transforma-
tion. Philadelphia and London: Templeton Foundation Press, 2001 p.45
20. The last Ife–Modakeke crisis that broke out again in March 2000 and lasted till
June of the same year was resolved in this manner. See major Nigerian Newspapers
of June 2000. See also an article written by a Modakeke chief Dr. Joseph Olu Toriola
titled: The Ife/Modakeke Crisis: An Insider View and The Obagbalula of Ife Chief
Gabriel Adetola Agbe’s article, The Ife/Modakeke Crisis: An Insider View, accessed
05/11/2008.
D&A 22-1.indd 41 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

to come together to discuss with the federal government the issue of

ethno-religious crisis that affects the whole nation. They have through
that means suggested to the rulers of the nation ways to combat crises
and violence in the nation.
Carry It or You Lift and I Lift It
The efforts of certain individuals in Nigeria generally and the Yoruba
society in particular in bringing about a united nation has also been
noted and it is also part of the concern of this paper. Sunday Adeniyi
Adegeye (a.k.a Sunny Ade), a popular Yoruba born “juju” folk singer,
organized and brought together all Nigerian singers from all parts of
the country to campaign for the necessity of all ethnic and religious
groups in the nation to move beyond ethnic and religious divides and
carry (lift) Nigeria up. There was the real symbolic demonstration
of literal lifting up of the model “Map of Nigeria” by all the singers
while singing this song.21
Nàìjíríà yí ti gbogbo wa ni
Kò màà gbódo bàjé
To rí kò sí ‘bò míràn tí a lè lo.
Àjòò kò má da bíi ‘lé
E jé k’á fowósowópò ká f’ìmò s’ òkan
Gbee k’émi gbe.
This Nigeria belongs to us all
She must not be destroyed
Because, there is no other place we can run to
Foreign place cannot be the same as one’s home
Let us join our hands (cooperate) and team together as one
You lift and I also lift her.
There are particularly two lines that address the issue of religion
and ethnicity, which say:
Ìjà eléyà mèyà yí kò mà da
Ìjà elésìn mèsìn yí kò mà da
E jé k’á fowósowópò ká f’ìmò s’ òkan
Gbee k ‘émi gbe.
21. The song can be played on YouTube.com by clicking on Sunny Ade and his
friends Part I and II.
D&A 22-1.indd 42 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

This inter-ethic and intra-ethnic war is not good at all;

This inter-religious war is not good at all;
Let us join our hands (cooperate) and team together as one
You lift and I also lift her.
This song, apart from serving an important factor in fostering
unity among all the Nigerian musicians from different ethnic and reli-
gious backgrounds, is also a call unto an ethic of togetherness and
cooperation on the part of all Nigerians, which will help in building
one nation that belongs to all. Again, it is a principle of Ujama,22 the
African ethic of pulling together. It is progressively working together
toward a constructive solution.
Violence Does Not Translate into Wealth23

The Nigerian civil war of 1966-1970 referred to above has left many
villages devastated, and have not recovered economically till the pres-
ent time. Apart from this bloody civil war, all other inter-ethnic, inter-
religious and intra-religious crises have plunged individuals, Federal
and States governments into a huge economic mess. Violence of any
kind being witnessed so far in the country has adversely reduced both
human (especially those who could have contributed to the growth
of the economy), and economic resources. A large number of people
who are badly hit by different crises in the nation are still living at
poverty level and suffering from big socio-economic and psychologi-
cal traumas. In spite of the promises made at both state and federal
government levels to these individuals, to help with certain amounts
of money so that they could start their lives all over again, nothing
substantially has been done for them. Traumatic experience is not
what anybody wants to pass through. Yet, socio-economic and psy-
chological traumas often go with violent experiences, which have not
been conscientiously addressed by different stakeholders concerned
in stemming the tide of violence. Carolyn Yonder (2005:5), in her
22. Ujama is a Swahili word which means “Cooperative.” The late Julius Nyere of
Tanzania (d.1999) was the first African president to coin the word Ujama, a policy
which purported to serve as community-based farming collectives. Although it was
seriously criticized because it lacked the ideal that was intended, Ujama has come to
be known as the “African principle of Cooperativeness.”
23. The complete proverb is, “Violence does not translate into wealth; it only leaves
one with bad names in the end.”
D&A 22-1.indd 43 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

little book titled Trauma Healing expresses this concern when she
notices that:
Politicians, negotiators, peace builders, and the general public alike
tend to think of trauma healing as soft, a warm fuzzy that has little
or nothing to do with realpolitik and no role to play in reducing vio-
lence. Yet trauma and violence are integrally linked: violence often
leads to trauma, and unhealed trauma, in turn, can lead to violence
and further loss of security.
The endemic nature of evil of religious, political, civil and socio-

economic violence has produced for many people in the Yoruba so-
ciety a terrible traumatic experience as aptly observed by Carolyn
Yonder above, hence the saying: Ìjà Ò d’olà (Violence does not
translate into wealth).
The Inter-religious Dialogue

Apart from the Yoruba peace paradigm highlighted above, there has
been an ongoing inter-religious dialogue. Inter-religious dialogue
is not peculiar to the Nigerian nation, it has been one of the means
by which religious violence has been mediated in many parts of the
world, yet, it is said to be inchoate (James L. Heft ed. 2004: 12). R.
Scott Appleby (2000: 245-280) calls it “Internal Pluralism,” which
corresponds to Catholic’s call for ecumenism. Huda Q-U claims that
Muslim-Christian relations have been extant since the Second Vati-
can Council.24 It is also our observation that although inter-religious
dialogue is not new to Nigeria, the new approach employed by Imam
Ashafa and Pastor James Wuye,25 both from Kaduna State in Nigeria,
is a right move in a right direction.
The inter-religious dialogue so far being practiced in Nigeria has
only been geared towards tolerance. (Toyin Falola 1998: 269-273)
This tolerance thesis is nothing more than a suggestion that has to
do with “religious groups holding dialogues in order to iron out their
differences and to discuss solutions to burning issues.” There is equal
suggestion that the religious leaders should meet from time to time
and that the government at both state and federal levels be meeting
24. Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations, vol. 15, no. 3, July 2004, pp. 331-347.
25. Already mentioned above, both were in Boston for ten days. The Seminar held in
U. Mass Boston on May 12, 2008. They had programs in other places within Boston.
D&A 22-1.indd 44 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

with them as well.26 The dialogic case is not as simple as these sug-
gestions seem to look. It has been shown that all efforts of this kind
(being) embarked upon in Nigeria have failed woefully. According
to Toyin Falola, a scholarly journal—Nigerian Dialogue: A Journal
of Inter-Faith Studies on the Relation between Christianity and Non-
Christian Religions—established to explore these possibilities did
not work. Apart from the fact that the topic of the journal itself sug-
gests that a particular group of scholars with Christian-bias must have
established the journal, there is this kind of exclusive phrase used
which could never help in resolving the matter of Relations between
Christianity and Non-Christian Religions. If it has helped at its initial
stage, it could no longer serve its initial purpose in the long run. Little
wonders since from its establishment in 1987, religious crisis and vio-
lence have not abated.
Inter-Religious Dialogue and Peace Building Efforts:

Imam Ashafa and Pastor James Wuye
The inter-religious dialogue and peace-building efforts of both Imam
Ashafa and Pastor James Wuye began after some periods of assaults,
fighting, intriguing, maiming and killing of one another’s religious
groups since 1998. As one would expect, both claimed that they were
“defending the faith that was once delivered” and resolved to restore
religion to its pure state. In their own words:
Imam Ashafa
I was born into a family that claimed that it directly descended from
Prophet Mohammed (Peace be upon Him). My family did not place
any premium on western education, because it believed that western
education was equivalent to moral laxity and “irreligiosity.” It was
in this same situation I found myself, so I was not exposed to west-
ern education early in life. I instead went to Koranic School where I
learnt more about the teachings and the ways of the Prophet. I began
to develop very bitter hatred for any religion that was not Islam. I
started to gather young people around me with zeal and passion for
Islamic religion. I was maiming and killing anybody that opposed
Islam. In the process I lost my very dearest Koranic teacher and my
26. See Toyin Falola, Violence in Nigeria op.cit 1998: 271.
D&A 22-1.indd 45 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

two relations. I became more embittered within me, because I knew it

was Pastor James’ group that did this thing. I was nursing the ambition
to retaliate, but one day I came across a Sufi, a great Islamic scholar,
who told me that the Qur’an warns that we should be ready to for-
give our enemies at least 76 times in a day. I became worried within
myself and began to query such injunction that told me to forgive my
enemies, especially the ones that killed my relations and my highly-
esteemed teacher. As I was musing this, the word of the Sufi master
kept troubling my heart…
Pastor James Wuye

I was born to parents who were attending Baptist denomination. But
as I was growing up, I began to lose interest in Baptist denomination
and because I went to a Catholic school, I started attending Catho-
lic Church. As I was growing up later in life, I became “born again”
and had to leave the Catholic Church for a Pentecostal—Evangelical
church, Assemblies of God Church. It was in this place that I began to
develop hatred for anything Islam. I hate Muslims with bitter hatred.
I did not want to see or meet them. They irritated me a lot especially
because of their militancy. I looked for ways to deal with them; I even-
tually gathered some followers after me. We were also going from
place to place to maim and to kill all Muslims. I was looking for all
Islamic fundamentalists who enjoyed militancy and were interested
in maiming and killing people. I was particularly interested in dealing
with the Imam Ashafa’s group, so I began to look for his group and
started to go to mosques to maim and kill the people there. My group
was also engaged in burning mosques, as our Muslim opponents were
doing to churches. In the process, I lost my right hand. I have a mind
to revenge my “cut right hand.” But one day, I had a preaching from
a man of God who said, “you cannot claim that you are going to the
heaven that Jesus preaches and still hate anybody.” I began to compare
this preaching with many injunctions in the Bible in which believers
in Jesus Christ are called to love their enemies and be ready to forgive
seventy times seven in a day. Again, the word of the Lord Jesus that
says, “If anybody hits you on your right cheek, turn the left also,”
made me reconsider my actions. I started to find means by which I
could reconcile with “my supposed enemies.” One day, I went to meet
Imam Ashafa in the mosque, although I was afraid, thinking that I was
D&A 22-1.indd 46 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

not going to come back alive. But to my utmost surprise, the Imam
accepted me. It was then that I started proposing how we could fight
religious militancy and violence borne out of fundamentalism. This
led to the formation of this inter-religious dialogue….
Looking at both testimonies, one is struck by the ways religious
texts are being wrongly interpreted by religious leaders and actors in
our ancient and modern world. These two men initially interpreted
their texts in certain negative ways that were geared towards violence,
but eventually were confronted with other positive meanings that one
could derive from the same texts and that eventually led to peace-
building (a la R. Scott Appleby).27 Today, the duo has been actively
involved in the work of reconciliation. According to them, they both
have resigned from cleric work in the mosque and church and have
devoted their energies to ensuring that religious and ethnic violence
are completely eradicated in Nigeria. Because of the gains of their
efforts, the former Kaduna State governor has given $10,000, and has
also allocated a parcel of land at the center of the city to build an
Inter-religious Dialogue and Peace-Building Center, which, accord-
ing to them, has reached the roofing stage. Apart from Kaduna State,
where the work started, these two people and their new followers have
traveled within and outside the country to continue the work of peace-
building.28 As one would expect, this move is not without some certain
degree of difficulties and oppositions and pain. In fact, it is clear that
a peacemaker is an ambiguous and liminal entity who is neither here
nor there in social reality. Marc Gopin says “People have to know you
and trust you enough to feel that you are on their side. You do not have
to be on their side in such a way that you are betraying others, but you
have to show you care” (Marc Gopin, p.1).
However, these two people, according to them, have put them-
selves under a great oath to continue and are ready to lose their lives
in the process. I see this kind of inter-religious dialogue as a way of
showing compromise and the moving beyond self—the way we see
it demonstrated also by Musa Al Sadir, a Shi’ite leader in Lebanon
27. R. Scott Appleby, The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Rec-
onciliation. (NY: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000.)
28. The two claimed that it was in recognition of this peace-building effort that
the UNO and the British government have agreed to sponsor the video clip of 39
minutes to show how far they have gone in the country in forestalling the waves of
violence.
D&A 22-1.indd 47 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

who foresaw the coming of civil war and began to initiate a “genuine
dialogue” through his sermons between religious groups emphasizing
the importance of peace. In a similar vein, Marc Gopin says that he
had to break protocol and ask for forgiveness on behalf of all Ameri-
cans for an act very atrocious and inhuman done to “a man who was
in Abu Ghraib for six months and in a coffin for 22 days.” In his word,
“I apologize to you in the name of the American people” (p.1). The
“symbolic gestures,” demonstrated by these people, are what Ayse
Kadayifci-Orellana calls “acts far more powerful than sermons.”
Conclusion
This paper has traced the causes of violence and the efforts made
to date to forestall violence in modern day Nigeria. The paper also
showed how Yoruba people deal with the issue of religion and how
they manage crises and violence in their midst. It has been shown that
Yoruba people stereotype all the three major religions in their midst
with a view to “make light” of these religions.29 Stereotyping has
been seen as one form of a “joking relationship.” Zenner (1970:191)
notes that information about inter-ethnic images can be derived from
proverbs, folktales, jokes, etc. Joking relationships found in proverbs
have been connected to stereotypes which are considered by A.R.
Radcliffe-Brown as “the means of establishing and maintaining social
equilibrium.” For him, joking relationships are a “peculiar combina-
tion of friendliness and antagonism” in which there is a charade of
hostility and rivalry veiling a real friendliness between the two (1940
195-196). One example each, of stereotyping of Islam, Christianity,
and African Traditional Religion are shown below. In respect to Islam;
The Imam who says that there will be famine, his son or daughter
will not eat Arabic slate. (This is used when the people are being
threatened by the preaching of the Imam (a Muslim cleric) who
is predicting woes and calamities).
In respect to Christianity;
There is no fight in the church, let the Reverend say his prayers
29. Janet O. Sheba’s article on “Ethnic Stereotyping in Yoruba Proverbs” in Interna-

tional Journal of African and African-American Studies, vol. 1, no. 2, January 2005.
D&A 22-1.indd 48 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

and I say amen. (This is usually said to show that whatever the
Reverend must have said in his preaching to incite division, peo-
ple will not allow it to happen.)
In respect to the Traditional Religion;

The god or goddess that does not favor one should be thrown into
the bush. (This is to show that people are not too fanatical about
a particular ideology; any ideology that will affect their lives and
harmonious communal interrelationship is cast aside).
The peace paradigm of the Yoruba people is the direct outcome of

their diversity and plurality, which I believe Nigeria and every nation
of the world must be willing to adopt by allowing for compromise
instead of rigid ideologies. Fortunately enough, Islam is said to have
“Inner Pluralism” and Christianity also claims to have some degrees of
accommodation for other human beings. The suggestion of this paper
is that the community of Christians with ethics of maintaining peace
at all cost beyond mere greetings with Shalom should learn to live
amicably with the community of Islam with Salam, without unneces-
sarily castigating the community of Indigenous Traditional Religion
who advocate for Ìwà-Pèlé (gentle character). If gentle character of
the Indigenous Traditional Religion is given a priority, it would not be
difficult to have respect for human life and worth thereby maintaining
peace in a Shalom and Salam environment. I see this as a practical
communion that extricates “exclusivism,” which will help in playing
down on the idea of defining self from others. I believe that every
human being should learn to co-exist without fear of intimidation and
harassment.
D&A 22-1.indd 49 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

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Revelation Is Not a Zero Sum Game
Allen S. Maller
F
or almost 14 centuries Jews, Christians and Muslims have
read each other’s holy scriptures from an adversarial per-
spective, rather than viewing other scriptures as potentially
enriching our understanding of our own scripture. Almost all read-
ers thought of revelation as a zero sum sport like tennis rather than
a multiple win sport like mountain climbing. In a zero sum game
any value or true spiritual insight I grant to another scripture some-
how diminishes my own. This was the result of the widespread use
of scripture for missionary purposes. In the last two centuries uni-
versity academics have written many studies of comparative religion
which they claim are objective and not distorted by their religious
beliefs. Unfortunately, academics who treat other religions academi-
cally usually do not believe that other scriptures are actually divinely
inspired. Indeed, many academics do not believe that their own scrip-
tures are divinely inspired. I follow a different model, one I learned
from prophet Muhammed.
Here is an example: The Mishnah (an early third century compila-
tion of the oral Torah), states, “Adam was created as an individual to
teach you that anyone who destroys a single soul, Scripture imputes
it to him as if he destroyed the whole world.” (Mishnah Sanhedrin
4:5) And the Qur’an states, “one who kills a human being, unless it
be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land, would be as if he
slew the whole people, and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he
saved the life of the whole people.” (Qur’an 5:32) Academics explain
the similarity of the two statements by assuming that since the Jew-
ish statement is several centuries earlier than the Qur’an, Muhammad
must have heard it from a Rabbi or other educated Jew in Medina. But
if Muhammad is a prophet of God who confirms the Torah of prophet
Moses, why would he need to learn this statement from another human
being. Academics would reply that the statement is not written in the
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 53 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

Torah, it is written in the Mishnah (which was written by the Rabbis

more than 1000 years after Moses). But the Rabbis maintain that the
Mishnah is part of the oral Torah that was passed down throughout
the generations. Indeed, the Qur’an itself introduces this statement
as follows, “It is because of this that We ordained for the Children of
Israel ‘one who kills a human being....’” (Qur’an 5:32) No prophet of
God needs to be informed by another human what should be written
in Holy Scripture. There are several verses in the Qur’an that mention
things from the oral Torah. I believe that when the Furqan is mentioned
in the Qur’an it is a reference to the oral Torah, which the Qur’an also
confirms, by its references. My perspective is that prophets and Holy
Scriptures can not oppose one another because they all come from one
source. They differ because the circumstances of the nation receiving
them differ. Where they differ they cast additional light on each other.
My belief is based on an important hadith of prophet Muhammad.
A disciple of Muhammad named Abu Huraira relates, “The peo-
ple of the Book used to read the Torah in Hebrew and then explain
it in Arabic to the Muslims. Allah’s Apostle said (to the Muslims).
“Do not believe the people of the Book, nor disbelieve them, but say,
‘We believe in Allah, and whatever is revealed to us, and whatever
is revealed to you.’” Following Muhammad’s teaching I, too, neither
believe nor disbelieve in the Koran. If I believed in the Koran I would
be a member of the Muslim ummah (community). But I cannot dis-
believe in the Koran because I believe that Muhammad was a prophet
and I respect the Koran as a kindred revelation, to a kindred people, in
a kindred language. In fact, the people, the language and the theology
are closer to my own people, language and theology than that of any
other on earth. How does this perspective affect my understanding of
their Koran and my Torah?
First of all, I seek to shed the light of each scripture on the other.
For example, in a surah entitled “The Cow,” (verses 246–251), the
Koran refers to events that occurred in Jewish history several genera-
tions after the time of Moses:
246. Have you not thought about the group of the Children of
Israel after (the time of) Musa (Moses)? When they said to a
Prophet of theirs, “Appoint for us a king and we will fight in
Allah’s Way.” He said, “Would you then refrain from fighting,
if fighting was prescribed for you?” They said, “Why should we
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Aller: Revelation Is Not a Zero Sum Game 55
not fight in Allah’s Way while we have been driven out of our
homes and our children (taken as captives)?” But when fight-
ing was ordered for them, they turned away, all except a few of
them. And Allah is All-Aware of the Zalimoon (polytheists and
wrong-doers).
247. And their Prophet (Samuel ) said to them, “Indeed Allah

has appointed Talut (Saul) as a king over you.” They said, “How
can he be a king over us when we are better fitted than him for
the kingdom, and he has not been given enough wealth.” He
said: “Verily, Allah has chosen him above you and has increased
him abundantly in knowledge and stature. And Allah grants His
Kingdom to whom He wills. And Allah is All-Sufficient for His
creatures needs, All-Knower.”
248. And their Prophet (Samuel ) said to them: “Verily! The sign
of His Kingdom is that there shall come to you At-Taboot (a
wooden box), wherein is Sakinah (peace and reassurance) from
your Lord and a remnant of that which Musa (Moses) and Ha-
roon (Aaron) left behind, carried by the angels. Verily, in this is
a sign for you if you are indeed believers.”
249. Then when Talut (Saul) set out with the army, he said: “Ver-
ily! Allah will try you by a river. So whoever drinks thereof, he
is not of me, and whoever tastes it not, he is of me, except him
who takes (thereof) in the hollow of his hand.” Yet, they drank
thereof, all, except a few of them. So when he had crossed it (the
river), he and those who believed with him, they said: “We have
no power this day against Jalut (Goliath) and his hosts.” But those
who knew with certainty that they were to meet their Lord, said:
“How often a small group overcame a mighty host by Allah’s
Leave?” And Allah is with As-Sabirin (the patient ones, etc.).
250. And when they advanced to meet Jalut (Goliath) and his
forces, they invoked: “Our Lord! Pour forth on us patience and
make us victorious over the disbelieving people.”
251. So they routed them by Allah’s Leave and Dawood (David)

killed Jalut (Goliath), and Allah gave him (Dawood (David)) the
kingdom (after the death of Talut (Saul) and Samuel) and Al Hik-
mah (prophethood), and taught him of that which He willed. And
if Allah did not check one set of people by means of another,
the earth would indeed be full of mischief. But Allah is full of
D&A 22-1.indd 55 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

Bounty to the Alameen (mankind, jinns and all that exists).

(Translation by Mohsin Kahn.)
Critical or humanist scholars have said of this passage in the Koran

that Muhammad confused three different stories in the Bible. One is the
story about Gideon, who is told by God that his army is too large and to
test them by water. Reject those who kneel and lap water like a dog, and
those who kneel even if they lap from their hand. Take only those who
scoop water with their hand and drink standing up so as to be always
ready if attacked. (Judges 7:4–7) The second story from 1 Samuel 8:4–
22 and 9:15–21 is about Samuel’s selection of Saul to be the first king of
Israel. The third story relates that after several ups and downs in Saul’s
rule, there was a battle that Israel won decisively because David killed
Goliath (I Samuel 17:1–58). These academics assume that Muhammad
simply mixed up the three stories for some unknown reason.
But since I believe Muhammad is a prophet and the Koran is sacred
scripture, I think that the Koran simply combines these three events
into one archetype that stresses two themes: “God gives the kingdom
to whoever God wills.” And, “Many a small group has overcome a
numerous group by God’s leave.” This is why the Koranic passage
ends with the battle against the Philistines, “So they (Israel) routed
them (the Philistines) by God’s leave and David killed Goliath.” By
placing the statement of Israel’s victory first and David’s second, the
Koran shows that the emphasis isn’t on David’s personal courage and
skill but on the victory of a small number of believers over a large
number of non-believers. The reference to “At-Taboot (a wooden
box—the ark), wherein is Sakinah” (verse 248) refers to the holy ark
(a wooden box) containing inside it, the stone tablets of the ten com-
mandments. Physically, the ark contained both the second pair of tab-
lets as well as the first pair of tablets that were broken (the remnant of
Moses’ and Aaron’s house) because Aaron had let As Samiri convince
some of the people of Israel to build the golden calf. Spiritually, the
ark contained the Sakinah (Hebrew-Shakhinah) the presence of God.
Sensing this presence, people feel assured and at peace. In the oral
Torah (the Furqan for Jews) the Shekhinah rests on people when they
join with others to study God’s words, when they visit the sick, and at
other special times.
Another example, is the cow that the surah is named after. (Surah
2 The Cow verses 67–73):
D&A 22-1.indd 56 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

67. And (remember) when Moosa (Moses) said to his people:

“Verily, Allah commands you that you slaughter a cow.” They
said, “Do you make fun of us?” He said, “I take Allah’s Refuge
from being among Al-Jahiloon (ignorants or fools).”
68. They said, “Call upon your Lord for us that He may make
plain to us what it is!” He said, “He says, Verily, it is a cow nei-
ther too old nor too young, but (it is) between the two conditions,
so do what you are commanded.”
69. They said, “Call upon your Lord for us to make plain to us its
color.” He said, “He says, It is a yellow cow, bright in its color,
pleasing to the beholders.”
70. They said, “Call upon your Lord for us to make plain to us
what it is. Verily to us all cows are alike, and surely, if Allah
wills, we will be guided.”
71. He (Moosa (Moses)) said, “He says, It is a cow neither

trained to till the soil nor water the fields, sound, having no other
color except bright yellow.” They said, “Now you have brought
the truth.” So they slaughtered it though they were near to not
doing it.
72. And (remember) when you killed a man and fell into dispute
among yourselves as to the crime. But Allah brought forth that
which you were hiding.
73. So We said: “Strike him (the dead man) with a piece of it

(the cow).” Thus Allah brings the dead to life and shows you His
Ayat (proofs, evidences, verses, lessons, signs, revelations, etc.)
so that you may understand. (Translation by Mohsin Kahn.)
Critical or humanist scholars have said that in this passage

Muhammad simply mixed up two different accounts in the Torah
about two different rituals, each of them involving slaughter of a cow.
In one (Numbers 19) the cow itself is of a very rare and unusual color
and kind. In the other case ( Deuteronomy 21) the circumstances of
the slaughter are dreadful, grotesque and alarming. Muslim commen-
tators have long since taught that a cow is to be slaughtered rather
than a sheep or a goat, to remind the people never to worship a golden
calf or anything else in place of the one and only God. The group
of Israelites who keep questioning Moses about the cow’s details, its
D&A 22-1.indd 57 7/28/2009 2:26:29 PM

color, its age, and its use are simply stalling. They want to avoid kill-
ing a cow because during many decades of living in Egypt where the
cow goddess Hathor was worshiped by the Egyptians, they had grown
to revere cows. But since I believe both Moses and Muhammad are
prophetic messengers, and both the Torah and the Koran are sacred
scriptures, I think the Koran combines these two very different and
unusual sacrifices in order to teach an additional important truth. The
Koran teaches that even rituals that are hard to understand rationally
are tests, and thus can be ways to express our love for God. In order
to understand this truth one must study the written Torah text and the
oral Torah (the Furqan for Jews) that the Rabbis derive from the writ-
ten text.
In Deuteronomy 21:1–9, the issue is atonement for an unsolved
murder. A corpse is found in an open field. Everyone claims they
know nothing about who did it, or everyone blames people from some
other place. The elders of the nearest village take a cow that has never
pulled a yolk, bring it to a stream in a wadi which is not tilled and
break its neck. The elders vow, “Our hands did not shed this blood.”
This ritual is strange, and unique. Breaking the neck of a 2–3 year-
old heifer is a very violent act. Thus, one can understand that at least
some of the elders, who all must participate in this ritual according
to the oral Torah, might make a extra strenuous effort to find out who
killed the victim, so they could avoid being part of this repulsive rit-
ual. The effectiveness of the ritual breaking of the cows neck is in the
dire threat getting someone to reveal the killer’s identity. Then the
ritual would not be needed. Now we can appreciate the Koran’s words
(2:72), “When you killed a living soul and were denying any respon-
sibility, God would disclose what you were concealing.” Nevertheless
this is a paradox. The ritual that produces the results is the one that
doesn’t take place.
In Numbers 19, the issue is that contact with a corpse pollutes.
To undo corpse pollution there is a seven day ritual which involves
being sprinkled on the third and seventh day with a prepared mixture
of fresh water and the ashes of a red cow. “Instruct the People of Israel
to bring you a red cow without blemish, with no defect and on which
no yolk has been laid.” (Numbers 19:2) The rite is unique in the Torah
because the priest conducting the ritual contracts some pollution in
the process of depolluting the other person. Also, the oral Torah (the
D&A 22-1.indd 58 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Furqan for Jews) explains that the cow must be entirely red including
her hoofs and horns. The Muslim commentator Zamakhshari also says
that the hoofs and horns of the cow mentioned in the Koran must be
the same color as its hair and hide.. Such a cow is extremely rare, and
the ritual, in which the priest conducting the rite contracts some pol-
lution in the process of depolluting the other person, is a logical para-
dox. Many Jews, as well as Gentiles, claimed the rituals defied reason
and attacked them as magical. The Koran relates that this group of
Jews ridiculed these rituals and challenged Moses, “Do you make fun
of us?” (2:67) The Rabbis thought that in general wise people would
be able, with sufficient study, to understand the reasons for most of the
Mitsvot (God’s commandments). But there were a few of God’s com-
mandments, however, (with the red cow being chief among them, that
were given to test our trust in God. The Rabbis defended all the com-
mandments, especially the red cow, as the will of God. It should be
accepted as part of our commitment to God even if it seemed totally
irrational and paradoxical. Moses retorts to his critics, that following
God’s commandments keeps me away from the foolishness of those
who make fun of what they do not understand: “I take Allah’s Refuge
from being among Al-Jahiloon (ignoramuses and fools).” This is the
general truth that the Koran teaches using both of the cows combined
to serve as examples of one principle.
One of the major differences between the Koran and the Torah
is the Torah’s attention to details (names of people and places) and
the Koran’s emphases on universals. The Torah has long lists of geo-
graphical locations and of genealogies that many people today, espe-
cially non-Jews, find boring. The Koran rarely identifies locations,
and often omits the name of the people it mentions, as in the case of
Samuel the prophet in the first text I referred to. Indeed, Muslim com-
mentators disagree about many of these details. Some say the prophet
who appointed Talut king of Israel was Samuel and others think it was
Joshua or Simeon. These disagreements occur because they do not use
the Bible to fill in the details for the generalities of the Koran.
On the other hand, many Rabbis get caught up in the details of the
Torah and even expand them into super details. Thus, the rules relat-
ing to dietary observance of Passover and prohibited work on Shabbat
have multiplied endlessly, We need to learn from the Sunnah of the
prophet as narrated by Abu Huraira: The Prophet said, “Religion is
D&A 22-1.indd 59 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

very easy and whoever overburdens himself in his religion will not be
able to continue in that way. So you should not be extremists, but try
to be near to perfection and receive the good tidings that you will be
rewarded. (Bukhari Volume 1, Book 2, Number 38) Another impor-
tant lesson from the prophet’s Sunnah as narrated by his wife Aisha
who says, “Whenever the Prophet was given an option between two
things, he used to select the easier of the two as long as it was not sin-
ful; but if it was sinful, he would remain far from it.” (Bukhari Volume
4, Book 56, Number 147) This is the path that I and most Reform
Rabbis have taken in the last two centuries. If Orthodox Jews in the
time of Muhammed had followed the prophet’s teaching, Reform
Judaism (the largest of several different religious groups of Jews in
North America) would have begun 14 centuries ago, instead of only
two centuries ago.
The Koran was also far ahead of its time in many other ways.
One of the most important ways was the Koran’s oft-repeated state-
ment that believers (Muslims) should believe in all the messengers
of God. This message of religious pluralism and toleration is sorely
needed in the twenty-first century. The Koran states: “They say that
none will enter Paradise unless he be a Jew or a Christian. That is their
wishfulness. Say ‘Produce your proof if you are truthful.’” (Surah 2
verse 111) At the time of Muhammed both Rabbis and Priests did
claim that only their own believers would enter Paradise. The Koran
instructs Muslims that this claim is not based on the Jewish or the
Christian scriptures but only on the desires of those people who make
these claims. In truth, nowhere in the Torah of Moses, the Zubar of
David, or anywhere else in the Hebrew Bible is this claim that only
Jews will enter Paradise asserted. The great Sage Hillel, who lived in
the first century prior to the birth of Jesus, taught that the righteous
of all nations have a place in Paradise. (Tosefta Sanhedrin) Jesus also
taught, “In my Father’s house are many dwelling places; if not so, I
would have told you. I go to prepare a place for you.” (John 12:2) But
after the death of Jesus, claims were made in his name that only those
who believed Jesus was the son of God who died on the cross to save
all humans from going to Hellfire, would to able to enter Paradise. In
reaction to these polemical Christian claims, some Talmudic Rabbis
began to counter claim that only Jews would enter Paradise.
Yet even then the Rabbis did not think that eternal punishment
D&A 22-1.indd 60 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

was the fate of all those excluded from Paradise. Gehenna-Hellfire

was conceived of as a temporary abode generally believed to last a
maximum of 12 months. The great sage, Rabbi Akiba, stated. “The
punishment of the wicked in Gehenna lasts 12 months.” (Mishnah
Eduyyot 2:10) This is repeated in the Talmud (Shabbat 33b) and else-
where it is stated that sinners, both Jewish and non-Jewish, are pun-
ished in Gehenna-Hellfire for 12 months. (Rosh HaShanah 17a) Thus
the Koran accurately states, “They say, ‘the Fire will not touch us
except for a fixed number of days.” (2:80) The Koran instructs Mus-
lims to say to both Jews and Christians, “If the abode of the Hereafter
with God is reserved for you alone, excluding other people, then long
for death...but they will never long for it.” (2:94-5) So, the answer
to those who claim that “none will enter Paradise unless he is a Jew
or a Christian” is “No! Rather, whoever submits his whole being to
God as one devoted to doing good, aware that God is seeing him,
his reward is with his Lord, and all such will have no fear, nor will
they grieve.” (2:112) Thus, the Koran affirms that those Rabbis who
strayed from the words of Hillel, “The righteous of all nations have a
place in Paradise” were wrong. Those followers of Jesus who aban-
doned his teaching, “In my Father’s house are many dwelling places;
if not so, I would have told you” and instituted the doctrine that “No
man can find salvation except in the Catholic Church. Outside the
Catholic Church one can have everything except salvation.”(Saint
Augustine) These are also wrong. Tragically, during many centuries
of Medieval debate between the three religions, everyone thought that
religion was a zero sum game (one winner–one truth vs. many win-
ners–many truths, i.e. soccer or tennis vs. hiking or mountain climb-
ing). Thus, some Muslim commentators also began to take the same
exclusionary view condemned by Prophet Muhammed by adding spe-
cific Muslim theological beliefs to the statements of the Koran: “No!
rather, whoever submits his whole being to God as one devoted to
doing good, aware that God is seeing him, his reward is with his Lord,
and all such will have no fear, nor will they grieve.” (2:112) And more
explicitly, “Those who believe (Muslims), those who advocate Juda-
ism, Christians, Sabeans, whoever truly believes in God and the Last
Day, and does good, righteous deeds, surely their reward is with their
Lord, they will not fear, nor will they grieve. (2:62)
Thank God, in twenty-first century America the majority of most
D&A 22-1.indd 61 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

religious groups now believe the teachings of the Koran cited above
(2:112 and 2:62). A survey of over 35,000 Americans in 2008 found
that most Americans agree with the statement: Many religions—not
just their own—can lead to eternal life. Among those affiliated with a
religious tradition, seven-in-ten say many religions can lead to eter-
nal life. This view is shared by a majority of adherents in nearly all
religious traditions, including 82% of Jews, 79% of Catholics, 57% of
evangelical Protestants and 56% of Muslims. (From the U.S. Religious
Landscape Survey, Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life, © 2008,
Pew Research Center.) Or as the Qur’an clearly states, “For every
community we have appointed a whole system of worship which they
are to observe. So do not let them draw you into disputes about this
matter.” (Qur’an 22:67) Ultimately, “On the Day of Resurrection God
will judge between you about what you differed.” (Qur’an 22:69)
D&A 22-1.indd 62 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Religion and the Effort to Sustain Peace in a
Nigerian University Community
M. O. Adeniyi
Introduction
C
onflict and peace are coeval universal phenomena. They
are bound by time, place, or people. Whenever conflict
occurs, it is precipitated by combined factors that include
social, economical, political and religious. Whatever the domi-
nant cause, the effect of conflict on our campuses always has
been disastrous. Notable consequences of conflict on our univer-
sity campuses include: wanton destruction of university proper-
ties, dismissal of students, all the way to closure of the university.
Most of the time Muslims and Christians live together in
peace in Nigeria. They live together within extended families
and in society, as neighbors, in markets, in business institutions,
and in offices and institutions of higher learning. Now, however,
religion has become a very sensitive matter and, as a result, uni-
versity campuses have become seriously threatened.
The aim of this paper, therefore, is to discuss the concept of
peace: Quranic and Biblical, to examine causes of conflict in
general, to discuss conflicts in a particular university as a case
study, and to show how these conflicts can be resolved in order to
allow free running of academic programs, with a view to achiev-
ing peace. The paper concludes with suggestions that can bring
about peace to Nigeria in general and our university campuses
in particular.
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 63 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

The Concept of Peace: Quranic and Biblical Perspective

According to the Quran 37:102-109, Muslims believe that the
peace that was broken between Adam and God in the Garden of
Paradise was eventually recovered by the covenant entered into
between Ibrahim and God, when Allah asked him to sacrifice his
son, Ismail. Ibrahim submitted to God’s will. He was about to
sacrifice his son when Allah provided a ram to replace him. The
obedience and submission of Abraham to the command of Allah
was rewarded by Allah’s declaration of Salamun’ala Ibrahim
meaning “peace be upon Abraham.”1 Since the time of Abraham,
the word peace has been used for different situations.
As a corollary to the above, one of the commonest teach-
ings and pronouncements of religious adherents today relates to
peace. In fact, Islam, translated to mean “Peace,” is daily used
for greeting of good will. When a Muslim approaches another
Muslim, he offers the greeting Salam alaykum. “Peace be upon
you.” This greeting, formerly a distinctive Muslim practice, has
become a universal mode of greeting heard among the adherents
of diverse religions. This is because since this greeting expresses
good will, it is used as inter-faith greeting between Muslims and
non-Muslims, particularly between Muslims and Christians.
Two words are used in the Qu’rán to describe peace. They
are: Salam and Sakinah.2 Salam, which literary means “safety”
security, immunity, freedom from faults or defects or blemishes.3
It also means soundness, well being, peace, peacefulness, greet-
ing, salutation.4 The word Salam occurs forty-two times in the
Qu’rán. Only eleven of these occurrences relate specifically to
peace as a state or condition while the remaining thirty-one occa-
sions refer to salutations in this world and hereafter.5 Consider-
ing the importance of Salam in the world, for instance, God gave
peace to His people, especially the prophets, to keep them safe
from the world and its people. God instructed prophet Noah and
his people to descend from the ark with peace.6
As we noted earlier, the other word used in the Qu’rán to
mean peace is Sakinah.7 It is translated to mean peace. But this
D&A 22-1.indd 64 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Adeniyi: Religion and the Effort to Sustain Peace 65
is a high level peace which is tranquility and calm. Allah sends

down peace of reassurance into the hearts of believers that they
might add faith to their faith. For example, during the flight of
Prophet Muhammed and his closest associate, Abubakr, they had
to hide themselves in a cave. Abubakr was afraid of the ene-
mies pursuing them. Then, the prophet told him the words of
the Quran: thumma anzala llahu sakinatau ala rasulihi wa ala
c c
muminina. Meaning: “Then Allah sent down His peace upon the
believers …”8
From the above analysis, it is clear that the Qu’rán is explicit
enough on matters relating to peace. These ideas of peace will
be further discussed in comparison with the identical ideas of
peace in the Bible. From those Qu’ránic passages highlighted,
the Qu’rán calls believers to live in the conviction and lifestyle
to show that peace is the bedrock of Islam.9 The holy Quran
further declares, “O ye who believe! Enter into Islam whole-
heartedly.”10 Christians are similarly invited to submit to God
when the Bible declares: “You shall worship the Lord your God
and Him only shall you serve.”
Islam’s concern for peace is reflected in its doctrines as well
as the practices that it prescribes for its adherents. One of the
attributes of Allah the Supreme Being is as-Salam, “the source
of peace.” When Muslims conclude the formal prayer which they
perform five times everyday, they do so by praying for peace,
not only for themselves, but also for the “righteous servants of
Allah” (i.e. in the testimony of faith-at-tashahhud). They also
end the prayer by invoking peace and Allah’s mercy for co-wor-
shippers on their right and on their left in the congregation, in the
words of as-salam alaikum waraha mat-al-Allah meaning may
the peace be upon you, his favour and his blessing.
Similar phenomenon is noted in the Bible. When Jesus
appeared to his disciples, he said “Peace be with you.”11 Jesus
equally emphasized peace in the next verse when he said, “Peace
be with you! As the Father has sent me, I am sending you.”12 A
similar thing is noted in the book of Mark when the Bible says,
D&A 22-1.indd 65 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

“Go in peace and be freed from your suffering.” See also another
verse in the book of Mark.13
By and large, the home of Hereafter, for which all believ-
ers strive, al-Jannah, or Paradise is Daru-S-Salam “the abode
of peace” Islam, the faith taught by all the prophets of Allah and
perfected by prophet Muhammad, lays a great deal of emphasis
on peace, as it is fully in accord with “… the pattern on which He
(Allah) has made mankind….”14 Islam, as a religion of submis-
sion to Allah, facilitates internal peace and the individual’s peace
and it promotes the peace of society. It does this by seeking to
bring the individual and humanity into accord with the divine
will. “Without doubt, in the remembrance of Allah do hearts find
satisfaction.”15 It is on the basis of this Quranic verse that we
agree with Noibi when he observes:
Peace at these levels and in all these ramifications is one thing
that every normal human being and every human society desires
and would strive for at all cost. Besides the individual’s natural
desire for peace, civilization would be impossible without peace
for the society as well as for the individual.16
Factors Contributing to Religious Conflict in our Universities

So far, this paper has shown that both Qu’rán and the Bible lay
emphasis on peace. Any person, no matter his cultural and reli-
gious affiliation, as long as God is central to his life and he gladly
submits to the will of God, the peace of God will flow into him
and through him to his fellow men. In light of this view, one
wonders why conflict has remained in our society in general and
on our university campuses in particular. Our investigation and
observation have revealed the following causes.
Communication Gap
The University authorities should realize that on our campuses
hardly any university programme can be unaffected by religious
consideration. It is in light of this that Olupona opines:
D&A 22-1.indd 66 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

The relationship between religion and society in Nigeria is obvi-

ous and imposing. Recent events strongly suggest that there is
hardly any government programme unaffected by religious con-
sideration. Yet, the religious elements and ramifications are often
ignored when major decisions are taken.17
If there is anything to go by with that submission, in order to

prevent this aspect of causes of conflict on our university cam-
puses, issues on religious decisions should be made known to the
religious groups in the university in order to carry them along
with such decisions. They should be involved in such policy
decisions.
The Concept of Finality of Message

Finality concept connotes the feeling that one’s religious tenets
and ideologies are superior to other religious groups. On the
issue of marriage, Christians, according to the Bible, shall marry
one wife as the Bible declares to Bishops and Deacons. Muslims
on the issue of marriage follow the teaching of Islam which is
polygamy. It is an issue that is often misunderstood and some-
times deliberately misrepresented. It is pertinent to make it clear
that Islam did not introduce polygamy, the marriage of one man
to more than one wife. On the contrary, all Islam has done is to
regulate the practice of the institution of polygamy. Although
Islam permits polygamy, it has done so with a provision that the
husband should treat all his wives with even-handed justice. If
he fears that the husband will not be able to do so, then he should
marry only one wife. Allah says: “…but if ye fear that ye shall
not be able to deal justly (with them) then marry only one.…”18
Another is the issue of Tawhid, Oneness of Allah as declared in
the Qu’rán chapter 112 verses 1-4, and the doctrine of Trinity for
the Christians. For example, the Christians believe the Bible is
the sole authority in every matter that has to do with Christian
faith. The Christians believe that Christ is the only begotten Son
of God. Similarly, the Christians believe in the doctrine of Trin-
ity which teaches that although God is one, the same God has
D&A 22-1.indd 67 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

revealed Himself in three ways as: the Father, Son and the Holy
Spirit. On the other hand, while the Muslims contend that God is
one just as Christians do, Muslims add that just as God was not
begotten by anybody, so does He not beget as Son.
Above all, if this type of discussion ensues among the Mus-
lim and the Christian students on the campus, it may end in con-
flict. These sets of students should both appreciate that they are
human beings. They are members of a community of Faith living
in a particular society. Actually, they should come together to
really discuss details to know their needs which involve discus-
sion of the health and well-being and what should be done when
things are not what they should be.
It is equally good for adherents of both religions to ask the
question, “What are we up against?” Rather than thinking again
and again terms of “us” and “them” and having the imagination
that they are facing each other across a divide, they should know
that because they believe in one God, they have a great deal in
common in a world where most people ignore God and they face
common dangers over many issues.
In order to bring peace to our campuses, students of different
religions should work together. They should not lay too much
emphasis on religious differences and particularities.
If the messages sent by God to the various religious groups
are true and divine, men should not employ the differences or the
distinguishing features of different religions as bases of conflict
or tension.
Religious Propagation
Under religious propagation on our University Campuses, it is
important to note the role of the proselytizers among the students
who, being over-conscious of particularity in religion, adopt pro-
vocative methods of propagation.
According to Opeloye, rather than preaching the beauty of
their religion, they condemn the other faith.19 Even though Mus-
lims are taught to believe that Islam is the only true religion, just
D&A 22-1.indd 68 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

as Christianity sees itself as the only way to salvation, this does

not mean that they have to resort to condemnation of one another,
realizing the fact that only God knows who the true believer is.
If students should engage themselves in forceful preachings on
university campuses, this may lead to conflicts from the oppos-
ing views. What the adherents of religions should realize is that
God the Almighty is our common object of worship. He remains
what He is in spite of whatever conception of Him we may have.
This is the only way to have peace on the campuses.20
We are not saying that religious students on university cam-
puses should not propagate their religious faith, what we are
saying is that they should propagate and disseminate areas of
common teachings of both Islam and Christianity. It is the style
of religious propagation employed by religious youths on the
campuses that creates negative effects on our inter-religious rela-
tion due to the use of offensive language. That is why Olupona
observes that:
In more recent years, in the wake of the increasing deterioration
in Muslim-Christian relations, the M.S.S. has become more mili-
tant, often clash with Christian fundamentalist youth organiza-
tions on campus.21
The inference we can draw from that quotation is that the idea
or the feeling that we have to do everything within our power to
convert everybody to our own religion may not create a good
academic environment for learning and research.
Social Freedom
The factor of social freedom is enjoyed by the students in the
University campuses which sometimes led to the influx of vari-
ous cultic organizations in the Higher Institutions to some extent
that cultism has almost become a religious sect in our higher
institutions. Moderation is the bedrock of Islam. Students should
limit their social interaction with some bad eggs on the campus.
Percentage analysis of the causes of deviant behaviours among
D&A 22-1.indd 69 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

the students indicates that in the behaviours exhibited by the stu-

dents on the campus, the influence of the peer-group plays a vital
role. Students should therefore be moderate in their social free-
dom. There is no community anywhere in the world with abso-
lute freedom, otherwise there will be anarchy in the system. The
most intelligent person is one who knows his limitations.
Survey of Conflicts in a Nigeria University

In almost all the Nigerian universities there is lots of conflict
sometimes emanating from inter-religious faith. We want to
examine a particular conflict in a particular university with a
view to show how that conflict was eventually resolved.
University of Ibadan, Ibadan Dilemma of the Cross and the

Mosque at the University of Ibadan
This issue, which caused a deep religious cleft on the campus,
happened in the nineteen eighties (1980s). The dilemma of the
Cross and the Mosque at the University of Ibadan was the high-
est conflict so far in the history of the institution. The cross was
standing erect in the area designated as a religious place of wor-
ship. When the new mosque was officially commissioned, it was
discovered that the cross was imposing on the view of the devo-
tees in the mosque, giving rise to a metaphor as though Muslims
worship it which is an abomination in Islam. Muslims therefore
demanded that the cross should be removed and to be erected
closer and in front of the church. The Christians on their own
part were saying that it was easier to remove the university than
to remove the cross. And, as matter of fact, the cross is as old as
the university itself. This led to a serious conflict from the Mus-
lim community of the University of Ibadan, members of Muslim
youth organizations like NACONYO, as well as the league of
Imams and Alufas against Christians. The conflict lingered on
for a period of time before an amicable settlement was reached
when the cross was screened from the view of the devotees and
D&A 22-1.indd 70 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

a cresent was erected to truly reflect the pluralist academic com-

munity. Subsequent to this, both Muslims and Christians operate
on the principle of religious co-existence through distancing and
learning to tolerate differences.22
Conclusion
In this paper we have shown that Muslims and Christians are
inseparable neighbours and have relationships in the university.
We have also shown that the key ideas of peace enunciated by
the Quran and the Bible go beyond mere theories and can effec-
tively achieve peace on our campus. The paper also considers
areas of conflict with specific conflict resolutions on university
campuses in our case study. The paper considers several possi-
bilities that may enhance the chance of promoting peace in our
universities generally. It is suggested very strongly that if Mus-
lims and Christians can go into their religious Books and analyse
their admonitions on religious co-existence and adhere strictly to
them, that will go a long way in ensuring peace in the society.
The Quaran and the Bible condemn the idea of conflict and kill-
ing. We should take into cognizance the multi-religious commu-
nity of our university campuses, and there is hardly anything any
group can do to annihilate others from existing. Peace is more
desirable than any other factor of development. In fact, human
aspirations are easier to achieve through the processes of peace-
ful means rather than conflicts.
Finally, if the messages sent by God to the various religious
groups are true and divine, men should not employ the differ-
ences or the distinguishing features of different religions as
bases of conflict or tension on the campus. Religions appear in
the presence of God as a bunch of beautiful flowers of diverse
colours and fragrances, each religion using its own mode of lit-
urgy and spiritual gifts in uplifting the glory of God. Even when
one flower is more beautiful than the other, it is still part of the
bouquet that constitutes the ultimate beauty.
D&A 22-1.indd 71 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Notes and References

1. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, The Holy Qu’rán, Text, Translation and commentary,
Bretwood, Maryland, Amana corporation 1989. Q. 37:109.
2. S. Babs Mala, “Peace-passages in the Quran and the Bible and their impli-
cations for interreligious relation” a paper submitted at the council for the
World’s Religions at the Obafemi Awolowo University Ile-Ife, Nigeria.
December 4-8, 1989, p. 4.
3. E.W. Lane, Arabic English Lexicon, Book I part 4, Lahore: Islamic Book
center 1978 (1872) p. 1415.
4. J.M. Cowan (ed) Hans Wehr, A Dictionary of Modern Written Arabic,
Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966. p. 425.
5. S. Babs Malla, “Peace-passages in the Qur’án and the Bible.”
6. Abdullah Yusuf Alli, The Holy Qur’án, Q. 11: 48.
7. The word Sakinah occurs six tmes in the Qurán, namely: 2:248; 9:26,
40:48:4, 18:26.
8. Abdullah Yusuf Alli, The Holy Qur’án, Q. 9:26.
9. R.D. Abubakre, “The Qur’án and Sunnah as Basis for good Muslim-Chris-
tian Relations,” in Bulletin on Islam and Christian-Muslim Relations in
Africa, Birmingham, U.K. 5.1(1987) pp. 8-22.
11. The Holy Bible, International Bible Society, Colarado, 1984. Mathew
4:10.
12. The Holy Bible, John 20:19.
13. The Holy Bible, Mark 5:34.
14. Hammudah Abd Ati, Islam in Focus IIFSO, 1986. p. 42.
16. Dawod O.S. Noibi, “Islam, the family and peace,” a paper presented at the
Assembly of the World’s Religions, Sheraton Walker Hill Hotel, Seoul,
Korea on “The Role of the Family in the Creation of Peace,” August 24-31,
1992. Private circulation.
17. “Contemporary Religious Terrain” in J.K. Olupona et al (ed) Religion and
Society in Nigeria, Spectrum Books Ltd. Ibadan p. 31.
19. M.O. Opeloye, “Building Bridges of Understanding between Islam and
Christianity in Nigeria,” an inaugural lecture delivered at the Lagos State
University, on Tuesday, p. 19.
D&A 22-1.indd 72 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

20. M.O. Opeloye, Building Bridges. J.K. Olupona “Contemporary” p. 38.

R.D. Abubakre “Inter- Religious dialogue as preached by a Nigerian
Islamic scholar: The activities of Shaykh Adam Abdullah Al- Ilori 1913-
1992” in Centre Point, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Vol.7, No. 2, 1997, pp.
190–91.
21. J.K. Olupona “Contemporary” p. 38.
22. R.D. Abubakre “Inter- Religious dialogue as preached by a Nigerian Islamic
scholar: The activities of shaykh Adam Abdullah Al- Ilori 1913- 1992” in
Centre Point, University of Ilorin, Ilorin. Vol.7, No. 2, 1997, pp.190–191.
D&A 22-1.indd 73 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

World Religions in the
PostModern Age
Henry L. Ruf
A call for religious “A thought-provoking book worthy of a

broad readership. Having set forth the teach-
liberty and a new ings of each of the world’s religions in a fair
and respectful way, Dr. Ruf moves quickly
ecumenism. to the challenge of explaining how each of
these faith traditions can find their ‘core’ and
surprisingly, often some commonality. Thus
they can make a positive contribution for the
healing of the world.”
—Rev. Ray H. Kiely, D.D.,
The Near East School of Theology,
Beirut, Lebanon
“Henry L. Ruf’s book World Religions in a

Postmodern Age is a bold undertaking that
addresses a number of important issues for
religious people living in a postmodern age,
such as: Is rationally defensible religion
even possible after postmodern critiques of
religion? If it is, what if anything can be sal-
vaged from previous religious traditions?
And what should be the religious person’s
ISBN: 1-55778-866-9, Paper, 350 pages attitude toward other religions? Ruf argues
that a rationally defensible postmodern reli-
gion is possible, and that despite their dif-
“The book for my Philosophy of
ferences world religions share common
Religion course that I have been
features and ethical commitments that can be
waiting for! Professor Ruf’s out-
appealed to as a basis for dialogue and toler-
standing scholarship is comple-
ance. These are issues which should concern
mented by his exceptional writing
everyone living in a postmodern, culturally
and wide-ranging grasp of the
and religiously divided world, and I highly
matter.”
—John N. Vielkind, Ph.D., recommend the book.”
Professor & Chair in Philosophy, —Gene G. James, Professor of Philosophy,
Marshall University, Huntington WV Unviersity of Memphis
Available at Paragon House

800-447-3709
D&A 22-1.indd 74 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Shanti, Shalom, Salaam: Reflections on the
Quest for a Culture of Peace
M. Darrol Bryant
T
he first decade of the third millennium has been marked by
violence. Israelis and Palestinians are caught in a cycle of
violence that seems to have no end. Terrorist bombings in
the USA in September 2001 led to the ill-fated War on Terror and an
intractable war in Iraq. Conflicts in Chechnya, Afghanistan, and the
former Yugoslavia persist. Recent riots and deaths happen in Pakistan
and Tibetan protesters are assaulted in Lhasa. It is urgent that we find
ways to build a culture of peace.1
It is my view that religious life holds the key. Peace for us lies
in scriptures and sacred writings, in practices and traditions East and
West, North and South. The wisdom given us in the religious heri-
tage of humankind is where the quest for peace has been most deeply
plumbed. It is here that we can learn most profoundly the ways of
peace. Of course, there is an irony as many see religion as doing just
the opposite, and surely there are alternative and supplemental ways
to proceed as well. Neverthless, religious traditions provide us with
the best lights for our inquiry.
The Challenge
It is known that the very religious traditions I praise above are also
sources of conflict. Rather than being beacons of peace, our traditions
and adherents often bear conflict and hostility. Hans Kung, the noted
European Catholic theologian, said “there will be no peace among
the nations and civilizations without peace among the religions” and
that “there will be no peace between the religions without a dialogue
1. An earlier version of this paper was prepared for a conference on “The Culture
of Peace” in Bangalore sponsored by Tibet House in New Delhi, India. It has been
revised for publication here.
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 75 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

among the religions.”2 We should add this: there will be no peace

among the religions until there is dialogue and understanding within
the religions, and there will be no peace within the religions until there
is peace within the hearts of the adherents of religions. We and our
traditions are part of the problem. Consider who and what we are. The
first thing we note is the lack of peace in our own hearts: the lack of
peace within our own traditions, the lack of peace in how our tradition
relates to other traditions. We are challenged by our very diversity. We
are believers in part, but unbelievers too, even within our own selves.
We are men and women from different societies, with differing his-
tories. We are made up of inner stories and outer positions, uncertain
of what will unfold in our time together, anxious about many things,
yet filled with positive anticipation. In a word, we are a microcosm
of that humanity that everywhere seeks peace but knows difference,
tension, conflict, hostility, uncertainty, division. We are human beings
attempting to find our way to forms of life together that can sustain and
enhance us all. Our efforts at peacemaking reflect our inner division,
insight and ignorance, faith and unbelief, practice and forgetfulness.
We attempt to give voice to the life of the spirit that creates peace even
when we lack the spirit needed to do so. We attempt to speak about
those things of the spirit that make for peace within human beings and
human societies: those virtues of compassion and mercy, those gifts of
justice and love, those practices of charity and mindfulness and shar-
ing, those tones and rhythms of the spirit that are essential to living
life together.
Our religious traditions cannot give blueprints to social engineers,
but we can speak, each in our own words, the wisdom of our tradi-
tions as it has been given to us about peace: shanti, shalom, salaam.
In my view, one of the most essential contributions that the religious
traditions can make to peacemaking in our time is to show, in word
and deed, how different traditions can make peace across the religious
divisions that separate us from one another. In order to have peace
in our societies, we must have peace between our traditions. Here,
2. This formula from Hans Kung has been repeated in a number of writings. I am
quoting from his Foreword to The Rivers of Paradise: Moses, Buddha, Confucius,
Jesus and Muhammad as Religious Founders, eds., D. N. Freedman and M. J.
McClymond (Grand Rapids, MI: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 2001),
pp. viii-ix.
D&A 22-1.indd 76 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Bryant: Shanti, Shalom, Salaam 77
scholars and religious leaders could make a real contribution by being

an example of fruitful and peaceful exchange and dialogue. This is the
way of dialogue and cooperation that is an essential rhythm of peace.
When, as religious people and as scholars, we act in society, we
act informed by our own particular traditions of practice and belief.
But is the point of our action simply the welfare of ourselves or our
own communities? Isn’t our aim the welfare and well-being of the
whole? As we move towards peace doesn’t our very being, as well as
our self-understanding, as human beings undergo a transformation?
Aren’t we realizing the depths of our traditions as we contribute to the
well-being of the whole?
Even though, as I have suggested here, we are guided in our
inquiry by the wisdom of our traditions, this does not mean that the
religious heritage of humankind provides us with an actual history of
peace. Often, there is animosity found within our traditions towards
the other traditions. It is also the case that adherents of the different
faiths often fail to practice what they preach, and to live what they
believe. But is this paradox itself instructive? Why is it that peace is so
seldom realized, and when realized, so fragile? Why is peace so elu-
sive? Are there paradoxes of peace that are inherent to its very nature?
If peace is the answer to the question that lies at the very heart of the
human in relation to Itself, the Other, and the Ultimate, then what is
that question?
Anomalies of Peace
We live in the paradox of the inner and outer.
In the Zohar, a Jewish writing, we read: “God is peace (sha-
lom), His name is peace (shalom), and all is bound together in peace
(shalom).3 Here peace as the Ultimate is affirmed and it is shalom that
binds all together. But this theological affirmation, found in many tra-
ditions, does not describe our life and world as we find it.
Is there a longing more profound to be found within the depths of
being human? Is the cry of the heart for peace an eloquent testimony
to its absence?
3. See A. Wilson, ed., World Scripture, A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts

(New York: Paragon House), 1991, p. 394.
D&A 22-1.indd 77 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

In the Atharva Veda we read: “Peace (shanti) be to earth and to

airy spaces! Peace (shanti) be to heaven, peace (shanti) to the waters,
peace (shanti) to the plants and peace (shanti) to the trees! May all the
gods grant me peace (shanti)!”4
What is the relationship between the peace we seek and the peace
we are given, between effort and gift? Do we encounter here a contra-
diction or a paradox?
In the Songs of Arthur Solomon, a Nishnawabe elder, an aborigi-
nal people of North America, we hear:
Yes Grandmother, We’ll give you our hands. And our hearts and
minds and bodies . . . And as we walk on this sacred earth, We
will learn together to celebrate the ways of peace . . . 5
Where do inner and outer meet? Do we move from within to with-

out—from peaceful people to a peaceful society—or vice versa? Is
there a clear boundary between the inner and outer that we can draw?
What is the relation between inner and outer? These are perplexing
anomalies: we know that shanti within can occur in the midst of the
absence of shalom without; and even though there is an absence of
shanti within there can be shalom without. What does this tell us about
the relation of inner and outer?
If the ways of peace must be learned, can we ever have peace in a
world which is perpetually composed of these? Can the ways of peace
be traveled? Can we have peace before we have achieved the goal
at the end of the way? Can we learn to walk gently “on this sacred
earth,” “with one another,” and “with our God,” simultaneously or
sequentially or bit by bit?
Fronts/Ways of Peace
What do we find when we look across the religious heritage of human-
kind? Are we to understand peace in primarily social terms as the sha-
lom of community, or in inner terms as the shanti of self-realization?
Are we to understand peace as the cessation of suffering, or in tran-
scendent terms as the salaam of Allah. Is it in such ecological terms
as the wu wei of the Tao, or in celebratory terms as in the greeting of
4. Ibid., p. 395, from the Artha Veda19.9.14.
5. See A. Solomon, Songs for the People: Teachings on the Natural Way (Toronto:
NC Press, 1990), p. 17.
D&A 22-1.indd 78 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

ukuthula of the Zulu warrior? Peace as it is given to us in the religious

life of humankind does not yield an easy unanimity, nor does it yield
only diversity. The consensus rests only in the universal affirmation
that peace is desireable; diversity reigns in how peace is understood,
and how it is sought.
If we see religious diversity as complimentary, then we can argue
that our religious heritage pushes us in more than one direction as it
urges us to look at least in four places:
• Within, at the passions of the human heart to discover, learn and
practice the shanti
• Without, to the community with its diverse generations and gen-
ders to realize the rhythms of shalom that are essential to our col-
lective well-being as it unfolds across time
• Above, to the Beyond that funds that salaam that emerges when
we are properly related to the Absolute, and
• Around, to our Earth and all living creatures that we are bidden
to acknowledge and respect so that our life may be long and at
ukuthula (Zulu greetings meaning peace) with the planet.
While these four directions are not exhaustive, they are perhaps
sufficient for our purposes here. Oversimplifying and schematizing
this diversity, we could argue that the primal traditions remind us of
the ecological dimensions of peace: that peace involves a fitting rela-
tionship with the earth.
The eastern traditions highlight the inner front of peace: human-
ity’s relation to itself.
The western traditions focus our attention on the social dimensions
of peace: the rhythms that sustain the life of communities in time; and
the transcendental dimensions of all traditions emphasize the relation-
ship of the human to the Absolute—as essential to the quest for peace.6
Thus the collective spiritual wisdom of humanity points us towards
an awareness that human life occurs at the crossroads of several life
fronts: within and without, forward and backward, above and below.
Here we focus on the inner path of shanti and the outer rhythms
of shalom—the inner/outer dialectic. But we will also try to keep in
6. See my Woven on the Loom of Time (New Delhi: Decent/Suryodaya, 1999) for a
further discussion of several religious traditions.
D&A 22-1.indd 79 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

mind the transcendent relationship of salaam, and the virtues of uku-

thula that arise from our connectedness to the earth. That the inner and
outer, the forward and backward, the above and below, are simultane-
ously present in the quest for peace.
A Christian Vision of Peace

We find in every tradition expressions of a holistic vision of peace. For
example, in Augustine’s City of God, Book XIX, Chapt. 13, we read
these words:
The peace of the body…is a tempering of the component parts in
duly ordered proportion; the peace of the irrational soul is a duly
ordered repose of the appetites; the peace of the rational soul is
the duly ordered agreement of cognition and action. The peace of
body and soul is the duly ordered life and health of a living crea-
ture; peace between mortal man and God is an ordered obedi-
ence, in faith, in subjection to an everlasting law; peace between
men is an ordered agreement of mind with mind; the peace of a
home is the ordered agreement among those who live together
about giving and obeying orders; the peace of the heavenly City
is a perfectly ordered and perfectly harmonious fellowship in the
enjoyment of God, and a mutual fellowship in God; the peace of
the whole universe is the tranquility of order—and order is the
arrangement of things equal and unequal in a pattern which as-
signs to each its proper position.
While Augustine’s terms may not always resonate with contem-

porary readers, they do point to the multiple dimensions of peace.
In Augustine’s statement, peace in its inner, outer, familial, transcen-
dental and cosmic aspects are all included. For Augustine, we could
expect only moments of peace within time, and perfect peace was
only possible in eternity. For Augustine, it was time itself that ren-
dered perpetual peace impossible. Similarly, the Jewish scripture says
that there is a time for everything, and the Buddhist says that every-
thing is impermanent.
Augustine’s understanding of shalom involves movement from
disorder to order. His understanding of disorder and order unfolds
in the context of his Christian self-understanding and theological
anthropology. Thus for Augustine, the human disorder, or lust for
D&A 22-1.indd 80 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

domination, must be overcome if enduring peace is to be achieved.7

His is an understanding of shalom that is relational, social, and tem-
poral. However, for Augustine, peace is never permanent under the
conditions of time; it is nonetheless the principal aim and dynamic
within our temporal life.
The traditions that see shalom as the rhythms that maintain com-
munities and societies emphasize humanity in its relationships to itself
and others.
A Buddhist Vision of Peace

We encounter quite a different understanding of shanti in many of the
Eastern traditions. For example, in the Buddhist Anguttara Nikaya,
we read:
This is Peace, this is the excellent, namely the calming of all the
impulses, the casting out of all ‘basis,’ the extinction of craving,
dispassion, stopping, Nirvana.8
The emphasis here falls on an internal transformation, the over-

coming of craving and ignorance, as the key to shanti. Here we look
within to discover the sources of conflict and its antidote. The ways
to shanti are many in the Eastern traditions. There is the way of the
Bodhisattva in Mahayana Buddhist traditions, the way of the Yogi in
Hindu traditions, the way of the Immortal in Taoist traditions. These
ways are even more complicated when we note the Hindu conviction
that some paths are more suited for those of one temperament and
type (the bhakti, jnana, karma, and raj yoga types) than another. This
conviction means that we are not looking for a single path to peace,
but paths that are suitable for quieting the beast within whatever face
he/it takes in accord with the type.
In the shanti traditions, peace grows from within as the inner con-
flict is overcome and one gains essential spiritual insight and wisdom.
Thus the emphasis falls on the inner disciplines that can overcome
ignorance, root out the sources of suffering, and quiet the cravings that
disrupt and distort our being and becoming.
7. Ibid., p. 875. Here Augustine identifies the disorder of humanity as arising from
the lust for domination, the foundation of human sinfulness.
8. World Scripture, op.cit., p. 392.
D&A 22-1.indd 81 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

In the approaches to shanti that emphasize the inner way, the

reasons for the absence of peace within the world are traced back to
an inner disorientation/ignorance/disorder that must be overcome if
shanti is to be achieved. Thus in these traditions, shanti is more than
the absence of “war.” Or, we could say that the principle war that
the human confronts is the war within, the spiritual war that must be
waged if we are to become what we are intended to be.
This way to shanti/nibbana that emphasizes inner transformation
yet recognizes that it spills over into the life of society is found in
Thich Nhat Hanh’s book of teaching with the wonderful title Being
Peace. There he writes,
If we are peaceful, if we are happy, we can blossom like a flower,
and everyone in our family, our entire society, will benefit from
our peace.9
Here the boundaries we often draw between human beings, families,

and societies are seen to be at least porous if not finally illusory. The
term that Thich Nhat Hanh uses is “interbeing” which “means ‘mutual’
and ‘to be’.”10 It is intended to convey something of the interconnected-
ness of being. As Hanh remarks, “we have talked about the many in the
one and the one containing the many… I am, therefore you are. You are,
therefore I am. That is the meaning of the word ‘interbeing.’”11 Against
the background of this conviction/metaphysic, then, Hanh unfolds a
teaching and practice that centers in meditation. For Hanh,
Meditation is to be aware of what is going on: in your body, in
your feelings, in your mind, and in the world. The most precious
practice in Buddhism is meditation, and it is important to prac-
tice meditation in a joyful mood. We have to smile a lot in order
to be able to meditate.12
It is this practice which opens the way to compassion, love, and

understanding according to Hanh.13 It is this way that brings forth
our “Buddha nature” which is the heart of “Being Peace.” There is
a deep conviction here that the practice of meditation is key to the
9. Thich Nhat Hanh, Being Peace (Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1987), p. 1.
10. Ibid., p. 87.
11. Ibid., p. 87.
12. Ibid., p. 106.
13. See especially Hanh pp. 107ff.
D&A 22-1.indd 82 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

achievement of peace—a peace within that also affects the world

without. In his chapter on Meditation in Daily Life, Hanh concludes:
It is really beautiful to begin the day by being a Buddha. Each
time we feel ourselves about to leave our Buddha, we can sit and
breathe until we return to our true self. There are three things I
can recommend to you: arranging to have a breathing room in
your home, a room for meditation; practicing breathing, sitting,
for a few minutes every morning at home with your children;
and going out for a slow walking meditation with your children
before going to sleep, just ten minutes is enough. These things
are very important. They can change our civilization.14
The inner way transforms the world without, the inner passes over
to the outer affecting the life of the world. The divisions between inner
and outer are overcome.
A Taoist Vision of Peace

A somewhat different account is found in the Tao Te Ching, #37,
where we read:
Tao invariably takes no action, and yet there is nothing left un-
done. If kings and barons can keep it, all things will transform
spontaneously. If, after transformation, they should desire to be
active, I would restrain them with simplicity, which has no name.
Simplicity, which has no name, is free of desires. Being free of
desires, it is tranquil. And the world will be at peace of its own
accord.15
Here, peace is the name of the Tao’s unfolding. The human task,
then, is to live in harmony with that cosmic rhythm that is the very
nature of things. While the Taoist way also involves an inner trans-
formation, it is linked with the Yin-Yang movement of the Tao that
is most evident in the very processes of “nature.” In Taoism, we see
most clearly the way in which religious traditions link the inner to the
cosmic, the conviction of the micro/macro identity. Again, the particu-
lars vary across tradition as each tradition articulates its understanding
of that human/cosmic identity.
14. Ibid., p. 115.
15. See World Scripture, op.cit., p. 392.
D&A 22-1.indd 83 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

The ways of peace are many.
Peace in the O.E.D.

In the English-speaking world, our understanding of peace is linked to
“war”—if the entry we find in the Oxford English Dictonary (OED)
is any indication. According to the OED, the English word “peace” is
derived from the Latin pacem, pax. The OED then gives six principle
meanings of the word:
1. freedom from, or cessation of, war or hostilities; that condition of
a nation or a community in which it is not at war with another.
2. freedom from civil commotion and disorder; public order and
security.
3. freedom from disturbance or perturbation (especially as a condi-
tion in which an individual person is); quiet, tranquillity, undis-
turbed stage.
4. freedom from quarrels, or dissension between individuals; a state
of friendliness; concord, amity.
5. freedom from mental or spiritual disturbance or conflict arising
from passion, sense of guilt, etc., calmness.
6. absence of noise, movement, or activity; stillness; quiet; inertness.
The OED concludes with a 14th entry, “to make peace: to bring
about a state of peace, in various senses.”
What is striking here is the essentially negative definition of the
term. It is defined in terms of “freedom from” or the “absence of”
rather than in terms of a positive content. It is also obvious that in the
OED, peace is understood in essentially social terms and by way of
contrast with its opposite, war.
Need we attempt to discern the “freedom for” aspects of peace
as well as the “freedom from?” Have we exhausted peace when we
speak of it in social terms? What is the interface of peace within the
members of social groups and peace without in the relations between
different groupings within society, across our planet, with the earth,
and with all living things?
D&A 22-1.indd 84 7/28/2009 2:26:30 PM

Peace as a Social Rhythm

If we see that peace is the condition that arises when war has ceased,
we need to recognize the diverse levels and meanings of the term
“shalom.” While we could probably all agree that there is no peace
when there is armed conflict between different societies, groups, or
communities, could we also agree that the absence of war does not
exhaust our grasp of peace? Isn’t the absence of armed conflict a nec-
essary but not sufficient condition for peace?
In a social context, the quest for shalom arises in response to over-
coming those forces that would destroy the rhythms of shalom. Eugen
Rosenstock-Huessy (1888-1973), a German-born American social
thinker, makes this observation concerning peace:
…peace is not the sleep and torpor of non-movement. Peace is
not suspended animation. Peace is the victory over mere acci-
dent. Peace is the rhythm of a community which is still unfin-
ished, still open to its true future.16
Thus, here peace is not simply the absence of war though that
is essential. Nor is it simply diminishing conflict. Peace is not an
absence, but a presence. Shalom is those essential rhythms that make
our life together possible. It is what must be there within the human
heart, as presence and hope, to make meeting possible and fruitful.
It is what must be there in the relations between male and female,
young and old, teacher and learner, to make those relations flourish.
It is not sameness, but orchestrating differences so that all—persons,
families, communities, traditions—flourish. Peace is those rhythms
within the lives of persons and communities that make possible the
quest for justice and the achievement of fairness. Peace is the rhythm
between the inner and outer, the forward (future) and backward (past)
that is essential to human welfare and to social well-being. Peace is
the rhythm that allows us to orchestrate all the differences of age, gen-
der, birthplace, viewpoint, economic status, experience, education,
etc., that characterize the members of society into a community.17
16. See E. Rosenstock-Huessy, The Christian Future or the Modern Mind Outrun
(New York: Harper & Row, 1967), p. 242.
17. See also E. Rosenstock-Huessy, Speech & Reality (Norwich, VT: Argo Books,
1969).
D&A 22-1.indd 85 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

Societies exist in time and weave together members into a social

body. Societies are knit together with the bonds of the spirit: compas-
sion, love, justice, hope, fairness, duty, affection, etc. Societies break
down when these spiritual bonds are broken by fear, ignorance, mar-
ginalization, injustice, etc. From April 30-May 2, 1992, Los Angeles
erupted in fire and violence in response to the perceived injustice and
racism of the jury verdict in regard to Rodney King, who had been
beaten by four LA police officers. Before this eruption, was there gen-
uine social peace?
In the writings of Eugen Rosenstock-Huessy, peace is approached
in a social way. It has to do with the rhythms that make for life within
the community. This approach reflects his embeddedness within the
Judeo-Christian traditions of the West. But his efforts towards what
he called a “social grammar” deserve a wider hearing. The quest for
peace in society arises because of the recognition that members of a
community come from “different times and spaces” and that those
differences must be orchestrated into the life of society. For Rosen-
stock-Huessy there is a perpetual effort needed for societies to attain/
maintain peace. That perennial quest for peace arises, Rosenstock-
Huessy argues, because of a four-fold challenge. Every society is
faced inward and outward in space, and forward and backward in time.
Thus it is essential that rhythms between these fronts be maintained if
there is to be peace in society. We must cultivate an inner unanimity
or shared inspiration within, as well as efficient and just social insitu-
tions and patterns without. We must retain a healthy respect for the
achievements of the past without denying the need for change. But
in facing the future a society must pass on to new generations faith
and confidence to meet that future lest the society become decadent.
Finding adequate rhythms among these four fronts of life is the peren-
nial challege of all societies. Finding those rhythms brings peace; the
failure to find those rhythms brings social unrest.
The Many Faces of Peace

Peace as a social rhythm between different groups within society.
Peace as a state. Peace as a process. Peace as an end. Peace as a means.
Peace as a condition. Peace as the soul in communion with God. Peace
as the realization of Self. Peace as the cessation of all desire. Peace as
the overcoming of suffering. The meanings of peace are many.
D&A 22-1.indd 86 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

In thinking about peace in our time, we must recognize the new

situation in which we find ourselves. All of our societies are part of an
inter-dependent global order that unfolds within the context of a com-
mon or shared ecological matrix. One historic imperative that now lies
before us, as men and women of the spirit, is to remember the natu-
ral world, our Mother Earth, as the context of our societies. We have
created technological patterns of industrialization and agriculture that
now threaten the very earth which sustains all life.
We need to radically transform the relationship of technological
patterns to the ecological structures which sustain us all. As members
of society, we are called upon both to nurture that which enhances our
common life and to criticize that which destroys the environmental
foundations of society. The issues here are profound and complex,
but it is again an area where cross-religious initiatives might make an
important contribution.
As human beings, we all participate simultaneously in several soci-
eties: we are all part of cosmic, ecological, social, familial, and per-
sonal worlds. These “worlds” interpenetrate each other. Our actions in
one world affect life in all those worlds. We need to learn the rhythms
that can simultaneously enhance the whole both in its diversity and
unity. To my mind, one of the best and most concrete examples of this
is the social experiment of Mahatma Gandhi. In his prayers and inner
practices were the spiritual seeds of his social action, in his ashrams
were the common practices that could sustain life together as they
respected the religious convictions of all while acting for the whole.
The spiritual was not separated from the secular, nor was the spirit
confused with ideology. Gandhi’s experiments are a shining example
of how communities, incorporating diverse religious traditions and
addressing problems of social inequality (caste) and technical order,
can contribute to society. Yet his experiments were rooted in the par-
ticularities of his own Hindu vision. Thus, to what extent can his
efforts be instructive for others?
Four Foundations of Peace

Gandhi is, to my mind, a great example of the religiously inspired
peacemaker in his efforts to build the rhythms of peace between
Hindu and Muslim and Parsee and Christian, for his efforts to over-
come “caste boundaries” that denied the dignity of all human beings,
D&A 22-1.indd 87 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

and for his exploration of human forms of technology. In these efforts

he identified some of the rhythms of peace. What are those rhythms?
The first rhythm of peace grows out of the recognition of the dig-
nity of all human beings. Without this basic acknowledgement of the
dignity of all human lives, we cannot find our way to the rhythms
that make for peace in society? How essential this is is evident in
the case of the “untouchables” who became, in Gandhi’s words, “the
children of God.” The affirmation of human dignity is not the same as
human rights, nor is it to be equated with modern notions of equality.
In Christian terms this is the affirmation of humanity created in the
“imago dei;” in Buddhist terms, it is humanity as “Buddha nature”; in
Hindu terms, it is the Self.
Recognition of human dignity is the bass note for life together.
It is also essential that we learn to truly listen to the other even
though we will be changed by that listening. This is the second rhythm
of peace. It is a reciprocal process affecting all involved in the process.
As we listen to one another and in turn speak, we begin to build links
of understanding and of shared memory that are essential to the life of
society. It is the absence of social speech, of dialogue and exchange,
that underlies the conflict between Hindu and Muslim in India.
The third rhythm of peace that grows out of the earlier two is the
effort to find ways to share life with one another and find areas in
which we can cooperate with one another. We do this in our intimate
meeting with one another and in those forms of meeting that occur
across larger social spaces. Social institutions that provide the path-
ways for cooperation and regulate social processes in ways that are
just and right are essential to peace within the life of society.
The fourth rhythm of peace that is essential to recognize in our
time is that no particular religious tradition will be able to excercise
hegemony in the matter of peace on the planet. Thus it becomes essen-
tial to find rhythms of peace that acknowledge and respect the ways
of others that hold different understandings and follow different paths
towards peace.
These are some of the rhythms that can begin to restore life within
and between communities.
D&A 22-1.indd 88 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

A Poetic Conclusion
The disturbing question that hangs over us now is whether or not
peace is an impossibility, a utopian longing, given the corruption of
the human heart, the poisons of the mind, the pervasive “ignorance”
that clouds our mind, the ceaseless grasping that leads to suffering.
How can there be peace given a disordered humanity or within a dis-
ordered humanity?
However, let me conclude in a poetic voice:
Shanti, shanti, shanti,
the words fall from our lips

to longing hearts
ensnared in desire and
bound by suffering.
from whence comes the power

that can heal the longing spirit,
awaken the heart,
calm the mind,
light the fires of
joy and bliss that lie hidden
within
the longing soul.
Shalom, shalom, shalom,
the cry comes for a longing community,

made of women and men,
young and old,
mother and father,
weavers and spinners,
and more;
eternal forms of passing humanity
turned in and out,
forward and backward,
in communities large and small
across the globe:
longing for life
with justice for all,
D&A 22-1.indd 89 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

each giving and receiving,

awaiting the healing bonds of shalom.
Salaam, salaam, salaam,
we bow to the call

that comes from on high
to surrender what is false
and cling to what makes for peace,
it is homecoming,
to a place we had never
really left
but only forgotten.
D&A 22-1.indd 90 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

Epistemology of the Exact Science(s):
Mathematical Knowledge vis-à-vis Spiritual
Knowledge
Héctor Rosario
Abstract
T his manuscript explores epistemologies of mathematical

and spiritual knowledge. It embodies a critique of the cat-
egorical error in mathematics that logical truth is absolute
in its inferred unification of mind and spirit. I validate trans-rational
approaches toward spiritual truth as distinct from the truth statements
of mathematical logic.
Introduction
In 1930 the preeminent logician of the twentieth century, Kurt Gödel,
presented results stemming from his doctoral dissertation at the sec-
ond conference on Epistemology of the Exact Sciences in Königs-
berg. Gödel startled the audience with what came to be known as
Gödel’s First Incompleteness Theorem. This result, coupled with the
Second Incompleteness Theorem presented in 1931, is sometimes
referred to as Gödel’s Theorem. Unfortunately, it has become one of
the most (mis)quoted mathematical results in philosophical and reli-
gious discourse. Logician Torkel Franzén has aptly demystified these
misconceptions in Gödel’s Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use
and Abuse.1 The misunderstanding primarily springs from applying
technical terms in mathematical logic—like “formal system” and
“incomplete”—to similar terms in colloquial language. This is fur-
ther aggravated by a misplaced faith in mathematical knowledge as
absolute and eternal. Such mentality worships logical truth as divine
and numbers as uncreated entities. This is the Pythagorean religion
to which many mathematicians adhere. Nevertheless, mathematical
knowledge, as well as knowledge about the physical word, is insuf-
ficient in the pursuit of spiritual knowledge.
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 91 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

Definitions
To advance my thesis I must clarify what I mean by “spiritual knowl-
edge,” but first allow me to clarify other terms. Epistemology is the
branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and limitations of
knowledge, whereas “exact sciences” refer to mathematical or deduc-
tive sciences. To paraphrase Tarski—the other great logician of the
twentieth century—every mathematical science is a deductive science
and every deductive science is a mathematical science.2 Thus, an epis-
temology of mathematical sciences attempts to understand the pro-
cesses of knowledge acquisition within those realms.
Spirituality, on the other hand, is concerned with matters regard-
ing the purpose of humans as entities with unique relationships to the
Divine. Spirituality also implies a separation between body and spirit.
An epistemology of spirituality, or a spiritual epistemology, attempts
to describe the ways in which spiritual knowledge is obtained. Both
the mathematical sciences and spirituality aim at the acquisition of
knowledge, and both attempt to predict the outcome of events pro-
vided certain conditions are met. But the nature of those two types of
knowledge is distinct. Let us examine them more closely.
Spiritual knowledge is defined herein as absolute and objective
knowledge about who we are and what our relationship with other
entities is, in particular our relationship with a Higher Being. In addi-
tion, knowledge that allows us to realize the meaning of existence
as eternal spiritual entities, knowledge that allows us to transcend
suffering, and knowledge that allows us to understand death, will be
considered spiritual knowledge in this discourse. The effects of this
knowledge on its possessors are seen in the qualities these individuals
develop, like humility, compassion, tolerance, truthfulness, and for-
giveness. The degree to which these qualities are present in an indi-
vidual show the degree of that person’s spiritual advancement.
An opponent may concede that, under this definition, mathemati-
cal knowledge is not spiritual since the cultivation of virtues or the
exploration of the afterlife are independent of mathematical activity.
Yet, I am interested in having colleagues consider that they might be
in illusion if they think that either mathematics or science will reveal
to them spiritual realities, or that such knowledge will make them
more humble, tolerant, and forgiving—not as mere accidents—but as
the mathematical sciences’ reason for being.
D&A 22-1.indd 92 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

Rosario: Epistemology of the Exact Science 93
The Pythagorean Religion

Princeton mathematician Edward Nelson—a devout Christian—has
labeled the Platonic view of numbers as the “Pythagorean religion,”
asserting that Plato’s understanding and appreciation of mathemat-
ics was heavily influenced by the Pythagoreans.3 Yet, “like an under-
ground religion, it is observed in private and rarely mentioned in
public.”4
“Why do we mathematicians, makers like poets and musicians,
describe what we do as discovery rather than invention? This is
the Pythagorean religion.”
—Edward Nelson
For Pythagoreans—inventors of numbers and other curiosities—

numbers are uncreated: the source of all that is in the world. But if
numbers are uncreated then they are divine and thus on a par with God
in the polytheistic pantheon of mathematics. As a monotheist, Nelson
rejects this idea. Suppose now that numbers are created by a Higher
Being. Then, their nature and existence are dependent on the will of
their Creator, who could have created them differently. He finds this
absurd. “What other possibility is there? Simply that numbers do not
exist—not until human beings make them.”3
Epistemology of Mathematics
How mathematical knowledge is obtained is a highly debated topic far
from being resolved. A primary reason for the debate lies in the conflict-
ing philosophies of mathematics. There are three competing views in
the philosophy of mathematics, with an emerging fourth that attempts
to reconcile those three. Any ostensible epistemology of mathemat-
ics must conform to one of these philosophies since mathematicians
tend to be passionate (albeit covertly) about their views, which casts a
shadow over the allegedly objective nature of their discipline.
Platonic (Classical) view
Platonists believe that mathematical objects exist independently of the
human mind.
This predominating view is generally attributed to Plato, although
as intimated earlier, it goes back to the Pythagorean Brotherhood. It
D&A 22-1.indd 93 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

boasts among its most faithful believers the likes of Bertrand Russell
and Kurt Gödel. In this classical view, mathematical objects have a
pure existence in a Platonic world of ideas. Humans can only access
that knowledge, but never create it, since Platonists believe that math-
ematical objects exist independently of the human mind. For instance,
there are many theorems in classical mathematics where one dem-
onstrates—by contradiction—that the assumption that all objects fail
to have a property is false, and hence there must exist at least one
object with the property, even if there is no method for constructing
that object [3]. This faith in the existence of mathematical objects with
no idea on how to construct them led to the rise of a contending phi-
losophy of mathematics: intuitionism.
Intuitionist view
During the late 19th century, L.E.J. Brouwer launched an attack
against the classical view of mathematics and demanded that it was
not enough to claim that an object existed, but that one needed to be
able to construct such an object. David Hilbert vigorously assailed this
position—masquerading as a formalist—and a long debate ensued.
According to Nelson, both Brouwer and Hilbert, along with their
followers, failed to understand a short result of Gödel’s from 1933,
in which he showed that the intuitionist view was just an extension
rather than a restriction of classical mathematics[3]. Gödel proved
that “what Brouwer really did was extend classical mathematics by
the creation of two new logical operators: the constructive there exists
and the constructive or, stronger than their classical counterparts” [6].
But unfortunately, Gödel’s result continues to be ignored by many a
philosopher immersed in this dispute.
Formalist view
To the formalist, a mathematical formula does not denote anything
in particular. It is simply a string of symbols that follow a strict set
of rules. A mathematician’s job is to construct proofs—or concate-
nate formulas—that speak of nothing but themselves. Here semantics
is sharply distinguished from syntax. This distinction propelled the
development of mathematical logic since George Boole by making
it possible to surmount difficulties that Aristotelian logic was inad-
equate to confront.
D&A 22-1.indd 94 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

“Formalism denies the relevance of truth to mathematics.”

—Edward Nelson
As intimated above, David Hilbert portrayed himself as a formal-

ist, although he seems to have adopted this view as a way to combat
Brouwer’s intuitionism. This in no way diminishes Hilbert’s great
contributions to the advancement of knowledge in the foundations
of mathematics, but his thoughts on Georg Cantor’s Set Theory are
revealing: “No one shall expel us from the paradise that Cantor has
created for us” [6]. Although Hilbert attributes creation to Cantor, his
religious and romantic wording closely resembles that of a classicist.
Besides, Hilbert appears to have faith in mathematical truth, some-
thing irrelevant to the formalist. I quote from Nelson:
Formalism denies the relevance of truth to mathematics. But, one
might object, mathematics works—the evidence is all around us.
Does this not imply that there is truth in mathematics? Not in the
slightest. Suppose we find a primitive people, or an advanced
people, but a people with a worldview utterly alien to ours, who
have an herb that is quite effective for a certain illness. They
explain its efficacy in terms of the divine action of the shuki on
the body’s okrus. We find that the herb is equally effective in our
society. How much evidence does this provide for belief in the
shuki? None at all. The syntax is correct; the semantics is irrel-
evant. So it is with mathematics. It works. But this is no evidence
whatsoever that the religion of mathematics has any truth in it.3
Humanistic view
The last view, first expounded by Philip Davis and Reuben Hersh in
The Mathematical Experience over two decades ago—and by William
Byers in the recently released How Mathematicians Think—attempts
to harmonize the other three views by taking into account the human
aspect of mathematics. Regardless of whether mathematical truth
is objective or not, the fact remains that—as far as we know—only
humans have the capacity to develop it, enjoy it, and understand it.
Therefore, any philosophy of mathematics, according to them, must
deal with the creative processes involved in the doing and understand-
ing of mathematics. That might have something more revealing to
teach us about the human condition itself. Nevertheless, I have come
D&A 22-1.indd 95 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

to the conclusion that the humanistic approach is contained in formal-

ism—not as portrayed by Hilbert—but as espoused by Nelson. For
instance,
“My claim is that there is no Platonic reality underlying math-
ematics; mathematicians prove theorems, but the theorems are
not about anything.”
—Edward Nelson
However much amplification the following description of truth

may require, truth is a correspondence between a linguistic formula-
tion and reality. My claim is that there is no Platonic reality underlying
mathematics; mathematicians prove theorems, but the theorems are
not about anything. This is how mathematics differs profoundly from
science. Mathematicians no more discover theorems than the sculp-
tor discovers the sculpture inside the stone. But unlike sculpting, our
work is tightly constrained, both by the strict requirements of syntax
and by the collegial nature of the enterprise. This is how mathematics
differs profoundly from art.
To deny the cogency of the Platonic notion of truth in mathemat-
ics in no way deprives mathematics of meaning. In mathematics,
meaning is found not in a cold, abstract, static world of Platonic
ideas but in the human, historical, collegial world of mathemati-
cians and their work.6
Epistemology of Spiritual Knowledge

I regard knowledge as either spiritual or non-spiritual. Non-spiritual
knowledge may be subtle—like understanding the intricacies of math-
ematical logic—or it may be gross, like learning how to exploit other
humans. Yet what is common between the subtle and gross forms of
non-spiritual knowledge is that they aim at gratifying either mental or
physical desires that go beyond the basic psychological or biological
needs. Spiritual knowledge, on the other hand, aims at understanding
our existence as eternal souls—not out of curiosity—but as a natural
urge of being human.
Spirituality is better seen in a mystic light. Mysticism, from the
Greek word mystikos (an initiate), is the pursuit of a direct experience
D&A 22-1.indd 96 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

with the Divine. It seeks awareness into the mysteries of life and
death, happiness and sorrow, truth and untruth. Zoroastrians and Hel-
lenistic Greeks, Jews and Romans, Christians and Muslims, Mayans
and Incas, Hindus and Buddhists—and probably every religion in
the world—have had mystical elements in their fold. I am not claim-
ing that the practice of these different traditions will foster the same
experiences or that their ultimate goal is identical. I am simply not-
ing that they have certain practices that attempt to access the spiri-
tual realm by using the mind and body in specific ways. These might
include meditation, music or dance, among others. Mystics, although
they respect rational discourse, are open to realities that transcend the
rational mind. In mathematics, however, the rational mind remains the
ultimate criterion by which knowledge is judged. Granted there are
many divergent conclusions that mystical traditions have between one
another, but the root of these contradicting views lies not in the unreli-
ability of the mystic path as a legitimate medium for the transmission
of spiritual knowledge, but in the receivers themselves.
Consider the following analogy. If someone watches the evening
news with an improperly tuned TV or with a considerable amount
of static in the signal, that person might miss important words, like
nouns or connectives. If the person is questioned about a particular
piece of news that was transmitted during that time, he can only give
incomplete information or guess the missing words, potentially alter-
ing the facts. However, for one with a properly tuned TV, only dishon-
esty may separate him from correctly transmitting the information.
Certainly, the problem worsens if one takes into account psychologi-
cal factors in the processing of information.
How to tune in one’s TV—that is, our body and mind—so that
it can clearly and unequivocally hear the sound emanating from the
soul, is something that must be learned from an experienced guide.
Just as a novice surgeon will be ill-advised to perform (and hope-
fully prohibited from performing) surgery without the guidance of an
expert physician, a novice spiritual seeker will be ill-advised to pursue
the spiritual path without assistance. But often we are too arrogant or
too timid to consider this alternative. Nevertheless, it is wise to look
for help.
Spiritual knowledge dawns unannounced. Yet, the awakening of
this innate knowledge requires the pursuit of purity, truthfulness, and
D&A 22-1.indd 97 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

goodness. Since I was a child, I had the conviction that perfected peo-
ple existed—people fully aware of the spiritual dimension who were
without a trace of lust, anger or greed—even if I never met them. This
is where the spiritual epistemology becomes personal, as it is with any
philosophical search. It is up to us to search for those pure souls and
learn from them as much as we can. We may have one more day to
live or fifty years, but death is certain. Therefore, we must utilize our
time wisely.
Mathematical/Scientific Knowledge and the Spiritual Quest

Scientists, particularly physicists, believe there are absolute laws con-
trolling the universe, although they concede that science can only
give an approximation to those laws. Classical mathematicians, on
the other hand, are more audacious and believe not only that there are
laws governing a Platonic universe of mind, but that they can access
those truths unequivocally by way of the deductive method. Equating
mind with spirit, many mathematicians make the fundamental mistake
of taking logical truth as absolute.
One may wonder what other legitimate path there is to access
absolute truth, if the exact sciences fail to deliver it. I reiterate: the
mystic path. We will be at a loss to reject the mystic path, especially
for the pursuit of scientific knowledge. Scientific or mathematical
knowledge might satisfy some of our intellectual or practical needs,
but they will never satiate our need to understand the spiritual dimen-
sion. Although the pursuit of scientific and mathematical knowledge
can give an indication of spiritual reality to the sincere seeker, this
knowledge is ultimately irrelevant in the spiritual quest. A common
man or woman, with no specific training in the mathematical sciences,
can gain equal access to spiritual knowledge. This is the true great
equalizer, not mathematics. The only prerequisite is humility that will
lead one to surrender to the Divine or to his devoted adherents.
Conclusions
I have shared with you my realizations during the past few years,
as I prepared to write for this series of conferences. As a classical
mathematician, I was first ontologically inclined. This led me to write
on Gödel’s rational theology in 2006. As a formalist, I later became
D&A 22-1.indd 98 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

epistemologically inclined. This transition was seen in the Vaishnava

Ontological Argument last year, which was a parody of my intellec-
tual search. However, as part of my journey for spiritual realization,
I have forsaken both of those paths to cultivate profound experiences
that transform the way I live and that will impact the way I die. This is
the path of the mystic. I invite you to join the experience.
References
T. Franzén; Gödel’s Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse, A.K.
Peters, Wellesley, 2005.
A. Tarski; Introduction to Logic and to the Methodology of Deductive Sciences,

Fourth Edition, Oxford University Press, New York, 1994.
E. Nelson; “Confessions from an Apostate Mathematician,” http://www.math.princ-

eton.edu/~nelson/, 2000.
P. J. Davis, R. Hersh; The Mathematical Experience, Houghton Mifflin Company,

Boston, 1999, p.339.
W. Byers; How Mathematicians Think, Princeton University Press, Princeton, 2007.
E. Nelson; “Mathematics and Faith,” http://www.math.princeton.edu/~nelson/,

1999.
D&A 22-1.indd 99 7/28/2009 2:26:31 PM

New World
Encyclopedia
Organizing knowledge for happiness, prosperity, and world peace
www.newworldencyclopedia.org
Announcing an exciting, new knowledge base…
Ideal for students, educators, and general readers…
• A Free Internet Encyclopedia.
• Written by on-line collaboration with certified experts.
• Integrates facts with values.
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D&A 22-1.indd 100 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

The Greatest is Love
Jo Ann Crooks
H
e awoke from a momentary blackout to find a scene which
could only be from hell. Everywhere orange flames of
jet fuel fire lapped at the ceiling, and thick black smoke
choked the air. He could hear men and women screaming, in pain and
fear. Some people collected at broken-out windows. He only stood
and watched. Why could he no longer feel the pain of the searing heat,
he thought?
He stood for a few more moments, watching, when suddenly he
felt himself being lifted, higher and higher, away from the scene of the
smoke and pain.
There were four spiritual beings with him. He believed they were
angels. He had learned about angels when he was a boy, and when he
got older.
Mohamed had been a very sensitive boy. He would rather run
home to study than to play with the other boys. He wanted so much to
please his father, who expected him to be a good student. The injus-
tices he saw growing up planted the seeds that began to mold him into
the young man he would later become.
Mohamed began to see his life, as in a movie. He saw his child-
hood. He saw his time in Germany as a student, and the woman who
taught him English. She had been only kind to him. He saw the men
who taught him Jews and Christians were his enemies, and the ene-
mies of God, and must die. He saw the growing work of the al Qaeda,
and how hard he worked to hide their activities.
He saw his trip to Afghanistan to meet with Osama bin Laden, and
the plot that began to emerge to bring harm to America. He remem-
bered the fear and the thrill he felt.
He saw his time in America. He remembered the faces of the
American people, walking by him. He saw the flight school, the plot-
ting, the teaching, then the praying, and the morning of the flight. There
was something—was it a voice, warning him? He felt something. He
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 101 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

felt sick. But he had come this far. He was the leader. The rest of them
were depending on him. He had to go through with it.
The beings dropped him off without a word and disappeared. He
couldn’t understand. He was told his whole life he would be rewarded
as a martyr and receive all the delights of his eternal reward in the
next life. Not that he had done what he did for his own happiness or
glorification. He did it because it was right.
He was alone. It was dark. Suddenly, it began to rain. There was
lightening and thunder all around him. There was no shelter. He held
his hands over his ears. He sat down, protecting himself as best he
could from the pelting rain.
He tried to run, but everywhere was the same. He tried to rest, but
could not. Faces, faces of those he had killed, appeared one after the
other, everywhere he turned. There was no escape.
He began to cry. Slowly, he began to question. Hadn’t he done the
will of God? It was all he ever wanted to do. He had been so sure…
He felt someone take him by the hand. Suddenly he was standing
outside a house in America. The sun was shining and the smell of the
trees and the flowers planted in the garden smelled so good to him.
A blond-haired woman stood beside him. She still gently held
his hand. He had learned not to touch women, that it was a sin, but
her touch reminded him of his mother, bringing back memories of
so long ago, her gentle touch, and kisses stolen when she thought he
was asleep, and his father was not watching. He only pretended to be
asleep. He loved those kisses.
She let go of his hand and, facing him, spoke. “My name is Melinda
Johnson. I worked in the World Trade Center. I was there that day,
September 11th, the day you flew the plane into the floor I worked on.
I was killed by your hand.”
A twinge of pain pierced his heart. He averted her gaze that
strangely pulled him in. He felt no judgment from that gaze, only love,
the same love he remembered in his mother’s eyes.
“Mohamed,” she said. “This was my home. I have been sent to
help you understand. God knew you were not ready to look at what
you had done. I am the first of three spirits who will be sent to you.
Look and learn.”
In an instant they were inside the cozy home. Inside were a man
and two children, seated at the kitchen table. It was a home, like many
D&A 22-1.indd 102 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Crooks: The Greatest is Love 103
he had seen in America, but he never had one of his own. He had never
had a wife, or children. No, his dedication had been singular. His mis-
sion had consumed his whole life. He had willed it so.
“I still can’t believe Mom is gone,” said a boy, whose age he esti-
mated at about ten. The little girl just sat there and cried. “I hate those
men,” the boy continued. “If I could get a hold of them, I would shoot
them.”
“Now Nate,” the boy’s dad said. “You know what you’ve learned
in church. Jesus taught us to forgive, even our enemies.”
“I don’t want to forgive,” the boy yelled, and the “big boy”
demeanor he tried so hard to wear since his mother’s death washed
away in his tears.
His dad came over and put his arms around his neck from behind.
“If we want to kill people, out of anger, who have harmed us, we are
no better than they are. As Christians, we are called to a higher way
of life.”
“I don’t understand,” the boy whispered through his tears.
“I know,” his dad said. “It’s hard to understand. But I know if we
keep killing them because they kill us, it will never end. Someone has
to forgive for it to stop.”
“I miss Mom,” the boy said. His father just kept holding him. He
reached one hand over to the little girt, who sat and said nothing.
Mohamed’s mind began to spin. For so long, he had fought to
block the thoughts that were now seeping into his mind like rays of
light. When he would walk the streets of America, or Germany, and see
families together, walking, laughing; when he saw the innocent faces
of the children, he almost doubted. Maybe he was wrong. Maybe all he
was taught was not true. Maybe these people were not the enemy, the
devil. But he always tried to put those thoughts out of his mind. They
always lingered, though, just on the edge of his mind. He didn’t want
them to be there, but he could never completely make them go away.
In an instant, he was back in the dark and rain. He remembered
the woman told him he would have three visitors. He waited, thinking
about the boy, and the face of the little girl.
Soon a man stood beside him, and touched him on the shoulder.
In an instant they were transported to a busy neighborhood. Children
played on the streets outside. Older men sat on the steps. Shoppers
walked by with carts.
D&A 22-1.indd 103 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

The man spoke with a slight accent. “My name is Ahmed Hassan,”
he said to Mohamed. There was no anger or accusation in his eyes either,
as Mohamed expected. “I worked in the World Trade Center. I came to
America to give a better life for my children, my family. I came for
freedom. I am Muslim, like you. This is my apartment where I lived.”
It was smaller inside than the previous house, but it felt so warm
inside. It reminded him of his own home as a child. The house was
filled with bustle. A meal was being put on the table. It was the tra-
ditional sunken living room, where the family sat together on the
floor. There was an old woman, a younger woman, and three children.
Mohamed recognized the language. They gave thanks for the meal,
and everyone began to dig in. There was tiredness in the eyes of the
younger woman.
Ahmed spoke. “This is my family. I took care of my mother. I
went to the Mosque every week. I prayed faithfully every day, includ-
ing the morning of September 11th. When I died, I was taken to such
a beautiful place, and I am with my grandparents, my father, and all
those I love. I was sent to help you understand what life was for. It was
love, Mohamed. Nothing more. Nothing less.”
Mohamed felt the sharp pain in his heart again, but before he could
say anything, he was back again in his lonely, dark hell.
It seemed he was there for a long time. There was a lot of time
to think. What had he done? What if flying the plane into the World
Trade Center had been murder—murder of almost three thousand
innocent men, women, and children? That would make him one of the
worst criminals in history.
The pain he felt in his heart now was almost unbearable. He fell
down to his knees and hands, and tears began to mix with the rain fall-
ing down his face.
All he had ever wanted was to do God’s will. His religious lead-
ers had told him they were right. These people deserved to die. Now,
when he saw those families, when he saw the suffering of those in the
World Trade Center, he knew we are all the same—feeling the same
love and the same pain.
One more visitor remained, he remembered. Where would he go?
What would he learn?
A bright light appeared. It was hard for him to look at the face of
the visitor.
D&A 22-1.indd 104 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Crooks: The Greatest is Love 105
“I am the Prophet Mohammed,” the visitor said, “for whom you

were named.”
Mohamed fell prostrate to the ground. The rain had stopped and he
could see what seemed like the light of a sunrise appearing in the sky.
“Please stand up,” the elder Mohammed said to the young man.
Mohamed stood up, shivering.
“When I was alive on earth, I was told many things. From the eter-
nity of Allah, I have continued to learn many new things since leaving
my physical life. No man is an enemy. We are all of God and of a sin-
gle family. As children, we are all brothers and sisters. I work together
with what you always have called ‘prophets known and unknown’. I
work with the founders, saints and martyrs of all other great religions
to bring peace and true understanding among the inhabitants of earth.”
Mohamed could bear it no longer. He cried out, “What have I
done? I will be hated in all the earth! I caused so much pain. If I could
end my existence, I would.”
The Prophet Mohammed put his hand gently on the young man’s
shoulder. “My son,” he affectionately called him, “It causes me such
pain as I see people twist Allah’s injunctions and truth to cause such
pain and suffering on the earth. Even your pain, I myself feel. Allah
loves us like a father. Allah forgives us to help us see our error and
the evil within us.
“We must carry on the ways of Allah while here in the spiritual
world,” he continued. “We must work here as we should on earth,
to prevent those perversions that caused you to do the great evil you
did.”
Mohamed noticed the sky was light now. The landscape had been
transformed. There were now trees, flowers, a lake.
“Why am I here” asked the younger Mohamed?
“Many prayers went up to the throne of God for your soul,” spoke
the Prophet. “Though hate would be easier, natural, the people who
prayed for you were taught to forgive. They then resemble God Him-
self, who forgives us, even when we don’t deserve it.”
Mohamed stood up. “I will spend the rest of eternity making up
for what I have done. I will do only good!”
The Prophet spoke one more time. “Allah loves us like sons and
daughters. Just as with our own children, there is nothing we can do or
not do that can ever change that, or change how much Allah loves us.
D&A 22-1.indd 105 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

It is our own actions that cause us pain, and inflict pain on one another,
and therefore, cause the utmost pain to the heart of Allah. It is that we
need to ask forgiveness for—from Him, and from each other.”
“If only I had known these things while I was alive,” Mohamed
said, through tears.
“You may be able to keep someone else from wasting their life,”
the Prophet said. With that, he disappeared and the young Mohamed
was surrounded by all those he loved who had passed on. He could not
believe such happiness could be his.
She was waking up from sleep, wondering if the fading memory
was a dream, a figment of her imagination, or something else. The
man she had seen as the ringleader of the nineteen September 11th
highjackers, Mohamed, had come to her and asked her to write and
tell people his story. “They must understand the truth. Only love and
true understanding between religions can save our world. Only if I can
get this message across can I find any peace,” he said.
She sat down at her computer. “My imagination or not, from
Mohamed or not, maybe this story can make a difference. Maybe it
can help someone, filled with hatred, think about the consequences of
their actions.” She began to write…

D&A 22-1.indd 106 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Book Reviews
Mending a Torn World: Women in Interreligious Dialogue.
By Maura O’Neill. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2007. 160 + xv pp. Paper.
$20.00. ISBN 978-1-57075-726-6.
Although the subtitle of this book points to inter-religious dialogue,

the real focus of the work is on intra-religious dialogue, that is, con-
versations within a faith community. In addressing the historical
shortcomings of interfaith efforts, O’Neill focuses on two factors:
first, the dearth of women (and women’s perspectives and issues) in
these efforts, and second, the fact that the people engaged in interfaith
dialogue typically come from the more liberal sectors of their respec-
tive religious traditions. Mending a Torn World has a clear agenda,
namely, the redressing of these historical conditions by foregrounding
women, by advocating that their concerns form a basis for dialogue,
and by offering practical steps that can be taken to advance both intra-
and inter-religious conversations.
In Part One, “Understanding the Problem,” O’Neill first defines
the terms conservative, centrist, and progressive within the contexts
of Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. She notes
carefully that feminism is found across the spectrum, that conser-
vatism does not necessarily imply anti-modernism, that progressiv-
ism can embrace tradition, and that salient issues for women diverge
not only between traditions but also within them. She then leads the
reader deftly through each of the five traditions, outlining the scrip-
tural, doctrinal, institutional, and broader cultural circumstances that
have described and prescribed women’s roles in the faith. Mending a
Torn World offers a primer of salient issues and suggests the variant
views on these issues that women can hold. The book’s discussions of
Islam and the non-Abrahamic traditions should prove especially valu-
able for readers likely to be more knowledgeable about Christianity
and, to some extent, Judaism, than the other three religions. The chap-
ter on Hinduism and Buddhism is crystalline in its focus on represen-
tations of ideal womanhood (for Hinduism) and on the ordination of
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 107 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

nuns as a central problem in Buddhism. O’Neill’s extended treatment

of the Hindu epic Ramayana not only explains the enduring centrality
of Sita as the ideal Hindu wife but also enables the non-Hindu reader
to appreciate the wealth of textual variation, interpretation, and recep-
tion of the paradigm. This chapter alone is a rich resource for inter-
faith learning.
In Part Two, “Proposing Some Solutions,” O’Neill identifies obsta-
cles to fruitful religious dialogue, after which she suggests methods,
topics, and issues for women’s dialogue. Obstacles to intra-religious
dialogue parallel those for inter-religious dialogue (stereotyping and
reliance on selective information), to which she adds “fear of loss
of identity”—a special problem when the “other” is a co-religionist.
A further obstacle for intra-religious conversation is the potential to
engage in debate rather than dialogue; in inter-religious dialogue, par-
ticipants do not assume that they will convert the other to their point
of view, whereas in intra-religious dialogue, the pull to “correct” the
other can be strong. Methods for dialogue are somewhat general and
include defining the purpose of the conversation, introducing par-
ticipants with personal stories so as to humanize their concerns, and
teaching participants to engage in active listening. O’Neill’s topics
and issues for dialogue relate directly to women; she lists women’s
spirituality, sexuality and gender roles, the relation of the past to the
present, and the nature of religious authority as the defining issues for
women of all faiths. O’Neill does not suggest that her proposed meth-
ods and agendas will overcome or eradicate significant differences
among women of faith; rather, she offers hope that the appreciation of
others as individuals with personal spiritual journeys and convictions
borne of their personal circumstances will yield understanding rather
than the outright rejection of the faith of others.
There are some infelicities in the book, ranging from minor typos
(such as WCC for WOC on page 39) to misplaced footnotes (notes 132
and 133 do not align with the text in chapter 3). Other problems are
more pervasive, such as the conflation of sex, gender, and sexuality,
particularly when the topic of homosexuality is raised; sexual orienta-
tion is a matter of sexuality, not of gender. At times, O’Neill’s passion
and determination to bring religious women together in dialogue leads
her to overreach: “women are better able than men to bridge the wide
abyss of misunderstanding that plagues our world” (7), or “women’s
D&A 22-1.indd 108 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Book Reviews 109
dialogue is better able to bridge the gap between religious factions

because of its method and its content” (xiii). Even when prefaced by
a note indicating that it is the author’s own opinion, such essentialist
assertions and monolithic appraisals undercut the value of the work
as a whole. At other times, O’Neill’s inclination to present individual
women through their stories—and then to refer to them throughout the
book—threatens to valorize these particular women as representatives
of a certain position (conservative, centrist, or progressive) within a
given religion. Women can speak from, but not for, a branch of a reli-
gious tradition.
Nonetheless, the case for serious intra-religious dialogue among
women is overdue and well made by O’Neill. Her conversational writ-
ing style is winning and her sympathetic overtures to all women of
faith are sincere and persuasive. Without the participation of women
spanning the spectra of religious traditions, interfaith dialogue efforts
surely cannot move beyond being conclaves of the like-minded and
already converted.
Vivian Nyitray
University of California, Riverside, California
Gandhi & Jesus: The Saving Power of Nonviolence.

By Terrence J. Rynne. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008. 228 + ix pp.
Paper. $20.00 ISBN 978-1-57075-766-2.
Few will contest the claim that Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was
the greatest interpreter and practitioner of non-violence (ahimsa) in
contemporary times. The sources of Gandhi’s understanding of ahimsa
and its transformative implications are many. These include tradi-
tional Hindu and Jain teachings and notably the teaching and exam-
ple of Jesus as articulated, particularly, in the Sermon on the Mount.
For Gandhi, Jesus’ words in this famous text constitute the heart of
Christianity. This teaching must not be regarded as idealistic, irrel-
evant to daily life or the preserve of renunciants (sannyasins). Gener-
ally speaking, as far as the Hindu tradition was concerned, the ethic
of ahimsa was limited to the interpersonal sphere of relationships and
the emphasis placed almost entirely on abstention from inflicting hurt
on others; the more positive potential of the term was not prominent
in traditional discussions.
D&A 22-1.indd 109 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Gandhi’s genius was in embracing this fundamental teaching in

both Hinduism and Christianity, infusing it with new meaning and
demonstrating its practical possibilities in a mass-movement for resist-
ing oppression and injustice and constructing a new community free
from violence. In one of those remarkable examples of inter-religious
encounters and fertilization, the Reverend Dr. Martin Luther King,
Jr., a Christian minister, turned to the Mahatma to learn the meth-
ods of translating this teaching of Jesus into a method of non-violent
resistance. Jesus in King’s understanding had furnished the rationale
and spirit for ahimsa in struggling against injustice; Gandhi, however,
developed and gifted him the method. King saw the unending poten-
tial present when Jesus’ teaching about love for the other is united
with Gandhi’s method of non-violent resistance (satyagraha). For
both Gandhi and King, non-cooperation with evil was a moral obliga-
tion as much as was cooperation with good.
Rynne’s work on Gandhi and Jesus continues this inter-religious
conversation on the subject of non-violence and is an excellent theo-
logical example of the mutual enrichment that is possible in such com-
parative inquiry. Rynne’s work begins with a discussion, helpful to
the reader who is new to Gandhian thought, of the salient features of
Gandhi’s biography and religio-political thought. This is an accessible
and admirably selective exposition of central concepts such as satya
(truth), agraha (firmness), ahimsa, and tapasysa (self-suffering).
The emphasis is upon Gandhi’s appropriation and infusion of new
meaning into traditional thought. With this foundation and clarifica-
tion, the author treats four Christian theologians (C. F. Andrews, John
Howard Yoder, Bernard Haaring, Walter Wink) who are exponents of
non-violence and who, like King, came under Gandhi’s influence. All
four understand Jesus’ mode of living as central to the meaning of the
religious life and reject his death as the will of an angry and vengeful
deity. Rynne concludes his study with a call for a new understanding
of salvation that is centered on being “united with him [Jesus] in the
work of lifting up those whom society has left behind and in carrying
on the work of building the Kingdom” (186).
Although Rynne’s work is primarily a call to Christians to rethink
the meaning of salvation and to self-critically consider the prominence
of violence in Christian history and the alternative of non-violence,
its significance is much broader. It is an invitation to all religious
D&A 22-1.indd 110 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Book Reviews 111
traditions to look at the roots of violence in their own doctrines and

structures and to replace these with the life-giving power of non-vio-
lence. Rynne’s study is a timely call that should be heard across all
traditions world-wide.
Anantanand Rambachan
St. Olaf College, Northfield, Minnesota
Conflict and Reconciliation: The Contribution of Religions.

Edited by John W. Bowker. New York, NY: The Key Publishing House.
354 pp. Paper. $34.99. ISBN 978-0-97804-319-3.
This book is the result of a project funded by Gresham College, Lon-

don, which brought together experts in Buddhism, Confucianism,
Christianity, Judaism, Islam, Hinduism, and conflict resolution, to
discuss the extent to which world religions may play a role in con-
flict resolution. The project was coordinated by John Bowker, who
wrote the introduction and co-authored one of the articles. The other
contributors were: Andrew Acland, Jeremy Brooks, Lavinia Cohn-
Sherbok, Gavin Flood, Mary Grey, Peter Harvey, Christopher Lamb,
David Thomas and Xinzhong Yao.
The volume makes important contributions to religious studies on
a number of levels. It provides an introduction to some of the methods
and terminology of conflict resolution. It also provides a great deal of
historical background concerning world religions. Another useful fea-
ture of the book is the discussion of recent conflicts involving religion,
such as those between militant Muslims and Hindu groups in India,
Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus in Sri Lanka, the opposition of
Buddhists in Burma to the Marxist government that has been in power
since 1962, Buddhist responses to the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia,
and Jewish and Muslim conflicts regarding Israel.
Although the goal of the book is to assess the extent to which reli-
gions can provide resources to end conflicts, the impression that many
readers are likely to be left with is that religion is at best an ambiguous
resource for conflict resolution. Among the reasons that support such a
conclusion is first that all world religions condone violence in certain
circumstances. This is not only true of religions such as Christianity
which has sanctioned religious crusades, and Islam with its doctrine
of jihad, but of Hinduism and Buddhism as well. For example, the
D&A 22-1.indd 111 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Bhagavad Gita which was appealed to by Gandhi to justify non-

violent protest is also cited by contemporary Hindu nationalist groups
to justify violence against Muslims. And the Dalai Lama, despite his
commitment to non-violence, has stated that he cannot bring himself
to condemn the insurgents fighting on behalf of freeing Tibet from
Chinese occupation (147).
A second reason that prevents world religions from playing a more
effective role in promoting peace and community is that appeal to these
ideals has often been used by religious groups as a means of maintain-
ing the status quo and oppression of minorities. For example, appeal
to harmony in classical Confucianism was used to justify a patriarchal
order in which women were subordinate to men. Similarly, appeals to
community in Hinduism have been used to justify both patriarchy and
the caste system. And, within Mahayana Buddhism, where it is taught
that there is in actuality no such thing as selfhood and that discrimi-
nation is unjustified, men have nevertheless always been privileged
over women. Appeal to reconciliation under such conditions is thus
a means of promoting injustice rather than justice. Perhaps the day
will come when there will be a female Pope, Dali Lama, or Imam, but
the hope seems faint at present. Given the discrimination that occurs
within religious organizations, Andrew Acland concludes in his article
that “religions which preach reconciliation and peacemaking could ...
begin by taking a greater responsibility for resolving the conflicts they
inspire or in which their followers are involved” (46).
Religions could also promote inter-religious dialogue as a means
to peace to a far greater extent than at present. Mary Grey, arguing
from a Catholic perspective, maintains that Christians are more seri-
ously dedicated to bringing about peace than at any other time in his-
tory, and expresses hope that this will continue. But she then admits
that “the fact that Pope John Paul II and his successor (as Cardinal
Ratzinger) opposed Liberation Theology, and that Papal, or at least
Vatican, Catholicism gives no serious indication of seeking peace
and reconciliation with other Christians except on its own terms, may
seem a contradiction” (276). She is nevertheless optimistic. Given the
increasing number of individuals and organizations concerned with
inter-religious dialogue, and the success of Dialogue and Alliance,
now in its twenty-second year of publication, there is perhaps some
reason for optimism in this regard.
D&A 22-1.indd 112 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

Book Reviews 113
One omission in the book is that there is no discussion of the

stance of world religions with respect to the concept of human rights.
Many scholars maintain that this is a purely western idea that can-
not be found in Asian religions. Other people reject this thesis and
believe that until world religions embrace the concept of human rights
and develop institutions dedicated to promoting them to a far greater
extent than at present, there will be no world peace, a thesis with
which I agree.
Gene G. James
University of Memphis, Memphis, Tennessee
D&A 22-1.indd 113 7/28/2009 2:26:33 PM

THE MUSLIM WORLD BOOK REVIEW
The Comprehensive Guide to Literature on Islam and the Muslim world
The Muslim World Book Review published

quarterly since 1980 offers an indispensable
and broad survey of academic writing on
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Wider World (Yahya Birt)
 In and Out of Copyright: Writing and Dialogue (Kenneth Cragg)
 In Search of a Lost Legacy: The Politics of National Identity and Islam in
Turkey (Mehmet Asutay)
 Christianity, Islam, and the Religious Other: From Indifference to
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D&A 22-1.indd 114 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

Book Notices
Beyond Compare: St. Francis De Sales and Sri Vedanta
Desika on Loving Surrender to God.
By Francis X. Clooney. Washington, DC: Georgetown University Press,
2008. 271 + xiii pp. Paper. $34.95. ISBN 978-1589012110
Beyond Compare is written by Francis X. Clooney, SJ of Harvard

Divinity School, a comparative theologian who has spent thirty years
studying Hindu traditions. In this volume, Clooney takes classic texts
from the two traditions—the Christian Treatise on the Love of God
by St. Francis de Sales (1567-1623) and the Hindu Essence of the
Three Auspicious Mysteries by Sri Vedanta Desika (1268-1369)—and
examines each author’s understanding of the role of reason, scripture,
theological presuppositions, imagination, and the ethics of “loving
surrender” to God.
The book is a valuable contribution to Christian spiritual theol-
ogy, highlighting the beautiful insights into love by St. Francis de
Sales. It also points out how, in our world of many religious paths,
we can recover and deepen the ancient tradition of loving surrender
into God’s hands by opening ourselves to one of Hindu India’s most
famous traditions of loving God as expressed in the writings of Sri
Vedanta Desika. Clooney’s deep engagement with these texts provides
the reader with the opportunity to advance along the path of surrender
to God, meditating on these two paths together, and so deepening our
own love and willingness to surrender in love to God.
A remarkable commentary on spiritual learning, this book pro-
vides a deeper insight into how we can most fruitfully and spiritually
think about religious pluralism in the twenty-first century, being open
in heart and mind and at the same time remaining loyal to one’s own
tradition.
Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 115 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices,

and the Neighbor.
By Amos Yong. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008. 169 + xvii pp. Paper.
$25.00. ISBN 978-1570757723
An offering from the “Faith Meets Faith” series in inter-religious dia-

logue, Amos Yong’s Hospitality and the Other reveals how Jesus’ prac-
tice of hospitality is fundamental to Christian life and that it extends
to those of all faiths. Yong is a Malaysian-born Chinese American
theologian whose scholarly life is dedicated to deepening biblical the-
ology and the promotion of ecumenical and interfaith understanding.
In this text, Yong builds on biblical scholarship and insights into the
practices of Jesus and the early church, showing that the “other” from
a different faith tradition may be alien and a stranger but also a neigh-
bor to whom hospitality should be extended and from whom it is to
be received.
For Christians, the belief in the unique mission of Jesus as savior
has colored views of the “other,” often supplanting hospitality with the
need for conversion. Yong’s revolutionary approach contends that the
hospitality practiced by Jesus and the early church is what is needed
in today’s pluralistic, multi-faith, multi-ethnic society. Such hospital-
ity is empowered by the Spirit of God and provides a basis for inter-
religious dialogue among adherents of all faiths in the roles of guests
and hosts, leading to the possibility of reconciliation and healing.

A Palestinian Cry for Reconciliation.
By Naim Stifan Ateek. Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2008. 224 + xvi pp.
Paper. $24.00. ISBN 978-1570757846
Naim Stifan Ateek is a Palestinian Anglican priest, an Arab citizen of

Israel, and the founder of Sabeel, an ecumenical theological center in
Jerusalem that works for the liberation of Palestinians. This book con-
tinues Ateek’s efforts toward peace and justice in the Middle East that
began in his 1989 publication, Justice and Only Justice. The vision
Ateek presents is three-fold: the unity of all Palestinian Christians,
dialogue between Christian and Muslim Palestinians, and justice and
peace between Israelis and Palestinians. Ateek’s vocation and prox-
imity to the situation bring both Biblical and social insights into his
D&A 22-1.indd 116 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

Book Notices 117
writings, making this text a valuable contribution to both religious

studies and social issues.
Following a Foreword by Desmond Tutu, the book begins by
“Recapping History”—the history of the Sabeel center and the back-
ground that led to the current situation, including the lack of progress
toward peace in the past twenty years. The second part addresses Pal-
estinian Liberation Theology in the service of nonviolence and peace.
Here Ateek offers discussion and critiques of key biblical passages that
illuminate the struggle between Israelis and Palestinians, with particu-
lar reference to the Holy City of Jerusalem. He concludes this section
with a call for the building of a New Jerusalem that is open to all, not
just Israelis or Palestinians, but to all people of the world. In promoting
this vision, Ateek reminds us that God is not limited to any place, no
matter how holy; it is through transcending the material and physical
that we meet God in love and service to fellow human beings.
The third part further explores “The Peace We Dream Of.” Ateek
identifies the major principles or building blocks upon which a just
and lasting peace can and must be built. He calls for a process based
on non-violence and justice to move from the pain of injustice and
conflict to the way of healing, forgiveness, reconciliation, and peace.

Religion and Human Fulfillment.
By Keith Ward. London: SCM Press, 2008. 187 + xviii pp. Paper. $24.99.
ISBN 978-0334041634
Religion and Human Fulfilment by Keith Ward, one of the foremost

commentators on Christian belief and doctrine in the context of mod-
ern science and the world faith traditions, is a short, accessible series
of reflections on several ethical problems in the light of four of the
world’s major faith traditions—Christianity, Judaism, Islam, and Bud-
dhism. The text is based on the John Albert Hall lectures given at the
University of Victoria in Canada, and the Gresham College lectures
given in London by Keith Ward in 2006.
Ward contends that morality is an autonomous entity knowable
to all human beings, and not intrinsically connected to any particu-
lar religious belief. He also assumes, controversially in contemporary
times, that religions seek to be forces of good in the world, promot-
ing human fulfilment. He then proceeds to trace the consequences of
D&A 22-1.indd 117 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

religious views on morality by considering specific moral problems

such as violence, human genetic modification, sexuality, and ethical
concerns around the beginning and ending of human life, as well as
questions about secular and religious law.
While Ward disagrees with much of contemporary atheistic thought
that religion is irrational and leads people to behave in immoral and
unethical ways, he accepts that religion needs to change. The change
he suggests is one in which religion and morality work together to
give hope to the world, resulting in more humane forms of religion
and a more idealistic vision of human nature. The text is a positive
contribution to contemporary debate on religion and morality.
Mothers of Promise: Women in the Book of Genesis.

By Tammi J. Schneider. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2008. 240 pp.
Paper. $21.99. ISBN 978-0801029493
The women in Genesis, such as Eve, Noah’s wife, Sarah, Tamar, and
others, played a vital role in shaping Israel’s foundation, growth, and
development. To fully understand their impact in the formation of
the nation and faith of Israel, a closer study than has generally been
offered is required. In this book, respected Hebrew scholar and archae-
ologist Tammi Schneider provides a careful reading of the stories of
all these “Women of Promise” whose lives formed a significant part
of the foundation of Israel.
Her creative approach challenges traditional ways of viewing
these women and offers a different perspective on familiar stories.
Schneider looks at each woman’s story from various angles and
within the context of her relationships and the message of Genesis as
a whole. Along with the matriarchs of Israel, such as Sarah, Rebekah,
and Rachel, she includes other mothers such as Hagar and Asenath
who were Egyptian, as well as women who bear no children yet have
great impact on the story of Israel, such as Mrs. Potiphar. Her inclu-
sion of ancient Near Eastern background material and archaeological
insights makes for a fresh reading of the accounts of the lives of all
these important women. The result is a creative and reliable discus-
sion that is a valuable supplement to studies of Genesis and the roles
and importance of women in the Bible. It is a solid resource for studies
of Genesis, women in the Bible, and women’s issues.
D&A 22-1.indd 118 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

Contributors
Dr. Frank Kaufmann is Editor-in-Chief of the New World
Encyclopedia, Editor-in-Chief for Dialogue and Alliance, and the
Executive Director of the Inter-Religious Federation for World
Peace.
Raj Kumar is a freelance writer from the engineering sector.
S. L. Gandhi is President and International Secretary of the Gen-

eral Assembly of Anuvrat Vishva Bharati (ANUVIBHA).
Enoch Olújídé Gbádégesin is Lecturer in the Department of

Religious Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Òsun-State,
Nigeria.
Allen S. Maller has been the Rabbi at Temple Akiba of Culver City
since 1967. He is editor of a series of High Holy Day prayer books
and author of a book on Jewish Mysticism, God, Sex, and Kabbalah.
M. O. Adeniyi is Senior Lecturer of the Department of Religious

Studies, Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile Ife, Nigeria.
Darrol Bryant is Professor of Religion and Culture and Acting

Dean at Renison College, Canada.
Hector Rosario teaches mathematics and mathematics education

at the University of Puerto Rico, Mayagüez Campus.
D&A 22-1.indd 119 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

World Scripture
A Comparative Anthology of Sacred Texts
is an extraordinary journey through the sacred writings of the world’s great
religions. Organized by subject, the quotations, passages, and excerpts
presented here provide readers with easy access to teachings on several
hundred subjects. This unusual anthology provides a new, holistic approach to
understanding religion—stressing what unites rather than what divides.
“World Scripture is most

needed, and very beautiful.”
—Rabbi Joseph Gelberman, President,
The New Seminary
“A gigantic contribution
towards better international
understanding and inter-
religious cooperation.”
—Wahiduddin Khan, President,
The Islamic Center
“...a step on the way to

something new: a scripture
for a truly global culture, a
Only $22.95 resource for a theology fit
Edited by Andrew Wilson for an increasingly
ISBN: 1-55778-723-9, Paper, 882 pages
Also available in cloth ($39.95) interdependent world.”
—John Kelsay, Florida State University
Among the religious texts represented are Judaism, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, Taoism,
Hinduism, Confucianism, Zoroastrianism, and many of their offshoots. Also featured are the oral
traditions of various religions of Africa, Native America, Asia, and Oceania
along with their recorded prayers and proverbs.

800-447-3709
D&A 22-1.indd 120 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

New Perspectives on the
Pressing Issues of World Peace
No issue is on the human mind more than the search for
peace. There are numerous factors like globalization, national
interest, ethnic identity, hunger, the environment, ideology,
human nature, and the economy, all of which have an impact
on world peace. International Journal on World Peace is con-
cerned with all of these.
A scholarly publication, Interna-

tional Journal on World Peace cuts
across all disciplines, all cultures, all
politics, and all philosophies. Each issue
contains diverse articles from authors
around the world.
International Journal on World

Peace is an established journal, pub-
lished quarterly since 1984. It contains
reviews of recent books related to
world peace, and is indexed each year.
It is abstracted, indexed, or made avail-
able on CD-ROM by several agencies. It
is a welcome addition to any library.
“International Journal on World Peace is recommended

as a core journal of the social sciences.”—Choice Magazine
Subscriptions are $30.00 for institutions and $20.00 for individuals.

Send your subscription order to:
International Journal on World Peace
1925 Oakcrest Avenue, Suite 7
St. Paul, MN 55113 USA
Phone: (651) 644-2809 • Fax: (800) 494-0997
Internet: http://www.pwpa.org
D&A 22-1.indd 121 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

Jewish-Christian Dialogue:
Drawing Honey from the Rock
Alan L. Berger and David Patterson
Only $19.95
Available September 15, 2008
ISBN 978-1-55778-856-6 | Paperback | 322 Pages | 6" x 9"
The future of Jewish-Christian dialogue will be determined by the difficult and

ignored questions raised in this powerful and promising book.
Jewish-Christian Dialogue: Drawing Honey from the Rock attempts to clear up
the misunderstandings and misconceptions between Jews and Christians while
pursuing the historical and theological issues that separate them. Like no other
book on the market, Jewish-Christian Dialogue does this in a way that is both
theoretical and applied.
“In this lucid and cutting-edge study, Jewish and Christian scholars have
reflected on their faith traditions and have pursued the historical as well as
theological issues that have separated their respective communities for nearly
two millennia. Twin premises guide this scholarly exposition: Christians and
Jews should not fear the differences that separate them; dialogue requires
distinctive perspectives. Berger’s and Patterson’s work is timely and establishes
a network of challenges for furthering dialogical experiences.”
—Donald Dietrich, Department of Theology, Boston College

800-447-3709
D&A 22-1.indd 122 7/28/2009 2:26:34 PM

D&A 22-1 "The Time To Act Is Now"

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The Time to Act is Now

DHARM IN INDIAN and GLOBAL PANORAMA

A New Paradigm of Socio-Economic World

Our King Must Hear about this: Practicing Recon-

Revelation Is Not a Zero Sum Game

Religion and the Effort to Sustain Peace in a

Shanti, Shalom, Salaam: REFLECTIONS ON THE QUEST

Epistemology of the Exact Science(s):

The Greatest is Love

Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 1 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Gandhi & Jesus: The Saving Power of Nonviolence

Conflict and Reconciliation: The Contribution of Religions

Hospitality and the Other: Pentecost, Christian Practices, and the

A Palestinian Cry for Reconciliation

Religion and Human Fulfillment

Mothers of Promise: Women in the Book of Genesis

D&A 22-1.indd 2 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

T he current flourishing of interfaith activity and idealism is

Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 3 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

succeeding generations from the scourge of war. The grand spray of

D&A 22-1.indd 4 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

fundamental change in the purpose and goal of religious and interfaith

D&A 22-1.indd 5 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

a perrenialist intuition into the similarities we find across the great

D&A 22-1.indd 6 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Dharm in Indian & Global Panorama

Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 7 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

peaceful, and purposeful. These principles, if followed with utmost

D&A 22-1.indd 8 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

people residing outside, by and large, do not have a clear conception

D&A 22-1.indd 9 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

and hence Dharm has been aptly described as “A Way of Living.”

D&A 22-1.indd 10 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

Ashoka the Great, Chandragupta Vikramaditya, Harsh and the like.

Quest for Peace—A Realistic Approach

D&A 22-1.indd 11 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

D&A 22-1.indd 12 7/28/2009 2:26:27 PM

And this is the writer’s message to the entire humanity, and, in

D&A 22-1.indd 13 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

“Cogent, constructive, controversial.”

Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit

Preorder your copy today at

D&A 22-1.indd 14 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

At the Zenith of Materialistic Progress,

At the beginning of the last two decades of our century, we find

Dialogue & Alliance

D&A 22-1.indd 15 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

Moreover, the so called rich also do not experience a state of blessed-

Jainism and the Present Crisis

D&A 22-1.indd 16 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

and ichha primaan (limiting one’s desires, wants and possessions).

Jainism is a momentous example to all of us that there can, and

Michael Tobias is but one example. When he became familiar with

Jainism is neither bound by caste nor by any institution. It is an

D&A 22-1.indd 17 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

and dvesa (aversion or hatred) have been completely annihilated.

Acharya Mahapragya makes a clear distinction between sect and

The Jain Paradigm of Socio-Economic World Order

D&A 22-1.indd 18 7/28/2009 2:26:28 PM

The Jain View of Samsara and Suffering