Lesson Plans 1-2 (Week 1-2) Chapter One: The study of the morphologi al stru ture of !

nglish 1" Learning O#$e ti%es Upon completing this chapter, students are expected to be able to: 1.1 Identify the morpheme base affixes allomorph and morph. 1.2 Identify the types of morpheme morph. 1.3 Identify the function of morpheme base affixes, allomorph and 1.4 Use the morpheme base affixes, allomorph and morph in 1. !e a"are of different types of allomorphs in "ords. 2" Topi s of Content 2.1 #hat is $orpheme% 2.2 #hat is &egmentation% 2.3 'ypes of $orpheme 2.4 !ase English correctly.

2. (ffixes and (ffixation 2.) (llomorph 2.* $orph

&" Tea hing and Learning 'ethod 4.1 +ectures 4.2 !rainstorming 4.3 ,iscussions 4.4 (ssignment

4.

-resentations

(" Tea hing 'aterials 4.1 $ain textboo. 4.2 &upplementary materials 4.3 'ransparencies 4.4 /harts 4. #or.sheet 4.) 'extboo.s 4.* English ,ictionary )" 'easurement and !%aluation &tudents "ill be e0aluated on: .1 Exercise in the boo. .2 &mall test

.3 1bser0ation of the learners attention and participation

Chapter One The *tudy of the 'orphologi al *tru ture of !nglish (ccording to traditional linguistic theories, grammatical description

largely operates on t"o important units: the "ord and the sentence. 'hese t"o units form the basis of the differing "riting systems in 0arious languages of the "orld. In order to ma.e the study of meaningful linguistic elements simpler

and more explicit, it has been found con0enient to postulate abstract

entities called 2morphemes3 in some"hat the same "ay in "hich and more explicit.

phonemics "ere postulated to ma.e the study of speech sounds simpler In English, the smallest grammatical unit is the morpheme 4"hich is

unstructured5 and each higher unit is made up of units immediately belo" it. 'he highest grammatical unit is the sentence "hich includes all the smaller units. 'hus, morphemes function in the "ord structure, "ord and clause structure in the complex sentence structure. 'he diagram belo" sho"s this hierarchical arrangement of syntactic structure in English.

structures in the group structure, group structures in the clause structure,

&entence /lause 6roup

#ord $orpheme

What is 'orpheme+ "ith the structure of "ords. It is the study of "ords 7 "ords "hich exhibit arrangements of morphemes. 'he study of "ord7formation or the language. structure of "ords in a language is called the morphology of that 'he definition of the morpheme may not be completely unassailable $orpheme, an important di0ision of the grammar of a language, deals

as "ill be e0ident from the discussion that follo"s, but it is certainly a language. &ome linguists describe morphemes as the 2smallest recurrent

0ery satisfying definition applicable to a ma8ority of "ords in any elements of grammatical patterning3 and lea0e meaning out of the definition. 'he "ord 2recei0e3 may be regarded as one morpheme9 if bro.en do"n into smaller units, 2re3 and 2 ei%e3, one can claim that 2 ei%e3 is grammatically significant and recurs in a slightly different form, ept, in ad8ecti0e such as re epti%e, per epti%e, per eptual, etc. &imilarly, the follo"ing "ords may be split up into t"o units: concei0e 4con, cei0e5, transport 4trans, port5, report 4re, port5, export 4ex, port5, percei0e 4per, accepted by many other linguists since it totally excludes meaning. cei0e5, etc. 'his represents one point of 0ie", but not one "hich is 'he morpheme is the second basic unit in the expression system of

a language, the first being the 2phoneme3. ( morpheme may be defined

as the smallest meaningful unit in the structure of a language. It cannot be sub:di0ided "ithout destroying or drastically changing its meaning. ;or example, 2man3/ { / is a morpheme. #e cannot subdi0ided it into <m:

<=< < {

units of language ha0ing meaning >uite different from the meaning gi0en by <m{ n<. 'herefore the unit <m{ n< is a morpheme, the smallest meaningful unit of English language. 'he English "ord unassailable is made up of three morphemes, un, assail, a#le, each one of "hich has a particular meaning distribution and a particular phonological form or shape. ( morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of language, and

n< or <m< =<{ < = <n< because e0ery time "e do so, "e get

morpheme is a short segment of language that meets three criteria:

1. It is a "ord or a part of a "ord that has meaning. 2. It cannot be di0ided into smaller meaningful parts "ithout 0iolation of its meaning or "ithout meaningless remainders. meaning.

3. It recurs in differing 0erbal en0ironment "ith a relati0ely stable

'he "ords ?bats? for example, has t"o morphemes, the form bat is a morpheme, and also the form :s is a morpheme. 'he #at means @a .ind of animal@ and the :s means 'he "ord 2unlikely3 has 3 morphemes "hile the "ord 2 arpet3 is a @there are more than one@.

single morpheme. 'he "ord 2 ar3 and 2pet3 are independent morphemes in themsel0es. 'he "ord 2 arpet3 has nothing to do "ith the meaning of 2car3 and 2pet3. /arpet is a minimal meaningful unit by itself. (gain, the "ord 2gar#age- is a single morpheme "hile the "ord 2gra#3 and 2age3 are independent morphemes by themsel0es. ( systematic study of morphemes or ho" morphemes 8oin to form "ords is .no"n as morphology. consist of t"o or more morphemes. +oo. at the follo"ing "ords. ( "ord consists of at least one morpheme. +i.e"ise if may

kind kind ful un kind ful un kind ful

A A A ness A

one morpheme t"o morphemes four morphemes kindful

kind

three morphemes .nkindful .nkindfulness

called @Bero@ or <<. /onsider the follo"ing sentences. / deer is in the par.. 0eer are in the par.. / 1oman is in the class. Women are in the class. 'he nouns underlined consist of noun =

&ome morphemes ha0e no clear shape. &uch a morpheme "ill be

boys5. !ut the plural form is << "hich is a 0ariant form of the plural morpheme. deer : plural = deer

plural 4li.e dogs, cats,

"oman = plural A "oman = boy boy = plural : s A "omen

boys

( meaningful linguistic unit "hich is said to be minimal 7 unable to be further di0ided or bro.en into smaller meaningful parts is called a morpheme. ,ealing "ith the study, description and classification of morphemes in morphemi .

Units of "ord building such as the prefix un- the base or stem read and suffix - a#le are morphemes since they are meaningful and unable to be segmented further, and if a con0entional construction is to be ad8ecti0e meaning not able to be read. meaning 6eorge Cule ga0e the definition of a morpheme as Da minimal unit of or grammatical functionE. #e "ould say that the "ord formed of these morphemes, "e shall ha0e the "ord unreada#le, an

2reopened3 in the sentence, The poli e reopened the in%estigation, consists of three morphemes. 1ne minimal unit of meaning is open, another minimal unit of meaning is re- 4meaning 2again35, and a minimal unit of grammatical function is 7 ed 4indicating past tense5. 'he "ord tourists also contain three morphemes. 'here is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning 2ist 4indicating plural5. What is *egmentation+ are said to be Ddeterminate "ith respect to segmentation.E Examples: boys playing unable boy:s play:ing un:able pass:ed .no":ing:ly "atch:es ( large number of "ords can be bro.en do"n into segments and 4meaning 2person "ho does something35, and a minimal unit of grammatical function 7s

passed .no"ingly "atches

!ut there are se0eral "ords "hich can either not be segmented 4indeterminate5 at all, or are only partially determinate "ith respect to segment. Examples:

best, "orse, "orst.

men, children, mice, sheep, "ent, too., bro.e, sung, brought, better, 'he problems of segmentation in all such "ords may 0ary in .ind as

"ell as in degree. 'his presents a serious problem. (lthough #etter and 1ent stand in the same grammatical relationship "ith good and go and as lo1er and 1alked ha0e "ith lo1 and 1alk, yet the "ords #etter and 1ent cannot be segmented into parts 4as lo1er and 1alked5 as per the gi0en definition of the term morphemes. &ince "e .no" that #etter has the same grammatical function 0is:a:0is good as shorter has 0is:a:0is short, "e can express the relationship as a proportion of grammatical 4or distributional5 e>ui0alence: good : better : best :: short : shorter : shortest 3ood and short are both ad8ecti0es and the expression #etter and shorter are grammatically ali.e in the sense that they both express only the comparati0e degree of the ad8ecti0e. &imilarly, #est and shortest too are ali.e as they express the superlati0e degree of the ad8ecti0e. Fo" suppose, on an analogy from algebra, "e resol0e each of the six "ords gi0en abo0e into factors<components, the "ord good being denoted by the factor a, short by b, there the positi0e, comparati0e and superlati0e functions being mar.ed by factors x, y and G respecti0ely, the abo0e e>uation can be re"ritten as: ax : ay : aG :: bx : by : bG (ll the three "ords on the left hand side ha0e the component a 4i.e. good5 in them and those on the right hand side ha0e the component # 4i.e. short5 in them. /omponents x, y and G stand to mar. the positi0e, comparati0e and superlati0e degrees of the ad8ecti0es in >uestion. (ll these components, or distributional factors of "ords are morphemes. 'hus, a morpheme may not necessarily be a part of a segment of a "ord, but may merely ha0e a fa torial role as indicated abo0e.

Types of 'orphemes morphemes and bound morphemes. 2"1 4ree morphemes / free morpheme is independent for it can occur alone by itself as a "ord in the language. ;ree morphemes are those that can occur alone: dog, girl, good, run, t"o, ha0e, I, you, of, can, the, lo0e, bad, etc. ( free morpheme is one that can be uttered alone "ith meaning. $orphemes in English can be classified into t"o categories: free

;or instance, in reply to D#hat are you going to do no"%E you might ans"er DEatE. 'his is a free morpheme. ( bound morpheme, unli.e the free, cannot be uttered alone "ith meaning. It is al"ays annexed to one .eeper, unable. 'he underlined morphemes in the examples are all and un:. or more morphemes to form a "ord, e.g. antedate, replay, manly, bound, for one "ould not utter in isolation forms li.e ante:, re:, :ly, : er,

2"2 / #ound morpheme / #ound morpheme is dependent as it is al"ays attached to another morpheme. (ffixes are bound morphemes as they al"ays occur "ith bases. 'he bound morphemes are those that cannot occur alone, and must be attached to "ords i.e. enlarge, >uic.ly, "iden, singing, replace, etc.

$ost bases occur independently as free morphemes and fe" 4or e5ample:

bases are bound morphemes. 'he morpheme : ful : miss : ness : s : ed in in in in in lo0ed

beautiful mista.e dogs goodness

un: re:

dis: ante: child mid: midday, midnight FaGi, neoclassic, pre: postpaid, postscript ex:

in in in in in in neo: post: in

unhappy disli.e replay

antedate ex:president, ex:"ife, ex: middle, midterm, in in neo:+atin, neo: post:"ar,

pre:test, prepay, predate, preschool, prefix, preflight.

pre0ie",

Classifi ation of 'orphemes $1H-IE$E&

;HEE $1H-IE$E& $1HE-IE$E& Foun Jerbs /on8unctions 4and, or5 (rticles 4the, a5 -reposition (ffixes !ase &uffixes :s

!1UF,

/ontracted

!ound ;orms

(d8ecti0es (d0erbs 2ll

,emonstrati0e 4this, that5 -refixes re:

un: dis:

: iGe : ify

cran : 2d 2i0e 2s

mis: 6ases

: en

and affixes. ( base morpheme is the part of a "ord that has the principal meaning. ( base is a morpheme "hich is the core of the "ord that contains the "ord3s basic meaning. 'he underlined morphemes in these "ords are bases: denial, lo0able, annoyance, reenter, disagree, pretest, manly. !ases are 0ery numerous, and most of them in English are free

(nother classification of morpheme puts them into t"o classes: bases

morphemes9 but some are bound, li.e: sent in 2consent3, 2dissent3, and 2assent3. ( "ord may contain one base and se0eral affixes. 2Headability3, 7ity9 and 2unmista.able3 has the free base ta.e and the affixes un:, mis:, and 7able. In the "ords li.e unhappy, disregarded, such as happy, regarded and hildhood, etc. morphemes for example, contains the free base read and the t"o affixes 7abil: and

hild can stand on their o"n as

independent "ords. &uch morphemes are called free morphemes. 1n the their "on as independent "ords. 'hey are al"ays attached to a free

other hand, morphemes li.e un:, dis:, :ed, :hood, etc. cannot stand on morpheme. $orphemes such as dis:, un:, :ed, :hood are also called bound affixes. 'he form to "hich an affix is attached is called a base. Iere is a tree diagram sho"ing the morphological analysis of the "ord 2unkno1ingly-: Un.no"ingly affix base un: :.no"ingly

base affix ly5 stem 4root5 .no" /ffi5es and /ffi5ation (ffixes base5. may be di0ided into prefixes 4"hich appear at the beginning of the base5 and suffixes 4"ith appear at the end of the /onsider the follo"ing sets: &et : ( -refix un: im: en: il: :legal !ase !ase affix :ing 4.no"ing5 4:

&et : ! friendship childhood girls nicely nice friend child girl :ly &uffix : : :s

unhappy ship immobile hood enable illegal

:happy :mobile :able

the "ords to "hich the affixes are added, are called Dbase "ordE 4free morpheme5" act actor affix

'he bound morphemes, in "ord7formation, are called DaffixE and

base "ord

play

affix

replay base "ord

'he "ord DaffixE is a general term that means either prefix or suffix. 'hose that ha0e to be added at the beginning of "ords are called DsuffixesE. DprefixesE, and those that are added at the end of "ords are called affix prefix = base "ord = suffix

base. (n affix does not carry the principal meaning but is added to a free or a bound base to change the meaning of the base or to mar. a grammatical function. 'he affixes in English can be arranged into t"o groups: infle tional and deri%ational. Inflection is a change made in the form of a "ord to express its relation to other "ords in the sentence. ,eri0ation, on the other hand, is the process by "hich ne" "ord belong to the same class 4e.g. girl and girlhood, both nouns, play and replay, both 0erbs5 and is class:changing if the t"o "ords belong to different categories 4e.g. a#le and ena#le, 0erb from ad8ecti0e, reason and seasonal, ad8ecti0e from noun, dan e and dan er, noun from 0erb5. Inflectional suffixes do not change the class of the "ord, for example slide hot boy spea. : : : slides hotter : 4both 0erbs5 4both ad8ecti0es5 4both 0erbs5

(n affix is a bound morpheme that occurs before or "ithin or after a

boys

4both nouns5

'hey come last in a "ord and appear only as suffixes. 4,eri0ational affixes can be both prefixes and suffixes5. 'hey do not pile up 4only one

spea.ing

ends a "ord5, e.g. boo.s, higher, "ritten. (lso, inflectional suffixes go "ith all stems of a gi0en part of speech, for example 7er#s come sing see comes sings benches sees cold tall short /d$e ti%es colder taller shorter girl pen bench 8ouns girls pens

speech.

$ore examples of inflectional suffixes classified according to a part of

Foun inflectional suffixes a. -lural mar.er 7s girl 7 girls 4'he girls are here5

b. -ossessi0e mar.er:3s
&amran 7 &amran-s 4&amran3s pen5 Jerb inflectional suffixes c. 'hird person present singular mar.er 7s ba.e 7 ba.es 4&he ba.es "ell5 d. -ast tense mar.er 7 ed "al. 7 "al.ed 4#e "al.ed here yesterday5 e. -rogressi0e mar.er :ing play 7 playing 4'hey are playing5 f. -art participle mar.ers 7en or 7ed eat 7 eaten

4&he has eaten mango5 ba.e 7 ba.ed 4Ie has ba.ed a ca.e5 (d8ecti0e inflectional suffixes g. /omparati0e mar.er 7er fast 7 faster

4&he is faster than you5 h. &uperlati0e mar.er 7est fast 7fastest 4&he is fastest5

English has only the inflectional affixes listed abo0e, and all inflectional affixes in English are suffixes 4none are prefixes, unli.e the situation "ith deri0ational affixes, "hich include both suffixes and prefixes5. 9inds of affi5es 'here are three .inds of affixes, "hich are: prefixes, infixes, and suffixes: Prefi5es are those bound morphemes that occur before a base, as in

import, prefix, reconsider, unhappy. -refixes in English are a small class of morpheme, numbering about se0enty:fi0e. 'heir meanings are often those of English prepositions and ad0erbial. -refixes in English usually modify the meaning of the base form. 'he

follo"ing are some of the acti0e prefixes, together "ith their appro5imate meaning. -refix anti: bi: arch: co: (pproximate $eaning against chief "ith Examples arch:enemy anti:people bi:monthly, bi:plane co:passenger

t"ice, t"o

contra: de:

counter: dis: em: en: ex: e>ui: extra:

against against from, a"ay in, on e>ual a"ay, "ithout

contra:dication counter:mo0e decentraliGe emplane encircle e>uidistant

disable

former outside I: abnormally high m: n: r: not

ex:president hyper:sensiti0e illogical extra:constitutional

hyper: i =

immobilise in0isible irresponsible

inter: intra: mal: mis: mini: non: pan: pre: pro: pseudo: >uasi: re: semi: sub: super: post:

bet"een "ithin small not not all after before sham fa0ouring half, seeming4ly5 bac., again half under defecti0e, bad4ly5

inter:college intra:college malad8ustment, maltreat minis.irt misbeha0e pan:Indian predegree

non:committal postgraduate pro:capitalist pseudo:intellectual >uasi:passi0e regain

semi:circle, semi:final sub:committee super:diplomat

0ery high degree

trans: tri: ultra: un:

across three not excessi0ely

trans:continental tri:8unction unusual ultra:modern

under: 0ice:

not sufficiently 4"ith 0bs.5 under:estimate. 4placed5 under 4"ith nn5 under:secretary next belo" 0ice:president

:nfi5es are bound morphemes that ha0e been inserted "ithin a "ord, although in English these are rare. 1ccasionally they are additions "ithin a "ord, but, infixes in English are most commonly replacements, not additions. 'hey occur in a fe" noun plurals. +i.e the 7ee: in geese, replacing the 7oo: of goose, and more often in the past tense and past participles of 0erbs, li.e the 7o: of of hoose. *uffi5es are bound morphemes that occur after a base, for example shrin.age, failure, noisy, realiGe, nails, dreamed. ( suffix can occur after another suffix but not directly after a prefix. &uffixes may pile up to the number of three of four, "hereas prefixes are commonly single, except for the negati0e un: before another prefix. In 2normaliGes3 "e perhaps hose and hosen replacing the 7oo:

reach the limit "ith four: the base norm plus the four suffixes 7al, :iGe, :er, :s. "hen suffixes multiply li.e this, their order is fixed: there is one and only one order in "hich they occur. &uffixes are generally di0ided into t"o classes: 4a5 those that

ser0e some grammatical functions, and 4b5 the others that are used to

deri0e ne" "ords from the base form. (ccording to these t"o functions the first group is called grammatical or :nfle tional *uffi5es and the second group is called lexical or 0eri%ational *uffi5es.

Classifi ation of /ffi5es to their effect on the base. :nfle tional affi5es meanings such as plurality, past tense, or comparison. 'hey do not change the "ord class of the base to "hich they are attached. Inflectional affixes are those that do not change "ords 4to "hich ;or example: Inflectional affixes are bound morphemes that mar. grammatical (ffixes may be classified as deri0ational and inflectional according

they are added5 from one "ord 7 class or subclass to another. understand 0 misunderstand

countable

ad8.

uncountable

(d8. boy n

boys

modified or changed to meet grammatical re>uirements. ;or instance, the "ord 2like3 in 0ogs like meat. 'he forms are so changed or modified to indicate their connection "ith or dependence on other "ords in the sentence, or for other grammatical functions snf are called the :nfle tional forms of the "ords9 and this is usually done by adding inflectional suffixes to the base form. Io"e0er, unli.e some highly inflected languages 4e.g. &ans.rit, +atin, etc.5 "here e0en entire sentence can be s>ueeGed into a single inflected form, English uses inflection only for a fe" limited purposes. 'hey are:

In English, as in many other languages, "ords are sometimes

1" Tense affi5es a 0erb "hich is the first element in the predicati0e structure, The tense affi5 in English is di0ided into t"o .inds: present and past. 4i5 The present tense affi5 in a %er# has t"o forms: <: s <and << the form 7s is used if the sub8ect of the sentence is singular "ith a third person in the present tense, thus done by adding 7s or 7es to the base form in "riting, the form << "ill be used if the sub8ect of the sentence is plural or I, Cou, or if the sentence consists of modal 4$5 singular present tense affix <:s< if the sub8ect of sentence is 'he tense affix is used by adding it at the end of an auxiliary or

<:< if the sub8ect of sentence is plural or I, you or if the sentence consists f modal 4$5

*u#$e t ( girl &he $en 'hey Cou ( girl &he $odal ta.e ta.e ha0e = =

Predi ate takes my pen has a boo. take my boo.s ha%e boo.s ha%e one boo. may ta.e my pen an ha0e a boo. can, "ill, shall, may, must,

present :s present

ta.es

ha0e

'he allomorphs of this morpheme too are phonetically identical "ith the plural and case:suffixes and occur under similar phonetic contexts, namely:

ha0e

4ii5 The past tense affi5 has t"o forms: :ed and ed past tense affix of the predicati0e structure of a sentence. ;or examples ( sentence : Is the string : &he "ent to +omsa.. "ent 'he form of the past tense affix "ill be sho"n at the first element

she = go ; past = to = +omsa.

( sentence : Is the string :

'he girl opened a letter. the = girl = open ; past = a letter open open = past : ed opened opened

4iii5 The plural affi5 is added at the end of the "ord, for a countable noun, therefore, it is the suffix. 'he plural affix has t"o forms :<:s< and << . girl 'he plural affix ta.ing the form chair :s girls chairs

dog pen etc.

plural 4:s5

etc, deer fish sheep men

dogs pens

'he plural affix ta.ing form deer fish sheep man child = plural

"oman goose etc.

children "omen geese :s

etc. affix

plural

4i05 The affi5 2 ing usually occurs together "ith 2be3 in a sentence, ( sentence: 4be = ing5 &he is coming be = present tense affix

is are am

'he pre0ious sentence is the string:

&he = be = present = come = ing &he = #e ; - s = come = ing is

&he is coming. no 7ing form5 regularly ta.e the 7ing suffix to form the present participle and the gerund. &ince both of these are identical in form and sometimes 2the 7ing form3 of a 0erb. (ll full 0erbs and the auxiliaries 2!e3 and 2ha0e3 4auxiliary 2,o3 has

difficult to distinguish grammatically, they are con0eniently labelled as 'he suffix is regarded as inflectional "hen its function is purely

grammatical. ;or instance, is inflectional in the continuous 4progressi0e5 tense of the 0erb. It becomes a deri0ational functional suffix "hen the resultant form has an ad8ecti0al or nominal function, e.g. *eeing is #elie%ing 4here the suffix is used to deri0e the t"o nominals59 / rolling stone gathers no moss 4here the suffix is used to deri0e the ad8ecti0al5. 405 The parti iple affi5 usually occurs together "ith 2ha0e3 in a sentence 4ha0e = participle5, the participle affix has three forms: : ed, :en and <<. &ee the follo"ing sentences: #e ha0e talked in the par.. Cou ha0e spoken in class. I ha0e ut the paper. tal. cut ( sentence: Ie has been here. he = ha%e ; present = #e ; parti iple = here = = participle participle participle A A A tal.ed spo.en cut spea. =

has Parti iple affi5 :ed :en

been

three different forms can be added to the base. 'hey are: <t< : <d< : after a 0oiced sound except <d<, e.g., begged

'he participle forms of regular 0erbs are spelt 7d or 7ed, and after a 0oiceless sound except <t<, e.g. loo.ed

<id< : after <t< or <d<, e.g., seated 9 sounded inflectional or deri0ational according to their

(s in the case of the 7ing suffix, these suffixes may be grammatical functions in the formation of the tenses 4simple past and functions. 'hey ha0e

the perfect tense5 and in passi0isation, and therefore in these functions, they are inflectional. 1n the other hand, the past participle form 4li.e the 1anted man. In this function it is deri0ational, and it can e0en be added to nouns: e.g. bearded, talented 4cold5, blooded, etc. 'he 0erbs "hich ta.e these suffixes are called 2regular 0erbs3 7ing form5 is sometimes used in a purely ad8ecti0al function, e.g. the

because the great ma8ority of the English 0erbs use them. 'hey are also regularly added to any ne" 0erb ac>uired by the language. 2" Comparati%e affi5 ad8ecti0es and a fe" ad0erbs. 'he ad8ecti0es that ta.e the comparati0e affix are the follo"ing:

'he comparati0e affix 27 er3 is added to many

2.1 Fearly all one syllable ad8ecti0es: big< bigger small <smaller younger long< longer young< short<shorter.

in 7 y: dirty<dirtier, happy<happier, friendly <friendlier.

2.2 ( number of t"o7syllable ad8ecti0es9 particularly those ending 2.3 'hree 7 syllable ad8ecti0es made by adding the prefix un: to In /omparati0e transformation , t"o sentences, each "ith the

"ords of the second group: unhappy <unhappier, unfriendly< unfriendlier.

same ad8ecti0e or ad0erbs in the predicate, are put together "ith suffix 7 er the "ord than to form a result sentence. &omyos is old. &amran is old. Hesult: A &omyos is old = er = than = &amran is old

&omyos is older than &amran is.

A &omyos is older than &amran. *uperlati%e affi5 in the *uperlati%e Transformer, the "ord the is inserted before the ad8ecti0e or ad0erb, "hich is then follo"ed by the superlati%e affi5 2 est, the "ord sentence. (ll of them "ere "ise. (lbert "as "ise. them "ere "ise. Hesult: (lbert "as = the = "ise = est= of = all A (lbert "as the "isest of all of them A (lbert "as the "isest. The omparati%e 1ith more ;or most ad8ecti0es of t"o syllables and all of more than t"o Hobert is hopeful. (my is hopeful. = of of and the su#$e t of the inserted

except the un: type, more must be used instead of : er

Hesult :

(my is = more = hopeful = than = Hobert is hopeful A (my is = more hopeful = than = Hobert is A (my is more hopeful than Hobert. A (my is more hopeful.

The superlati%e 1ith most ;or most ad8ecti0es or ad0erbs of t"o syllables and all of more than t"o except the un:type, most must be used instead of 2est, The and most are placed before the ad8ecti0e or ad0erb, and of after it. 'he girls "ere beautiful. $ary "as beautiful. girls. Hesult: $ary "as = the = most = beautiful = of the

'he inflectional affix can be schematiGed as follo"s: :nfle tional affi5es !5amples 1. K:s sg plL psL cars, oxen, mice girl3s, bird3s boys3, men3s 0acates, "atches discussing, studying che"ed, rode che"ed, eaten, s"um bolder, nearer, higher 8ame noun plural noun noun singular plural

2. K:s

possessi0e possessi0e 3dL

3. K :s pl psL 4. K:s

present third person singular present participle past tense past participle comparati0e

. K:ing 0bL

). K:d ptL

*. K:d ppL M. K:er cpL N. K:est spL

soonest, nearest, highest superlati0e

&" Pronominal :nfle5ions: 'he English noun has only t"o inflected forms, namely, the plural and the geniti0e case:form. !ut the English personal pronouns exhibit an elaborate system of inflected forms to distinguish not only case 4sub8ect, ob8ect and t"o geniti0es5 and number 4all except elaborate pronominal system "as ac>uired by the language >uite early in long usage. It has therefore become extremely difficult to analyse them 4"hich some grammarians regard as compounds5 ha0e an 2you35 but also person and gender 4at least in three of them5. (s this its career, many of the distinguishing feathers ha0e been obliterated by into their respecti0e bases and suffixes. Indeed, only the self- forms easily distinguishable suffix. Fe0ertheless, the pronominal forms that follo" represent an inflectional class:

&ub8ect 1b8ec form t form

1 6eniti0e 4dependent, by a noun5

st

nd

6eniti0e i.e. not

Heflexi0 e form

i.e. follo"ed t,

4independen

follo"ed by a noun5

&ingular
st

1 -erson 2 3
nd rd

I you he it

me you him her it

my your his it

mine yours his

myself yourself himself herself itself

-erson e

-erson

4a5 $asculin
4b5 ;eminine 4c5 Feuter -lural 1 -erson 2
nd st

she

her

hers its 4rare5

"e they you

us them you

our your their

ours yours theirs

oursel0 yoursel es

-erson

rd

-erson

themsel 0es

0es

add inflectional suffixes to a base, the ne" form 4base usually the same part of speech as the base form "as.

'he affixes "e are studying are called inflectional affixes. #hen "e = affix5 is

#hen "e add the inflectional affixes plural to the noun girl, the ne"

form 4girls5 is still a noun. #hen "e add the inflectional suffixes past to

the 0erb run, the ne" form 4ran5 is still a 0erb. #hen "e add the inflectional suffix comparati0e to the ad8ecti0e hot, the ne" form 4hotter5 is still an ad8ecti0e. &imilarly, if "e ta.e any of these inflectional affixes a"ay from the

base = affix form, "e do not change the part of speech. &moothest is an ad8ecti0e. &mooth is an ad8ecti0e. 6o is a 0erb. 6oing is a 0erb. in the follo"ing "ays: change a

'o conclude, an inflectional suffix is different from a deri0ational suffix 1. It is added to a "ord for a grammatical reason. It does not deri0ational suffix changes a "ord into a different "ord class and sometimes adds ne" meaning to the base. "ord from one class to another, "hereas a

2. It comes at the end of a "ord, e.g. enlightens, falsified.

3. It does not pile up. 1nly one ends a "ord, e.g. "al.s, tallest. boys3 toys. ("2 0eri%ational /ffi5es

'he only exception is the geniti0e 4possessi0e5 plural, as in

The deri%ational affi5es are those that change "ords 4to "hich they are added5 from one "ord class or subclass to another, for example: happy happiness

nation n

ad8.

national ad8.

(lmost all the prefixes are inflectional. 1nly some of them are deri0ational. 'hose are a:, en:, em:, etc. sla0e n large body n ad8. sla0e enlarge embody 0 0 n

$ost suffixes are deri0ational. 'hough there are numerous such suffixes from a strictly philological point of 0ie", many of them ha0e become extinct in the sense that they are no longer used in the language to deri0e ne" "ords. &ome of the acti0e suffixes that are still freely used in the language are gi0en belo": &uffix :age :al :ance, :ence :ant :ate :cy :er, :or :able, :ible /lass of "ords deri0ed ad8ecti0e noun noun noun noun noun noun ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e: 0erb noun 4diminuti0e5 ad8ecti0e noun9 0erb Examples lea.age

"or.able, irresistible deri0ational obser0ance, existence claimant "or.er, 0isitor proficiency freedom bearded, haunted 4house5 sil.en, lengthen .itchenette harmful

ad8ecti0e

electorate, educate

:dom :ed :en :ette :ful

:fy :ic

:graphy :ical :ing :ion :ise 4iGe5 :ish :ist :ity :ism

0erb

noun ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e noun9 ad8ecti0e noun 0erb noun noun

personify heroic

photography historical "riting, interesting rebellion e>ualise "olfish

ad8ecti0e

ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e

groupism deformity

opportunist remunerati0e

:i0e :less :li.e :ling, :let :logy :ly

ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e noun 4diminuti0e5 ad0erb9 ad8ecti0e ad0erb9 ad8ecti0e noun noun

"orthless godli.e princeling, starlet biology >uic.ly, friendly mo0ement dar.ness migratory dangerous troublesome failure "idth, tenth

:ment :ness :ory :ous :th

ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e ad8ecti0e noun9 ordinals noun ad8ecti0e

:some :ure :"ard :"ise :y :"ays

ad8ecti0e9 ad0erb ad8ecti0e, ad0erb noun

"est"ard side"ays length"ise disco0ery

The differen es #et1een :nfle tional and 0eri%ational *uffi5es

suffixes may be noted:

'he follo"ing points of difference bet"een the t"o .inds of 1. ( deri0ational suffix usually changes the base into another "ord class 4e.g. a

noun into an ad8ecti0e, an ad8ecti0e into a 0erb, etc.5, "hile an grammatical re>uirements in the sentence. lo0eliness,

inflectional suffix does not so change the base but fulfils certain 2. $ore than one deri0ational suffix may occur together 4e.g.

personality, bac."ardness, etc.5 but normally only one inflectional suffix occurs "ith the base. 3. Usually the inflectional suffix is the last item added to the base and no other

suffix occurs after it. Ience, "hen the t"o .inds of suffixes occur together, the inflectional suffix follo"s the deri0ational suffix. 8ote: &ometimes, the distinction bet"een the t"o .inds of suffix is not 0ery clear:cut. ;or example, in forms li.e doctor3s children3s, "i0es3, etc., the t"o inflectional suffixes 40iG., the plural and the geniti0e5 occur together. 'he forms of mar.edly, reportedly, etc, 4:ed follo"ed by 7ly5 and "ritings, doings, "illingness, "illingly 4:ing follo"ed by both

inflectional and deri0ational suffixes5 can be explained by assuming t"o deri0ational suffixes 4:ed and 7ing5 identical in form "ith the t"o deri0ational suffixes. 'his accounts for the inclusion of these t"o suffixes in the list of inflectional as "ell as in deri0ational suffixes. In each case there are t"o phonemically identical forms, one inflectional and the other deri0ational. ,eri0ation affixes are bound morphemes "hich are added to the base

in order to add meaning, to form a ne" "ord, or to change the "ord

class 4part of speech5 of the base. ( deri0ation affix may appear in the final position or may be follo"ed by other deri0ational suffixes. Io"e0er, there is a large set of affixes in English called deri0ational

affixes that usually 4not al"ays5 change "ords from one part of speech to another. !y adding the deri0ational affix signaled by 7al to the 0erb base arri0e, "e get the noun arri0al. /ompare: 'hey usually arri%e early. 'heir early arri%al "as typical. gi0es the noun 2employment3. /ompare: 'he addition of the deri0ational suffix 7ment to the 0erb 2employ3 'hey employ many ne" "or.ers each year. Iis employment "as terminated. form to a 0erb form. &ometimes the addition of a deri0ational affix changes a noun Cou are my friend. Cou #efriend me. the 0erb 2befriend3 in the abo0e example. Cou bring me $oy. I en$oy you company. 2en8oy3. 'he addition of the affix en: changes the noun 28oy3 to the 0erb ,eri0ational suffixes usually do not close off a "ord9 that is, after 'he addition of the affix be: to the noun 2friend3 gi0es the 0erbs

a deri0ational suffix one can sometimes add another deri0ational suffix and can fre>uently add an inflectional suffix. ;or example, to the "ord :er, and to fertiliGer one can add the inflectional suffix 7s, closing off the "ord.

fertiliGe, "hich ends in a deri0ational suffix, one can add another one,

4applicable to English language only5:

'he follo"ing diagram summarises all the statements made abo0e

$orpheme ;ree morpheme -refixes ,eri0ational /lass /lass changing /lass maintaining !ound morpheme &uffixes Inflectional ,eri0ational /lass changing

maintaining /llomorph occurs in a certain definable en0ironmentE. (n allomorph may be defined as the D0ariant of morpheme "hich 1ne of the 0arious distinct forms of a morpheme is an allomorph. (llomorphs occur in predicable en0ironments. ( morpheme may ha0e one or more allomorph. (llomorphs can be described in terms of phonemes. in three forms: -s as in boo.s, pens, mar.s as in beaches, dishes, peaches as in oxen, children, "omen :es :en (n abstract such as plural morpheme in English can be represented

'he suffixes 7s, :es and 7en, each, represent the plural morpheme in the English language. Each of these distinct forms cannot be established under phonetic conditioning, as follo"s: as a morpheme because they cannot occur independently, but do occur

m, ng, y, ".

:s occurs after sounds spelled "ith p, t, ., d, g, f, 0, th, l, r, n, :es occurs after sounds spelled "ith ch, sh, s, G, x.

:en does not occur under phonetic conditioning, but is a matter of con0ention. 'he negati0e particle not in English also has a bundle of allomorphs. -honetic conditioning that determines the negati0e prefixes in:, im:,

Hepresenting the negati0e not are im:, il:, ir:, un:, in:, and dis:.

il:, ir:, and un:, in certain composite "ords is the initial sound of the base "hich follo"s each of the prefixes:

Im: is prefixed to possible bases "ith initial letter m or p as in il: is prefixed to possible bases "ith initial letter : as in illegible,

immo0able, improper, immature, impossible, immorality, impolite. illegal, illiterate, illogical, illuminate, illi>uid.

ir: is prefixed to possible bases "ith initial letter r as in irrele0ant, un: is prefixed to possible base "ith other initial letter sounds as in in: is prefixed to possible bases "ith other initial letter sounds as in

irregular, irrational, irresponsible, irremo0able, irre0ersible. unbelo0ed, unhappy, unanalyGed, unburnt, unpre8udiced, ungraceful.

incapable, inapplicable, independent, inade>uate, inhuman, insensible, in0iolable, dis: is prefixed to possible bases "ith other initial sounds as in In the relation to a bound morpheme, "e should consider the notion

disagree, disli.e, disappro0e, disestablish, disunion, disaffection.

of the allomorph. 'o simplify it, "e can loo. at the "ay English nouns are pluraliGed in the follo"ing examples: Founs cat: <s< dog: <G< -lural morpheme cat = s dog = s (llomorphs of the plural morpheme <s< <G<

horse: <IG< horse =s deer :<< ox: < G< <s< ox = en

deer =

<IG< << < G<

consonants, <G<

occurs after the singular forms of nouns ending in 0oiceless except the sibilants and affricates.

occurs after the singular forms of nouns ending in 0oiced 0o"els, except the sibilants and affricates. occurs after the singular forms of nouns ending in the affricates.

consonants or <IG<

sibilants and

In cases "here there is no mar.er for the plural 4as in 2deer3, sheep,3 etc.5 the allomorph of the plural morpheme is sho"n as << KAGero59 it is called a <ero allomorph. In the case "here the plural meaning is manifested through the phonological modification such as a change in the 0o"el of the noun as allomorph. 'he occurrence of the allomorphs <s<, <G< and <IG< of the plural morpheme in English is predictable in terms of phonological ending of phonologi al onditioning. the base form of the noun. 'his .ind of predictability is called !ut the occurrence of the allomorph <G< in "ords li.e 2oxen3, in 2man3, 2men3, the allomorph sho"s a process9 it is called a pro ess

2children3, etc., is not predictable in term of the phonologically. #hat is not phonologically conditioned is morphologi al onditioned. to t"o types of conditioning:

(llomorphs of morphemes may change their phonemic shapes due 4a5 phonological or phonemic conditioning

(a) Phonologi al ondition (

4b5 morphological conditioning #e shall first examine the follo"ing sets of "ords: sets bits bats clips <sets< <bits< <b{ t< <.lips< beds <bedG< lads cabs <.{ bG< beads <bi:dG< clubs <.l bG< <l{ dG< !

caps <.{ ps<

'he pluraliGing suffix in set ( appears as <s<9 in set ! it appears as <G<. 'his can be explained as due to the occurrence of the final end in the 0oiceless sounds <t< and <p< affecting the plural morpheme sound of the stem 4root5 "hich is 0oiced or 0oiceless. In set ( "ords "hich also appears as a 0oiceless phoneme <:s<. !ut in set ! the stems end in 0oiced sound and affect the plural morpheme, "hich becomes onditioned. !oth <:s< and <:G< are the allomorphs of the plural <:G<. 'he phonetic >uality of one sound affected sound is phoneti ally morpheme. 'heir positions cannot be interchanged, i.e., "e cannot ha0e <G< placed in set ( and <s< in set !. 'hus, sounds are in complementary distribution. In the same "ay "ords 2rose, pose, ad0ise, horse, 8udge3 ta.e the plural morpheme "hich is phonemically realiGed as <IG< so "e ha0e rose / "ords IG<9 pose / horse < : IG/ , etc. 'hese also sho" phonological IG9

#e thus obtain three phonologically conditioned allomorphs

of the plural morpheme <s< : <G< : <IG<. -honological is predictable. K-lural $orphemeL <s< <G< <IG<

K-ast 'ense $orphemeL <t< (#) 'orphologi al ondition 'he regularity of phonological conditioning is restricted. 'here are se0eral irregular forms that do not sho" the predictable direction of morphophonemic changes. #e can al"ays explain reasonably "hy such 0ariant forms as the : <IG< for plural morpheme. 2child 7 children3, and <t< : <d< : <Id< occur for past tense and <s< : <G< <d< <Id<

!ut such explanation is not possible in the case of the plural form of 2sheep 7 sheep3. 'hese forms are

not

phonologically conditioned., i.e. the proximity of a sound does not affect these forms. en is peculiar to 2children, oxen3 and 2brethren3. &uch changes are said to be due to morphologi al onditioning.

conditioning.

#e

shall

consider

belo"

some

ma8or

types

of

morphological

15 Bero suffix

25 Jo"el mutation 35 /onsonant change =ero suffi5 "hen inflected /ertain "ords in English do not sho" any change of form

either of pluraliGing or being made into past tense form. 'hese singular 7 plural and present tense forms are ali.e.

&et ( &ingular sheep deer cattle &et ( -resent 'ense cut hit put beat

&et ! 4-lural5 sheep deer cattle cut put hit beat &et ! -ast 'ense

!ut "e .no" that set ( "ords are in the present tense and "ords are in the past tense. #ith this understanding "e use the "ords. 'here is a sheep. 'here are sheep. Ie cuts Ie has cut the past tense #e can say that a Gero suffix of plural and a Gero suffix of that set !

has been added to these forms. 'he change is not one of o0ert

alternation in the phonemic shape of the morpheme 4allomorph5. 'hey are said to undergo a <ero modifi ation. 'his is sho"n by << symbol "hich is called <ero allomorph. 'hus, 2sheep3 is "ritten as / : + < 2cut3 is "ritten as / = <

7o1el mutation +et us ta.e another example9 the plural form of 2man3 is 2men3 that of

2"oman3 is 2"omen3, and 2louse3 is 2lice3. In ma.ing them plural "e see that nothing has been added, but a change in the 0o"el and diphthong has been made. <a< <au< :: O :: O <e< <aI<

&imilarly, for ma.ing past tense, "e can change the 0o"els belo": as sho"n find 7 found <aI< <I/ :: O <I< :: O < : <{ / <au< < <

s"im 7 s"am bring 7 brought see. 7 sought feed 7 fed phonetic catch 7 caught

:: O < :: O <e<

<{ / < : <

< :

< :: O

:: O < : <

'hese changes too cannot be explained by the process of

change. 'hese irregular changes are .no"n as %o1el-mutation. ( fe" more examples can to be seen belo": fly 7 fle" <aI< <eI< <e< <I:< <eI< can also :: O :: O :: O :: O : O be <u:< <u:< <e< <u< seen in 0erb:ma.ing, slay 7 sle" get 7 got meet 7 met ta.e 7 too. ad8ecti0ising, noun: ma.ing, and so on. Consonant changes in (part hange from 0o"el changes, pluraliGing is effected by Jo"el mutation

< <

consonants also. &ome English "ords ending in <f< :leaf, life, "ife, .nife, Examples are gi0en belo": sheaf < I:f< "olf <"ulf<

shelf, loaf, ma.e their plural by con0erting <f< into <0< and adding <G<. shelf < elf< :: O .nife <naIf< :: O "ife <"aIf< :: O :: O shel0es < el0G< :: O .ni0es <naI0G< "i0es <"I0G< shea0es < I:0G<

"ol0es <"ul0G<

!ut here too "e obser0e irregularity. Fot all "ords ending such changes 7 2proof, roof3 and 2reef3, to name only three, ta.e <s< for changing into plural form9 "hile 2hoof3 is pluraliGed both by simply adding <s< : 2hoofs3 and through the process of consonant change 7 2hoo0es3. consonant replacement 7 send :: O bend :: O lend spend :: O 'orph 'he concept of morph recogniGes that a morpheme has a phonetic shape. 'his phonetic representation is called its morph. 'he "ord 21riter3 has t"o morphemes, 2"rite3 and 2:er3. 'hese are realiGable in the phonetic shapes as < / the morpheme 4or "ord in this case5. and < ::<. 'hese are t"o morphs of :: O sent lent bent spent In the case of past tense formation also "e obser0e in <f< undergo

<d< :: O <t<

referred to as morphs. ;or the analysis of "ord structure, a term related to morpheme is established: morph. #hen a "ord segment represents

#hen the "ord is segmented into parts, the different parts are

one morpheme in sound or "riting, the segment is a morph. ;or

example, unhappiness, is comprised of three segments un:, happy, ness, and each segment represents one morpheme. #e say that unhappiness consists of three morphemes9 famous contains t"o morphs9 and mouse has 8ust one morph. 'he "ord happier thus consists of t"o morphs "hich can be orthographically "ritten as happy and er 4con0entions of English orthography allo"ing a charge of 2y3 into 2i35. In phonological transcription the t"o morphs can be represented as <h{ pI< and < <. Each morph thus represents 4or is the exponent or factor of5 a particular morpheme. 'he terms 2morpheme3 and 2morph3 are thus comparable to the

term 2form3 and 2substance3 gi0en by &aussure. 'he morpheme is an element of form "hich may be represented directly by phonological 4or orthographical5 segments "ith a particular 2shape3 i.e. by morphs. It is "ord 1ent 4phonologically <"ent<5 "hich cannot be segmented into morphs, represents the combination of t"o morphemes. &ometimes, a particular morpheme may be represented not by the customary to represent morphemes bet"een braces. ;or example the

same morph but by different morphs in different en0ironments. &uch different representations of a morpheme are called allomorphs. Examples: -lural morpheme /llomorphs <IG< in the case of "ord ending in <s<, <G<, < <, < <, < < , d < e.g. buses <b sIG<, 0ases <0 :GIG<, bushes <b IG<, <s< in the case of "ord ending in a 0oiceless consonants < < e.g. cats <.{ t<, cap <.{ ps< churches < 9 IG<

Ke4s5L

rouges <re: IG<,

4other than < <,<s<

<G< in the case of "ords ending in 0oiced sounds 4other than <G<, < < and <d < e.g. boys <b IG<, bags <b{ gG< &imilarly, allomorphs <s<, present <G< and tense <IG<, morphemes e.g. pac.s K:e4s5L <p{ .s<, ha0e digs

three <di G<,

"ashes <" IG<. 'he past tense morpheme of English, K:e4d5L has also rule that go0erns these allomorphs is as follo"s: -ast morpheme

three different 4phonological conditioned5 allomorphs <t<, <d< and <Id<. 'he

<t< after morphs ending in 0oiceless sound 4except <t<5 e.g. boo.ed <b .t, pushed <p t< e.g. lo0e <l 0d<, bagged <b{ d< <d< after morphs ending in 0oiced sounds 4except <d<5 <Id< after morphs ending in <t< and <d< e.g. "anted <" ntId<, "edded <"edId< Le5i al /nalysis: morpheme, allomorph, morph +exicon

Ke4d5L

4+exical

(nalysis5

$orpheme

4&egmented5

$orphs

(llomorphs

possibl e regulari Ge logical happy appropr iate

the

m : Ir

:s : e

em :
'he relationship bet"een

terms

morph,

allomorph

and

morpheme is similar to that bet"een phone, allophone and phoneme. 'he term 3morph3 means shape. (ny minimal phonetic form that has meaning is a morph. 'hus, buses <b sIG< A IG, bushes <b IG< AIG , cap <.{ ps< A<s< are all morphs. 'hose morphs "hich belong to the &imilarly, a same morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme. 'hus <s<, <G< and <IG< are all allomorphs of the plural morpheme Ke4s5L. phoneme is a minimal, distincti0e unit in the sound system of language. ( phoneme may sometimes occur in more than one phonetic form, called allophone. 'hese phonetic forms ha0e considerable phonetic similarity bet"een them and their phonological function is the same. said to be in complimentary distribution. (llomorphs, li.e allophones, are
h

'hey, ho"e0er, ne0er occur in the same phonetic en0ironment and are also in complimentary distribution. 'he phonemes <p<, <t< and <.< for example, ha0e t"o phonetic forms each i.e. PpQ and PphQ, PtQ and Pt Q, P.Q

and P. Q.

speech sounds 4phonemes as "ell as allophones5 are called phones.

Iere PpQ and PphQ are the allophones of the phoneme <p<. (ll

segmented into parts 4morphs5 "hile it is not so in others. &imilarly, there are languages in "hich the morph tends to represent a single minimal grammatical unit 4a morpheme5 "hile these are others in "hich it is not so. (llomorphs too exist in some language only. *ummary morphemes. ;or instance, the "ord 2meaningful3 is made up of three meanings, ho"e0er, only one, namely, 2mean3, can stand by itself9 the others, though carrying some meaning, cannot stand singly. ( "ord may consist of a single morpheme or a number of

It may be noted that in some languages "ords can generally be

meaningful units or morphemes9 namely 2mean, ing and ful3. 1f these 'he

morpheme that can stand by itself is called a free morpheme and the one that cannot is called a #ound morpheme. ( morpheme is a minimal, meaningful unit in the grammatical system of a language. ( systematical study of morphemes or ho" morphemes 8oin to form "ords is .no"n as morphology. ( large number of "ords can be bro.en into segments. "hile some others 4e.g. bro.e, better5 are indeterminate "ith respect to

&uch "ords are said to be determinate "ith respect to segmentation segmentation. In the case of the "ord belonging to the latter type, it is con0entional to use the term 2factor3 for morphemes, e.g. spo.e A Kspea.L = KedL. &ometimes a particular morpheme may be represented not the by

same morph but by different morphs in different phonetic en0ironments. &uch different representations of a morpheme are called allomorphs. 'he plural morpheme in English, for example, is represented by three different allomorphs: <s<, <G<, < G< in a different en0ironment. /onsider the follo"ing cases:

25 'he plural morpheme 7s is pronounced in three different common "ays: in 2cats3 it is <:s< : in 2boy3 it is <:G<, and in 2rose3 three it is <: G<.

35 'he past tense morpheme 7ed in 0erbs is pronounced in

different common "ays: in 2ruled3 it is <:d< : in 2stopped3 it is <:t< : and in "anted it is < d<. 'hus <s<, <G< and < G< abo0e are three allomorphs of a single morpheme or are members of the same plural morphemes. &imilarly, : <:d<, <:t<, <: d< are three allomorphs of single past:tense morphemes. 'hey are considered as such because they occur in a certain definable en0ironment as, <:s< 4as also <:t<5 occurs after 0oiceless consonants. <:G< 4as also <:d<5 occurs after 0oiced consonants.

- <: G< occurs after the consonants <s<, <G<, < <, < <. - <: d< occurs after the consonants <t< and <d<.
&ome morphemes can stand on their o"n as independent

morphemes 4e.g. sad, regard, girl5. &uch morphemes are called free morphemes. 1n the other hand, morphemes li.e 7ed and :un can not stand on their o"n as independent "ords, and are called #ound

morphemes. !ound morphemes are also called affi5es. (ffixes may be di0ided into prefi5es and suffi5es. 'hese are t"o important .inds:

15 -refixes: (ffixes "hich are added at the beginning of a

morpheme5 are prefix, for example. 2resign3. un: in the "ord 2un.ind3, de:in the "ord 2demerit3, re: in the "ord 25 &uffixes: (ffixes "hich are added after the base 4free morpheme5 are base 4free

called suffixes, for example.

:ly in the "ord 2manly39 :s in the "ord 2boys3: :hood in the "ord

2boyhood3 9 :er in the "ord 2player3. 'here are t"o .inds of &uffixes: part of speech

15 ,eri0ational &uffix: 'he deri0ational suffix changes the

of the "ord to "hich it is added. ;or example, :ly is a deri0ational suffix. #hen added to the base 2man3 4noun5, "e get 2manly3 "hich is an ad8ecti0e. $ore examples of deri0ational suffixes are: 405 &uffix 27en3: fright 4n5 :: O frighten 4059 strength 4n5 :: O strengthen &uffix 27 0e, iGe3: memory 4n5 :: O memori<e 4059 sympathy 4n5 :: &uffix 27 fy3: beauty 4n5 :: O beautify 405 &uffix 27 ment3: encourage 405 :: O encouragement 4n5 :ence, :ture, :ature, :er, :or, :ar, :ist, :ant, etc. the "ord to 1ther deri0ational suffixes are9 :ion, :tion, :iton, :cation, :ance,

O sympathi<e 405

25 Inflectional &uffix: 'he inflectional suffix merely modifies

"hich it is added, "ithout changing its part of speech. Fo other suffix used in English are mentioned here. 'hese are: sound "hich

can ordinarily be added to it. ( number of inflectional suffixes commonly 15 'he plural 7s in boys, girls, cats, dishes, etc., the

may 0ary as <s<, <G<, < and <IG<. 25 'he possessi0es in &amran3s, &omsa.3s, the sound of "hich may also 0ary as <s<, <G<, < and <IG<.

35 'he 0erb:person and number:suffix includes the three forms of 2be3, is, am, are, :s in 2sleep, plays, rises,3 the sound 0aries as <s<, <G<, < and <IG<.

45 'he 0erb past tense suffix 2:ed3 in 2stepped, rubbed,

and "anted, the sound of "hich 0aries as <t<, <d< and <Id<.

5 'he 0erb continuous 7 forming suffix 2:ing3 in

)5 'he 0erb past:participle suffix 2:ed3 or 2:en3 "ith its passi0e functions 4the perfecti0e being form "ith the helping 0erb 2ha0e3, and the passi0e "ith the helping 0erb 2be35. perfecti0e and sleeping, going, etc.

*5 'he suffixes that occur "ith the

superlati%e markers 2:er and 7est3, as the set fine:finer:finest.

omparati%e and

M5 'he suffixes in the pronoun system of English. ;or example.

&ub8ect: 1b8ect: -ossessi0e I: -ossessi0e II:

I me my min e

you you you r r you

he him his his

she her her hers

it it its its

"e us our ours

they the m their their s