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12 jk fYa%Ksh
ridhk oHdj
12 jk fYa%Ksh
uqo%Kh -
ii
ix{dmkh
okakd foa mj;ajd f.k hdug yd mQjfhka ;SrKh lrk ,o foa bf.kSug ld,hla ;siafia
lghq;= lsrSu ksid" mj;sk foa kej; f.dv keSug mjd wo wmg yelshdj we;af;a iq
jYfhks' mdi,a ugf bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfha uyd mudK fjkila we;s lrka
fodrg jk fuu oa;shsl wOHdmkh ms<sn| kj iyY%lfha m<uq jk Ihud,d
m%;sixialrKh" tlS fkdyelshdj ch .ekSu i|yd lghq;= lrk w;r okakd foa
ixialrKhg;a" mQjfhka ;SrKh fkdl< foa .fIKhg;a" fyg mej;sh yels foa
f.dvkeSug;a yelshdj we;s rgg jevodhS mqrjeis msila ys lsu wruqKq fldg ykajd
oS ;sf'
Tn 6-11 fY%aKsj, fuu Ihh u fyda fjk;a Ihhla fyda W.kajk .=re Nj;l= k
w'fmd'i' ^W'fm<& i|yd;a ie,lsh hq;= ugulska wfmalaId lrk kj bf.kq-b.eka
l%u ms<sfj;aj,g wkq.; u jvd;a myiq jkq we;' ta ta ksmqK;d Tiafia ksmqK;d ug
ykd .kska tajd idlaId;alrKhg iqiq l%h
s dldrl ie,iq lr .ekSu f m%;i
s xialrKh
hgf;a jeo.;a fjhs' bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh ;=< .=rejrhd f ;dla biau;= l<
l%ums<sfj;a j;udkhg fkd.e<fmk nj;a" isiqka ;ks ;ks j bf.k .kakjdg jvd
w;aoelS fnodyod .kska iyfhda.fhka bf.kSu w:j;a nj;a kj N+ldjlg msfik
.=re Nj;=ka f;are .; hq;= fjhs' ta wkqj .=rejrhd miqmiska iska" YsIHhd boshg f.k
tk bf.kq-b.eka l%u yels ;dla f;dard .kska b.ekau kj ulg f.k taug
lghq;= lsu fuys oS wfmalaId flf'
oa;shsl wOHdmk Iud,d m%;sixialrKh hgf;a cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska 6-11
fY%aKsj, .Ks;h" oHdj" fi!LHh yd Ydl wOHdmkh" ;dlaIKh yd jdKsc oHdj hk
Ihhkag wod< j imdokh lrk ,o .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y mYS,kh l< fyd;a YsIH
flakaSh" ksmqK;d mdol yd l%shdldrl fmrgq lr .;a bf.kqu yd b.ekau ms<sn|
meyeos,s woyila Tng ,efnkq we;' f .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y uska bosm;a lrkq
,nk l%shdldrl W;aidy .kafka bf.kqu" b.ekau yd we.hSu tl u fosldjla u;g
f.k taughs' tfia u 5E wdlD;sh mok lr .kska o iyfhda.S bf.kq ^Co-operative
Learning& l%ums<sfj;a fhdod .kska o fuf;la fidhd f.k we;s foa kej; f.dvkka
bka Tng f.dia kj ksmehq ys lrka Wodjk fyg oskhg l,a we;s j iQodk ug;a
f l%shdldrl YsIHhdg bv i,id fokq we;'
ksudKYS,S .=re mrmqrla ys lsf wruqKska b.eka l%shdj,shg wod< l%shdldrl
ika;;sfhka f;dard .;a l%shdldrl lsysmhla muKla w'fmd'i' ^W'fm<& .=re udf.damfoaY
ix.%yhkag we;=<;a lr ;sf' tfy;a imhd we;s wdoY l%shdldrl mYS,kfhka o
w'fmd'i' ^idfm<& m%;sixialrKh mok lr .;a uQ,Ou ms<sn| wjfndaOh je oshqKq lr
.kska o Ihhg yd mka;shg .e<fmk mos l%shdldrl ie,iq lr .ekSf Yd,
ksoyila Tng we;' f .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yhg we;=<;a wdoY l%shdldrl is wdldr
jQ f;dr;=re iuQyhla Tng imhhs' iEu l%shdldrlula wdrNfha u Tn olskafka tu
l%shdldrlu Tiafia YsIHhd f.k hdug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk wjidk b,lalhhs' ksmqK;dj
hkqfjka k lr we;s fuh mq,a h' oS> ld,Sk h' B<g i|yka ksmqK;d ugu fuu
ksmqK;dj fj; <d u i|yd isiqka iska idlaId;a lr .; hq;= O yelshdj,ska tla
yelshdjla muKla biau;= lrhs' f wkqj n,k l, ta ta ksmK
q ;d ugu wod< ksmK
q ;djg
iv
jvd iqfYaIS h' fl ld,Sk h' B<g we;af;a wod< l%shdldrlu wjidkfha .=re Nj;d
kslaIKh lsug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk phd lsysmhls' .=re isiq fomdYjhg u nrla
fkdjk fia f phd .Kk mylg iSud lsug W;aidy ord ;sf' bf.kq M, jYfhka
ykajd we;s f phd ksmqK;d ugug jvd iqfYaI jk w;r Ih lreKq mok lr .;a
yelshd ;=klska o bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfhka u;= lr .kakd fmd yelshd follska o
iuka; fjhs' Ih yelshd ;=k Ialr;d wkqms<sfj,ska fm< .iajd we;s w;r wvq ;rka
m<uq folj;a idlaId;a lr .ekSu i|yd mka;sfha iEu isiqjl= u bf.kq-b.eka
l%shdldrlf yoj; f,i ie,flk .fIKh fj; fhduqlr .ekSug .=re Nj;d lghq;=
l< hq;= wdldrh l%shdldrlf < fldgiska bosm;a lr ;sf' kshqla;slrKh ^Engagement& k jk tlS mshjfrka iEu l%shdldrlula u wdrN jqj o l%shdldrl ie,iq lsu
wdrN jkafka 5E wdlD;sfha fojk "E" wl=rg wod< .fIKfhka nj Tn wu;l fkdl<
hq;= h'
.fIKhg ^Exploration& u fmkajk Wmfoia wdoY l%shdldrlj, B< fldgihs'
.egf O me;sj,ska ;u lKavdhug ,efnk me;a; muKla .fIKfhka bf.kqug
fhduqjk isiqka" bf.kq-b.eka l%u rdYshla Tiafia wod< wka; fj; f.k hdu i|yd
.=rejrhd f Wmfoia fm< .iajhs' m%Yak Tiafia is lrkq ,nk uYkd;aul wOHhk
^Inquiry-based Learning& fyda l%shdfjka bf.kqug u mdok w;aoelS mdol bf.kqu ^Experiential Learning& fyda f;dard .ekSug fuys oS .=re Nj;dg ksoyi ;sf' by; lsk
wdldrfhka fyda isiqka ,nk oekqu mdol lr .kska Ihhg iqfYaIS jQ fyda Ihud,df
Ih lsysmhla yryd osfjk fyda .eg i|Su i|yd Tjqka fhduq lr .ekSu w'fmd'i'
^W'fm<& Ih .=re Nj;=kaf.a j.lSu fjhs'
fujka .eg mdol bf.kq-b.eka l%u ; h:d: mok lr f.k ie,iq lsu
w:j;a h' u;fNaohg ;=vq oS we;s ;;a;aj" Wml,ams; ;;a;aj" iudka;r woyia fuka u
m%d:l uQ,dY% f i|yd fhdod .ekSug Tng ksoyi ;sf' lsheu" f;dr;=re tla/ia lsu
yd l<ukdlrKh" m%;HflaIKh" kslaIKh" idlPd lsu" l,ams; f.dvkeSu yd
mlaId lsu" mqfrdal:k mlaId lsu" m%Yak yd ms<s;=re ilia lsu" iurEmKh" .eg
i|Su yd fi!kaohd;aul ldh wdosh .fIKh i|yd fhdod .; yels l%uYs,am lsysmhls'
hdka;%sl bf.kqula fia ie,flk lgmdv lsu jqj o fkdjeo.;a hehs wu;l lr oeug
fuys oS bv ;nd ke;'
isiqyq l=vd lKavdh jYfhka .fIKfha fhfo;s' .=re Nj;d i;= oekqu neyeka ,nkq
fjkqjg .=re iydh ,nd .kska oekqu yd wjfndaOh f.dvk;s' lKavdhf fiiq wh
iu woyia yqjudre lr .kska fidhd .;a oekqu je oshqKq lr;s' f ish,a, m%Yia:
ugka isjkafka isiqkag wjYH lsh jH yd fhojq imhd oSug .=re Nj;d bosm;a
jqjfyd;a h' tfia u <uqka bf.kSfuys fhfok uq ld,h mqrd u lKavdh w;r .ejfika
bf.kqu i|yd <uqkag iydh jqjfyd;a h' fun bf.kq m%fYhl oS wkdjrKh uQ,sl
jQj o" th ksoyia wkdjrKhla fkdjk nj;a ufmkajk wkdjrKhla ^guided discovery&
nj;a Tn f;are .; hq;= fjhs' .=re Nj;df.ka fuka u iu jhia lKavdhfuka o
fmdaIKh fjka fufia bf.k .kakd isiqkag ;h i|yd jeo.;a w;aoelS /ila u
,efnk nj wuq;=fjka lsj hq;= ke;'
.fIKfhka miq j t<fUkafka jrK ^Explanation& wjia:djhs' fuys oS l=vd
v
vi
WmfoaYkh (
wCIKh
Ihud,d lgqj (
wNHka;r
iS' t' wd' weka;ks uy;d
wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
wOHlaI ^oHd" fi!LH yd
Ydl wOHdmk &
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
-
ndysr
uydpdh t' ' .=KjOk
uydpdh v' ' v' ch;s,l
uydpdh tia' mS' oerKsh.,
uydpdh w;a wffialr
uydpdh lu,a nKavdr .=Kfyar;a
uydpdh iql=u,S u,fiak
wdpdh fla' ta' tia' m;sr;ak
wdpdh iqoka; ,shkf.a
wdpdh cks;d ,shkf.a
wdpdh c.;a fm%aupka
moaud fmdkakfmreu h
wdkkao w;=fldar< uhd
iS' ' f.=Kisxy h
hQ' mS' ismd, uhd
uqos;d lrg h
t' ' rkankavd uhd
t' ' ta' whsrdx.kS h
tka' tia' nd,fudayka uhd
tia' fms,af,a fukh
tia' ;sf,hskdoka uhd
Ysfrda uqksodi h
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msgljr ksudKh
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mgqk
msgqj
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4'0
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l%shdldrl
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we.hS ie,iq
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ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
ia;r lrhs'
WmmrudKq wxY=" iuia:dksl yd lsrKYS,;dj ms<sn| f;dr;=re bosm;a lrhs'
mrudKql wdlD;s ixikaokd;aul j uid n,hs'
yels u
ndysr oHq;a Odrdjla iemhSfuka h mod:hla fjk;a mod:hla njg
fldaI&
WmmrudKql wxY= ms<sn| f;dr;=re iuyrla
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iuia:dksl
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kHIafha ia:dhs;dj Wfoid wia:dhs kHIa iska fyda wxY= iska fyda lsrK
ksl=;a lsu lsrKYS,;dj f,i ye|ska f'
oHq;a fCIa;%h
lsrKYS,S m%Njh
lsrK
lsrK
lsrK
mrudKqj ms<n
s | kHIal wdlD;sh bosm;aa lsug mok jQ .hs. iy udiavkaf.a
mlaIKh
fpkh lrk ,o
re n,anh
la; fmdmh
N%uK wkalaIh
f, wdjrKh
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mrudKq
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mrudKql wdlD;s
f;dika 'ma, mqu' wdlD;sh
bf,lafg%dak
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rom' mrudKql wdlD;sh
kHIAh
bf,lafg%dak
fnda wdlD;sh
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
;rx.hl .=K ia;r flfrk rdYs k lr tajd w;r in|;d m%ldY lrhs'
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O mrdi ykajd tu mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj,
yd ixLHd;h jk
g oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl m%f.h -
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oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl Yla;sh E= h
fuys h hkq ksh;hls' th ma,dkala
ksh;h k f'
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X - lsrK
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u;g ,nd .kak' tys jK fNaokh we;s wdldrh kslaIKh lsu i|yd
isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
oHq;a pqNl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, Nd; fidhd n,d
mefKk f,i isiqkag mQjfhka oekq fokak'
tla tla mrdifha m%fhdack l=vd lKavdh ,jd iuia; mka;shg bosm;a
lrjkak'
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
j meyeos,s lrhs'
h mrudKqjl msys bf,lafg%dakhl wkkH;dj Bg wod< lafjdkag wxl
l=,lfhka ia;r jk nj m%ldY lrhs'
wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh
wdf,dal
lnh
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iys; ;yvq
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mj;sk jdhq ksheosh
fLd jKdj,sh
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s
400
l=656 nm
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l=486 nm
n=5
n=4
n=3
l=434 nm
ndu
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500
600
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700
lafjdkag wxl
m%Odk lafjdkag wxlh ^n&
bf,lafg%dk
a h wh;a WmYla;s ugu (s, p, d, f, ...) fuu`.ska ksrEmKh flf'
l = 0, 1, 2, ...... ^n-1&
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-1
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m%Odk Yla;s
ugug wh;a uq`M
bf,lafg%dak
.Kk
6
8
2
10
18
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
ldlaIsl ixLHd
10
14
yqka kS;sh
iudk Yla;sfhka hq;a ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak mj;skqfha tajdfha neuq
iudka;r jk mos h' ke;fyd;a hq.au bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj Wmu jk mos
h'
mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouh
fuu uQ,Oufhka lshefjkafka h ldlaIslhl bf,lafg%dak follg jvd
mej;sh fkdyels nj hs' ^ke;fyd;a mrudKqjl h bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk
lafjdkag wxl l=,lh thg u wkkH jk nj hs'&
f.dvkexf uQ,Ouh
ka lshefjkafka ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msu mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouhg
wkqj hka ldlaIslj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<g is jk nj hs'
11
mrudKql l%udxlh
12
13
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
ykd .kshs'
14
1/I
ns1
2/II
ns2
10
11
12
ns2 np1
14/IV
ns2 np4
ns2 np5
13/III
ns2 np6
18/VIII
15
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
lrhs'
nkaOkhg inkaO mrudKqj, oHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj tajd ksO%eh
Be
1.5
B
1.0
C
2.5
N
3.0
O
3.5
F
4.0
Na
0.9
Mg
1.2
Al
1.5
Si
1.8
P
2.1
S
2.5
Cl
3.0
K
0.8
Ca
1.0
Ga
1.6
Ge
1.8
As
2.0
Se
2.4
Br
2.8
Rb
0.8
Sr
1.0
In
1.7
Sn
1.8
Sb
1.9
Te
2.1
I
2.5
Cs
0.7
Ba
0.9
Tl
1.8
Pb
1.9
Bi
1.9
Po
2.0
At
2.2
16
fmda,ska mudKhg wkqj tla tla uQ,jH i|yd ksYa; oHq;a RK;d w.hla
yd
ksoiqka (
fyda
bf,lafg%dak c,dYh
17
18
ksmqK;dj 1'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
Tlaisckaj, ia ixfla;h
yhsv%ckaj, ia ixfla;h
O H
H O H
c, wKqf ia jHqyh
fh
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wIag;,Sh
p;=ia;,Sh
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wkaou
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fh
fh
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fldaKsl
p;=ia;,Sh
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msrvh
fldaKsl
20
bf,lafg%dak hq.,
tl;=j nkaOk tlir
hq.,a ilia jk
wkaou
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fh
wIag;,Sh
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21
NO 3- , CO 32- , SO 2-4 ,
my; wKqj,$whkj, uOH mrudKqf uqy
q lrKh ksKh lsug i,iajkak'
BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, C2H2, C2H4 , NH4+ ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a
22
ksmqK;dj 1'8
ksmK
q ;d ugu
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
RK;d fjki fya;= fldg f.k fyda fjk;a ndysr n,mEula fya;=fjka fyda
nkaOkhg inkaO mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak j,d wiu;sl j jHdma; u
O%elrKh f,i ykajhs'
ksoiqka (
Be+
Cl
23
O%ejKYS,;dj
O%elrKhla fkdue;
lD;s u
O%ejKYS,;dj je u
h m%udKhlg iyixhqc
,laIK fmkakq lsu
O%ejKYS,;dj by< kxjk idOl
legdhkh (
m%udKfhka l=vd u
wekdhkh (
ksoiqka (
AgF, AgCl, AgBr iy AgI j, whksl .=K my; mos p,kh f'
AgF > AgCl > AgBr > AgI
yhsrcka nkaOk
yhsrcka nkaOk hkq oHq;a RK mrudKqjlg ^X& iyixhqc j ne|S mj;sk
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fok ,o mod:hl cd, ieliau wkqj fmkakq l< yels fN!;sl .=K mqfrdal:kh
lrhs'
tlsfklg fjkia cd, ieliq iys; mod:j, fN!;sl .=K ikaikaokh lrhs'
weuqKqu 1'9'2
wKql cd,
wKql cd, iuyrla iumrudKql wKqj,ska ksudKh mj;sk w;r ;j;a iuyrla
Iu mrudKql wKqj,ska ksudKh we;' oe,si ks; wKqf O%eh iajNdjh i,lka
tajd ksO%eh wKql cd, yd O%eh wKql cd, f,i j. l< yel'
whka iaMl iumrudKql ksO%eh wKql cd,hla i|yd ksoiqkla f' whka wKqj
Yd, wKqjls' t neka O fya;+ka u; whka wKq ;djld,sl j fm%a; oaO%ej we;s lr
.kshs' t jeks fm%a; oaO%ej-fm%a; oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK uska whka
oe,si ksudKh we;'
rEmh 1'9'6
Na+
31
Cl-
ksmqK;dj 2'0
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
fN!;sl rdYs m%ldY lsrSu i|yd wod< Wmi. iys; uQ,sl SI tall yd jHq;m
a kak
wka; cd;sl tall l%uh ^Systeme International d' Unite's - SI & wkqj uQ, rdYs
y;la iy tajdg tall y;la iu; lr f.k we;'
rdYsh
tallh
tallfha ixfla;h
os.
ialkaOh
ld,h
;dm.;sl WIaK;ajh
oHq;a Odrdj
jH m%udKh
oSma; ;Sj%;dj
grh
lsf,da.a?uh
;;amrh
fl,akh
wemshrh
ujq,h
lekafv,dj
m
kg
s
K
A
mol
cd
SI jHq;amkak tall
jHq;m
a kak fN!;sl rdYshl SI tallh tu fN!;sl rdYsfha w: oelau wdY%fhka
,nd .; yels h' th ,sf oS uQ,sl rdYSka fjka fldg oelaug tla tla uQ,sl
rdYsfha ixfla; w;r ysoeila ;nkq ,ef' we;e jHq;amkak rdYs i|yd Nd;
lrk fYaI k we;' kuq;a tajd o SI uQ, tall weiqfrka m%ldY l< yels h'
fYaI k fkdue;s jHq;amkak tall lSmhla my; j.=f oela f'
rdYsh
w: oelau$ilrKh
SI tallh
j.M,h
mudj
os. m<,
os. m<, Wi
m2
m3
m%f.h
ia:dmkh
ld,h
32
m s-1
;ajrKh
m%f.h fjki
ld,h
m s-2
>k;ajh
ialkaOh
mrsudj
kg m-3
ialkaOh m%f.h
.uH;dj
kg m s-1
rdYsh
SI tallfha
fYaI ku
ixfla;h
w: oelau
^ilrKh&
ialkaOh;ajrKh
wkH SI tall
weiqfrka
m%ldYh
uQ,sl tall
weiqfrka
m%ldYh
n,h
ksgkh
mSvkh
meial,h
Pa
ldhh
cQ,h
Yla;h
s
cQ,h
ixLHd;h
y'ih
Hz
lmk .Kk
ld,h
s -1
oHq;a
wdfrdamKh
l+f,dauh
Odrdjld,h
As
oHq;a Njh
fjda,g
a h
ldhh
wdfrdamK
J C-1
kg m2 s-3 A-1
oHq;a
m%;f
s rdaOh
uh
Njh
Odrdj
V A-1
kg m2 s-2 A-1
oHq;a Od;dj
*ervh
wdfrdamKh
Njh
C V-1
n,h
j.M,h
n,hia:dmkh
33
kg m s-2
N m-2
kg m-1 s-2
Nm
kg m2 s-2
.=Kk idOlh
Wmi.fha ku
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18
tlaid
fmgd
fgrd
.s.d
fu.d
lsf,da
fylafgd
fvld
fvis
fikas
,s
uhsfl%da
kefkda
msflda
f*fgda
wefgda
ixfla;h
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto
E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m
n
p
f
a
hlsis fN!;sl rdYshl w.h Wmi.h iu. ,sf oS tu Wmi.hg wod< ixfla;h SI
ixfla;hg bosfhka ysoeila fkd;nd ,sh hq;= h'
WodyrK (
;;amrfhka
1
=110-3 s =1 ms
1000
grfhka
1
=110-2 m=1 c m
100
gr
1000 = 1103 m = 1 km
.Kka lsu iy uekSu w;r fjkila we;' .Kka lsu ksYa;j u l< yels w;r
uekSu wdikak w.h m%ldY lsula f' m%ldY lrk ,o lsish fN!;sl rdYshl
ixLHd;aul w.fhys wvx.= jk w:j;a wxl .Kk id:dxl f,i ykajhs'
ksoiqka (
mEkl os. O kq WmlrKj,ska uek my; mos m%ldY
fika gr fldgia muKla igyka fldajlska uekSu
gr fldajlska uekSu
jksh le,smrhlska uekSu
34
f wkqj kq WmlrKhlska uek m%ldY lrk w.hla wdikak w.hla i ksYa; w.hla
fkd jk nj meyeos,s f'
by; oS m<uq kqu id:dxl follska o fo jk kqu id:dxl ;=klska o f; jk kqu
id:ldxl 4 lska o m%ldY lr we;s nj i,lkq ,ef'
ixLHd tl;= lsf oS" wvq lsf oS" .=K lsf oS yd fnoSf oS id:dxl ksjeros j yeisru
wjYH h'
ksoiqka (
^I&
13 .8
1 .005
123 .2846 +
0 .023
138 .1126
fuys oS je u fodaIhla we;af;a uq,ska u i|yka ixLHd f h' tu ksid ms<s;=r 138'1 f,i
.kq ,ef' wvq lsf oS o" fuu l%uh u wkq.ukh flf'
^II&
2.451.478
= 0.01078
335.6
fuys olajd we;s ixLHdj, id:dxl .Kk 3 iy 4 f' ms<s;=r wvq u id:dxl .Kkg
^id:ldxl 3& jeghsh hq;= f' ta wkqj ms<s;=r bosm;a l< hq;af;a 0'0108 jYfhks'
;a;s .=K ^ Extensive Properties & (
moaO;sfha m%udKh u; r|d mj;sk .=K ;a;s .=K f'
ksoiqka( mudj" tka;e,amsh
>gkd .=K ^ Intensive Properties &
moaO;sfha m%udKh u; r|d fkd mj;sk .=K >gkd .=K f'
ksoiqka ( WIaK;ajh" idkaKh
m%;sY; ixhq;sh (
ksoiqka ( KMnO4 158.04 g j, K, 39.10 g o, Mn, 59.94 g o O, 64.00 g o wka;.; f'
K j, ialkaO m%;sY;h
Mn j, ialkaO m%;sY;h
O j, ialkaO m%;sY;h
39.10
100 = 24.74 %
158.04
54.94
100 = 34.76 %
158.04
64.00
100 = 40.50 %
158.04
wdkqNl iQ;%h ( ixfhda.hl ixhq;sh yd tl`. jk mos jQ ta ta mrudKq ixLHd w;r ir,
u mQK ixLHd;aul wkqmd;h fmkakq lrk iQ;%h tys wkqNl iQ;%h
k f'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wkqNl iQ;%h CH f'
wKql iQ;%h (
ixfhda.hl wKqjl we;s ta ta uQ,jH mrudKq ixLHdj kshu jYfhka
fmkakq lrk iQ;%h wKql iQ;%h f' ixfhda.hl idfmalaI wKql
ialkaOh yd idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh w;r wkqmd;h mQK
ixLHdjla f'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wKql iQ;%h C6H6 f'
35
ksoiqk (
ldnksl ixfhda.hl ialkaOh wkqj C- 48.12 % la o H - 8.32 % la o N- 21.20 % la o wvx.= f'
b;sh Tlaiscka f'
^I& ixfhda.fha wdkqNl iq;%h ksKh lrkak'
^II& idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh 155 k ixfhda.fha wKql iQ;%h ksKh lrkak'
H = 1.01, C = 12.00, N = 14.00, O = 16.00
= 48.12+ 8.32+21.20 = 77.64%
= 100 - 77.64
= 22.36%
C, H
ialkaO wkqmd;h
ujq, wkqmd;h
48'12
48'12
12'00
4'01
4'01
1'40
( 8'32 (
( 8'32 (
1'01
( 8'32 (
( 8'32 (
1'40
21'20
21'20
14'00
1'51
1'51
1'40
( 22'36
( 22'36
16'00
( 1'40
( 1'40
1'40
2'9 ( 5'9
ujq, w;r ir,
mQK ixLHd;aul
wkqmd;h
( 6
( 1
( 1'1
(
olajk ,o" .Kka lr ,nd .kakd yd w.h mjrk ,o fN!;sl rdYs jYfhka
tajd ia;r lrkak'
O .Ks; luj, oS id:dxl yiqrejk wdldrh W; ir, WodyrK weiqka
myod fokak'
m%;sY; ixhq;s ,nd oS we;s fgl ixfhda.j, wdkqNl iQ;% yd wKql iQ;%
ksjeros j ,nd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
36
ksmqK;dj 2'0
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
A j, ialkaO Nd.h }
A ialkaOh
A ialkaOh + B ialkaOh
Y%Khl oS
A j, mud Nd.h }
A mudj
A yd B Y%Kfha uq`M mudj
ksoiqk ( t;fkda,a 20.00 cm3 mudjlg uq`M mudj 100.00 cm3 jk f;la c,h
tl;= lrkq ,ef'
t;fkda,ays mud Nd.h }
A yd B Y%Khl oS
A ujq, .Kk
A ujq, Nd.h } uq`M ujq, .Kk
37
(pph) f,i
(ppt) f,i
(ppm) f,i
38
ksmqK;dj 2'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
wej.dfrda ksh;h ^L&" jdhq ksh;h ^R& yd *erf ksh;h ^F& w.h yd tall
39
ksmqK;dj 2
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
h hq;= h'
fidais l%uh (Inspection Method)
m%;sls%hl iy m%;sM,j, tla tla mrudKq ixLHd ;=,kh lsfuka ilrKh
;=,kh lsu fidais l%uh f,i yekah yel' fuu l%ufha m%;sls%hdj,
M,j, wvx.= jk uQ,jH fjka fjka jYfhka ;=,kh lrkq ,ef' m<uq j
wju mrudKq .Kkla wvx.= jk uQ, jH i,ld n,k w;r tl u uQ,jH
mrudKqj,ska iuka; wKq ^ksoiqka - Cl2, O2) wjidk mshjf i,ld n,kq
,ef'
ksoiqka (- C5H10(g) + 15/2O2 (g)
5CO2(g) + 5H2O (l)
tlsfklg fjkia uQ,jH ;=kla by; ilrKfha i|yka ix>glj,
oelaf'
C tl m%;sls%hlhl yd M,hl wvx.= f'
H tl m%;sl%shl yd M,hl wvx.= f'
O tl m%;sls%hl yd M, foll wvx.= f'
C
H
O
;=,kh
;=,kh
;=,kh
15/2
C5H10(g) + O2 (g)
C5H10(g) + O2 (g)
C5H10(g) + 15/2O2 (g)
h'
10CO2(g) + 10H2O (l)
;=,s; ilrK 2C5H10(g) + 15O2 (g)
.Ks;uh l%uh
m%;l
s h
%s l yd M, okakd g ix.=Kl ieief l%uh u.ska ilrK ;=,kh
lsrSu .Ks;uh l%uh f,i oelah yel'
ksoiqk ( a Cu + b HNO3
c Cu(NO3)2 + d NO + e H2O
ix.=Kl ieie g
Cu mrudKq ie,l+ g
H mrudKq ie,l+ g
N mrudKq ie,l+ g
O mrudKq ie,l+ g
a=c
b = 2e
b = 2c + d
3b = 6c + d + e
40
k c = 1
wdfoaY l< g
a=1
b = 2 + d ...... (1)
3b = 6 + d +e .....(2)
b = 2e w.h ms<sfj<ska
2e = 2 + d
6e = 6 + d + e
2e - d = 2 ...... (3)
5e - d = 6 ...... (4)
(4) - (3) ka ;
3e = 4
e = 4/3
b = 2 x 4/3 = 8/3
d = b - 2 = 8/3 - 2 = 2/3
8
3
HNO3
Cu (NO3)2 +
NO +
H2O
3 ka .=K l< g
3Cu + 8HNO3
wO m%;l
s h
%s d weiqka ;=,;
s ilrK
f.dvkexf whk jYfhka ie,lSu
3
myiqf'
TlaisyrK wO m%;sls%hdj
NO3(+5)
NO
(+2)
(1) 2 + (2) 3
42
ksmqK;dj 2'0
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
u;= lrhs'
ixhq;sh ialkaO$mud" ujq,$mud yd ujq,$ialkaO weiqka .Kkh lr m%ldY
lrhs'
ialkaO Nd.h
mud Nd.h
ujq, Nd.h
ialkaO$mud
ujq,$mud
ujq,$ialkaO
ujq,$mud weiqfrka m%ldYs; ixhq
;sh idkaKh f,i ykajkq ,ef'
b;d l=vd m%udKj,ska wvx.= ix>glj, ixhq;h
s ppm fyda ppb u`.ska fndfydag
m%ldY lrkq ,ef'
ppm } ialkaO Nd.h 106 yd ppb } ialkaO Nd.h 109 f,i o
ppm } mrsud Nd.h 106 yd ppb } mrsud Nd.h 109f,i bosrsm;a l< yels h'
c,fha >k;ajh
} 1000 g dm-3 f'
;kql c,Sh djKhl >k;ajh 1000 g dm-3 f,i ie,lsh yels h' t neka
djK 1 dm3 ialkaOh } 1 kg } 1000 g } 1000000 mg
t jeks gl ialkaO$mud wkqmd;hla jqj o ppm f,i m%ldY l< yels h'
ialkaO Nd.hla f,i
1ppm hkq fldgia 1000000 mg l fldgia 1 mg wvx.= f hkakhs' t neka
;kql djK i|yd
1ppm = 1 mg kg -1 = 1 mg dm-3
= 1 g g -1
= 1 g cm-3
ksoiqk ( djKhl Fe3+ ixhq;sh 1'5 ppm f,i m%ldY lr we;' tu ixhq;sh
>k fvis grhg ujq,j,ska m%ldY lrkak'
1'5 ppm = 1'5 mg dm-3
43
wdfrdamK >k;ajh
f,i w: oelaf'
wdfrdamK >k;ajh
ksoiqk (
djKhl Fe3+ whk idkaKh 1 mol dm-3 f' djKfha + wdfrdamK >k;ajh
fidhkak'
+ wdfrdamK >k;ajh
Wmfoia fokak'
44
ksmqK;dj 3'0
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
jdhq
mrsudj
ksY
a ; hs'
ksY
a ; hs'
wka;.; nfka
mudj w;alr .kshs'
yevh
ksY
a ; hs'
wka;.; nfka
yev w;alr .ksh's
kuq;a nfka uq`M
mudj mqrd jHdma;
fkdf'
wka;.; nfka
uq`M mudj w;alr
.ksh's
imSvkhg ,la
lsf yelshdj
imSvkh
l< fkd yels h'
imSvkh
l< fkd yels h'
Yd, jYfhka
imSvkhg ,la
l< yels h'
>k;ajh
lrkak'
>k" j yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau ia;r lr oS ta weiqka mudj" yevh
45
ksmK
q ;dj 3
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
lrhs'
jdhqjl ujq,sl mudj mCIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d lrhs'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh wdY%s; .eg i|hs'
yeisu flfrys n,mdhs' jdhqjla ms<sn| by; i|yka rdYs y;r we;=<;a
inkaO;djla f,i mmqK jdhq ilrKh yekah yels h'
idj;% jdhq ksh;h
PV = nRT
PV = nRT
ksh; WIaK;ajhl ksh; jdhq ialkaOhla i|yd nT .=Ks;h ksh; f'
R ksh; ksid nRT= k ksh;hls'
fyda
PV = k (fyda
ksh;hls'
f;dr;=re wdfoaY lr jdhq ksh;fha w.h ,nd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dfrda kshu i|yka lr tajd mmQK jdhq ilrKh
weiqfrka jHq;amkak lsug fhduq lrjkak'
47
ksmqK;dj 3'0
ms<sn|
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
ia;r lrhs'
jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh flfrys fhda. m%f.fha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'
j mj;S'
jdhq mSvkh we;s jkafka jdhq wKq wka;.; nfka ;a;s u; .eu
fya;=fjks'
wKql pd,l ilrKh
P=
V=
m=
N=
mSvkh
jdhqf mudj
jdhq wxY=jl$wKqjl ialkaOh
uq`M jdhq wxY=$wKq ixLHdj
= j. uOHkH m%f.h
tla tla jdhq wxY=j, m%f. ms<sfj<ska c1, c2, ......, cN
yhsrlaf,dala
w,h
idka wefudakshd
djKh
h Yla;shlska hq;a
wKq Nd.h
idlPd lrkak'
uelaiafj,a-fnda,aiaudka jl% bosm;a lr tajdfhka jdhq yeisu ms<sn| ,efnk
f;dr;=re idlPd lsug isiq lKavdh fhduq lrkak'
m%;sldrl fnda;,hlg j fn%daka xjla oud ixjD; lr kslaIKh lsug
ie,eiafuka irKh wdoYkh lrkak'
49
ksmqK;dj 3'0
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
wdxYsl mSvkh hkak ykajd" fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak
lrhs'
fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh wdY%s; .eg i|hs'
B jdhqj i|yd
50
tla tla ix>gl jdhqf odhl;ajh fln o hkak ms<sn| nqoa l,nk
idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
mka;h
s lKavdh lr my; i|yka wdldrfha ir, .eg ioSug fhduq lrkak'
jdhq Y%Khl tla tla ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s g jdhq Y%Kfha
ixhq;sh yd uq`M mSvkh ksKh lsu
jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd ixhq;sh oS we;s g tla tla jdhqf wdxYsl
mSvk ksKh lsu
jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s g ixhq;sh ksKh
lsu'
ntotal = n A + nB
PtotalV PAV PBV
=
+
RT
RT RT
Ptotal = PA + PB
51
ksmqK;dj 3'0
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
z hkq imSvH;d idOlh f' mmQK jdhq i|yd z } 1 f' kuq;a ;d;a;al
jdhq i|yd fuu w.h ksh;hla fkdjk nj mlaIKd;aul f;dr;=re u`.ska
fy<s we;'
WIaK;ajh 273 K ys oS O jdhq i|yd PV .=Ks;hg tos j P ys m%ia;drh
mmQK jdhq
wvq mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;d;a;al jdhq" mmQK yeisug <`.d jk nj fuu
m%ia;drhg wkqj meyeos,s f'
52
m%ia;drh
mSvkh
P } mSvkh
V } mudj
n } jH ^ujq,& m%udKh
R } idj;% jdhq ksh;h
T } ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh
a yd b hkq ;d;a;al jdhq i|yd ksh; ^jeka v' jd,aaia ksh;& f'
jeka v' jd,aaia ilrKh weiqfrka .Kkhka is lsu wkjYH hs'
53
ksmqK;dj 4'0
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
olajhs'
tka;e,amsh wjia:d Y%s;hla f,i yd ;dm.;sl .=Khla f,i ykajhs'
j.=.; l< tka;e,ams o;a; weiqfrka m%;sl%shd wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi .Kkh
lrhs'
k f'
moaO;sh yd mirh fjka flfrk iSudj udhsu f,i ye|skaf'
moaO;sh
mirh
udhsu
udhsu yryd Yla;sh yd mod:h yqjudre jk moaO;s jD; moaO;s k f'
Yla;sh yd mod:
udhsu yryd Yla;sh muKla yqjudre jk moaO;s ixjD; moaO;s f'
Yla;h
s
udhsu yryd Yla;sh;a" mod:h;a hk fol u yqjudre fkd jk moaO;s tal,s;
moaO;s k f'
mod: m%udKh u; r|d mj;sk .=K ;a;s .=K k f'
55
ksmqK;dj 4'0
ld,fo
( 16 hs'
bf.kq M,
w: olajhs'
tka;e,ams rEmigyka yd ;dm ridhksl pl% Nd;fhka O l%shdj,s wdY%s;
jd;d lrhs'
m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shdjl tka;e,ams mhdi mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d
lrhs'
fyia kshufha j,x.=;dj iqiq m%dfhda.sl mlaIKhla weiqfrka mlaId lr
jd;d lrhs'
&
H C
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s ixfhda. ujq, tlla iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s tys
ix>gl uQ,jHj,ska W;amdokh lsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
ksoiqka ( H2O(l) ys W;amdokfha iu; tka;e,amsh -286 kJ mol-1 f'
th fufia oelah yel'
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fyda ujq,hla jeuk;a
Tlaiscka ;=< uq`Mukska u oykh lsf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
iu; ;;a;j
a hgf;a oS jdhquh m%fNaohl nkaOk ujq,hla | jdhquh ;;a;j
a fha
ix>gl njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs' ^fuh fYaIs; l<
uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fYaIs; l< nkaOkhla inkaOfhka m%ldY
flf'&
56
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS c,Sh djKhl we;s H+ whk ujq,hla c,Sh djKhl
we;s OH- whk ujq,hla iu`. m%;sl%shd lr c,h ujq,hla iEoSf oS is jk
tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
iu; jK tka;e,amsh ^
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh whk ujq,hla jeuk;a djl m%udKhla
yuqf" djK ;;a;ajhg m;af oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
jeuk;a
djlh
Mn+ (g) +
Mn+ (solvent)
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh whk ujq,hla jeuk;a c,h m%udKhla iu`.
djK ;;a;ajhg m;af oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
Na+(g)+H2O(l) Na+(aq)
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a h jH ujq,hla djlhl osh lr 1 dm3l djKhla
iEoSf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
NaCl(s) + (aq) NaCl (aq)
} 1 kJ mol-1
fyia kshuh
E
fyia kshuhg wkqj
H1= H2+H3
57
2C(S,gr)
tka ; e,a m s h
tka;e,ams rEmigyk
2C(S,gr)
58
ksmqK;dj 4'0
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a >k uQ,jHhl ujq,hla fyda >k ixfhda.hl ujq,hla
fyda imQKfhka jdhquh wjia:djg m;a lsf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih
hs'
Ca(s) Ca(g)
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a mj;sk j ixfhda.$uQ,jH ujq,hla jdhquh ixfhda.$
uQ,jH ujq,hla njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
Br2(l) Br2(g)
&
iu; ;;a ; a j hgf;a mj;a k d >k ixfhda . $uQ , jH ujq , hla " j
ixfhda.$uQ,jH ujq,hla njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS uQ,jHhla jdhquh wjia:df we;s mrudKq ujq,hla
njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
&
H EA
= 352 kJ mol-1
H L = -780 kJ mol -1
60
ksmqK;dj 4'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
fm/hS lrhs'
hs'
G = H - TS
iajhxisoaO j is jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd
G<O
iajhxisoaO j is fkd jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd G>O
iu;=,s; m%;sl%shdjla i|yd
G = O
ksh; tkafg%dms moaO;shl ^S = 0& iajhxisoaO;dj H u`.ska ;SrKh jk w;r
ksh; tka;e,amsh hgf;a ^H = 0& isjk mhdihl iajhxisoaO;dj S u`.ska
;SrKh f'
61
62
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
m%ldY lrhs'
s iy p f.dkqj, uQ,jH" ldKavhla Tiafia my<g fmkakq lrk m%jK;d
m%ldY lrhs'
m<uq wdj;h
uQ,jH
fN!;sl wjia:dj
jdxlh$0C
Li
s
Be
s
B
s
C
s
180
1280
2030
;dmdxlh$0C
1330
2480
Na
s
98
890
fo jk wdj;h
uQ,jH
fN!;sl wjia:dj
jdxlh$0C
;dmdxlh$0C
N
g
O
g
F
g
Ne
g
-219
-220
-250
3930
3700^G& -210
3550^D&
4830
-200
-180
-190
-245
Mg
s
Al
s
Si
s
P
s
S
s
Cl
g
Ar
g
650
1120
660
2450
1410
2680
44
280
119
445
-101
-34
-189
-186
iyixhqc wrh
63
f,dayl wrh
f,day oe,sfia we;s hd no legdhk kHIa folla w;r we;s ka y wvla
TlaislrK wxl
bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj
fndfyda uQ,jHj, m<uq bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj RK w.hla .kshs' thg
64
uQ,jH
Li
Be
bf,lafg%dk
a
nkaO;
q dj$kJ mol-1
-59'6
+66
-26'7
-122
+31
-141
-318
uQ,jH
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
bf,lafg%dk
a
nkaO;
q dj$kJ mol-1
-90
+67
-30
-135
-60
-200
-364
65
ksmqK;dj 5'0
( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g
uYkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
yhsfrdlaihsv idohs'
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
C(s)+O2(g)
CO2(g)
S(s)+O2(g)
SO2(g)
w, iu`.
s f.dkqf f,day kHIahg ,sys,a j nekq bf,lafg%dak msg lrka Wp
jdhq kHdih iys; ia:dhs legdhk idoka Tlaisydrl f,i l%shd lrhs'
m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day w, iu`. m%;sl%shd lrka Yd, ;dm m%udKhla
lrhs'
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
ixikaokh lrhs'
wod< ;dm.;sl o;a; Wmfhda.S lr .kska s f.dkqf khsfgj, ldnfkagj,
yd nhsldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj ksKh lrhs'
s yd p f.dkq j , fya , hs v " Tla i hs v " yhs rhs v yd yhs frdla i hs v j,
wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh wdj; Tiafia boshg yd ldKav Tiafia
my<g p,kh jk wkaou m%ldY lrhs'
69
by; wjia:d folg wod< .sia Yla;s fjkiau iei|Su u`.ska tajdfha djH;d
iei|sh yels h' .sia Yla;s fjki fuys oS MgSO4 i|yd >K w.hla jk w;r
BaSO4 i|yd Ok w.hhla f' ta wkqj .sia Yla;s fjki jvd;a RK jk
BaSO4 ys djH;dj MgSO4j,g idfmalaIj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'
ii|kq ,nk .sia Yla;s w.h hq.,u >K w.hka k ixLHd;aul j jvd
by;
yd
iei|sf oS jvd l=vd Ok w.h iys; ldnfkagh jk
MgCO3 myiqfjka ;dm fhdackhg ,la jk nj mqfrdal:kh l< yel' i;H
jYfhka u MgCO3 ys fhdack WIaK;ajh 540 0C oS muK jk w;r CaCO3
fhdackh jkqfha 900 0C oS muK h'
s f.dkqf m<uq ldKavhg wh;a ,jK ish,a,la u mdfya c,fha djH f'
s f.dkqjg wh;a fo jk ldKavfha f,day idok ,jKj, djH;dj ms<sn|
f;dr;=re my; j.=f oelaf'
70
Cl-
Br-
djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
Mg2+ djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
Ca2+
djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
djHh
Sr2+
djHh
djHh djHh
djHh
djHh
djHh h; h;
osh f osh f
djHh wdjHh wdjHh
Ba2+
djHh
djHh djHh
h; wdjHh djHh
djHh
h; wdjHh djHh
djHh
fyd|ska wdjHh djHh
djHh
djHh
djHh
Be2+
I-
OH-
djHh osh
osh
fkd f fkd f
Na2O
MgO
Al2O3
SiO2
P 2O 5
SO 2
Cl2O7
m%n,
Ndial
n,
Ndial
WNh.=KS
b;d n,
wd,sl
n,
wd,sl
wd,sl
b;d m%n,
wd,sl
NaOH
Mg(OH)2
Al(OH)3
Si(OH)4
P(OH)5
S(OH)6 Cl(OH)7
NaOH
Mg(OH)2
Al(OH)3
H4SiO4
H3PO4
H2SO4
HClO4
m%n,
Ndial
n,
Ndial
WNh.=KS
b;d n,
wd,sl
n,
wd,sl
m%n,
wd,sl
b;d m%n,
wd,sl
NaH
MgH2
AlH3
SiH4
PH3
H2S
HCl
m%n,
Ndial
n,
Ndial
WNh.=KS
b;d n,
wd,sl
n,
wd,sl
wd,sl
b;d m%n,
wd,sl
wjia:dj fokak'
s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok khsfg" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj
71
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 15 hs'
bf.kq M,
lrhs'
f*dia*ria" i,a* yd laf,daka idok Tlais w,j, jHqy bosm;a lrhs'
H2O2 , H2 iy SO2 Tlaisldrl yd Tlaisydrl f,i yeisfrk wjia:d i|yd
ksoiqka ;=<s; ridhksl ilrK weiqfrka bosm;a lrhs'
c,Sh udOHfha oS yhsvc
% ka fya,hsvj, wd,sl;dj" laf,darhsvj, c, fokh
laf,daka yd laf,daf whkj, oaOdlrKh yd ye,ckj, idfmalaI
Tlaisldrl m%n,;d W; ksoiqka f.k yer olajka ia;r lrhs'
WP jdhqj, .=K i|yka lr tajd idok ixfhda. i|yd ksoiqka bosm;a lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 5'4 hgf;a fhda; m%dfhda.sl mlaIK is lr jd;d lrhs'
iq f*dia*ria
r;= f*dia*ria
l f*diamria
f*dia*ria jd;fha we;s O2 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk ksid c,fha .nvd lrhs'
kuq;a N2 ys N N nkaOkfha m%n,;dj ksid ksoyia jdhqjla f,i jdhqf.da,fha
mj;S'
f*dia*ria ys Tlais w,
Hypophosphorus Acid
Orthophosphorus Acid
72
Phosphoric Acid
Tlaiscka O2
fidaka O3
folls'
ish u iaMlrEmS i,a* S8 wKqj,ska iuka; f'
iaMlrEmS i,a*
frdniSh i,a*
taldk;s i,a*
wiaMlrEmS i,a*
HO
HO
OH
OH
H2SO4
H2SO3
73
OH
OH
H 2 S2 O 3
H
O
O0
1040
98
O1110
H
H2O 2
H2O
H2O2 Tlaisydrhla f,i
wjK jdhqjls' jd;hg jvd >k;ajhlska hqla; jk w;r lgql .kaOhla we;'
c,fha fyd|ska osh f'
SO2 c,fha osh i,amshqla ^IV& w,h idohs' th n, w,hls'
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
SO2 Tlaisldrlhla f,i
2MgO(s) + S(s)
2Mg(s) + SO2(g)
3Mg(s) + SO2(g)
2MgO(s) + MgS(s)
SO2 Tlaisydrlhla f,i
SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
4H+(aq) + SO 2-4 (aq) +2e
(i) H+/KMnO4iu`.
5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2KMnO4 (aq) K2SO4(aq)+2MnSO4(aq)+2H2SO4(aq)
(ii) H+/K2Cr2O7iu`.
K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 3SO2(g) K2SO4(aq) + Cr2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) FeCl3 (aq) iu`.
FeCl3(aq) + SO2(g)+ 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + FeCl2(aq) +2HCl(aq)
74
ye,ck iu`.
SO2(g)+Cl2(g)+2H2O(l)H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
(v) H2O2iu`.
H2O2(aq) + SO2 (g)H2SO4(aq)
rxck ldrlhla f,i
SO2(g) +2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)+2H+(aq) + 2e
X
+ 2H+ + 2e XH2
(iv)
jKj;a
idhu
wjK ixfhda.h
we;'
H2S c,Sh djKhla ;rula wd,sl f'
H2S(aq) H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
HS-(aq) H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
wd,sl iajNdjh i|yd idlaIH
(i) fidah iu`. m%;sl%shdj
jemqr 2H2S(g) + 2Na(s) 2NaHS(s) + H2(g)
^3& c,Sh H+/KMnO4 ;=<ska fuu jdhq fjka fjka j nqnq,kh l< g omdg
wjK jk w;r H2S nqnq,kh l< djKh i,a* we;s fuka wmeyeos,s f'
^4& SO2 j,ska u,afm;s rxckh isjk w;r H2S j,ska tfia fkdf'
ye,ck
- ,d lymdg I jdhqjls'
- ,d fld, mdgg yqre lymdg I jdhqjls'
- r;= Uqre jhls'
- os,sfik l`Mmdg >khls' ^W!Ojmd;kh f&
- lsrKYS,S uQ,jHhls'
F2
Cl2
Br2
I2
At
laf,darSkaj, Tlais w,
Cl
O
H
Cl
HO
Cl
HO
HClO2
HOCl
HClO3
O
Cl
HO
HClO4
Tlaisldrl .=Kh
HOCl< HClO2<HClO3<HClO4
( H )
fd
iu; W;amdok
tka;e,amh
s
HF
HCl
HBr
HI
/kJ mol-1
/kJ mol-1
-273
-92
-36
27
562
431
366
299
76
nkaOkh j, f'
nkaOk os. je f'
ia:dhS;dj wvq f'
wd,sl .=Kh je f'
He
ldur WIaK;ajfha
Ne
oS wjK jdhq f'
Ar
;ks mrudKq f,i
Kr
mj;S'
Xe
Rn - lsrKYS,S h
laf,dakays oaOdlrKh
^i& ;kql NaOH iu`.
78
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
mrudKq l l% u dxl
79
80
uQ,jH
mrudKql wrh/nm
jdxlh/0C
;dmdxlh/0C
>k;ajh/g cm
whksl wrh/nm
s- f.dkqf uQ,jH
oHq;a RK;dj
m<uq jk whkSlrK Yla;sh / kJ mol-1
wka;l uQ,jH
Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,jHj, f,dayl wrh" oHq;a RK;dj yd whkSlrK Yla;sj, p,kh
Sc
Ti
iq,n
Tlaihsv
Sc2O3
iq,n
laf,darhsv
ScCl3
ixfhda.j,
oS
fmkakq
lrk
TlaislrK
wxl
Cr
Mn
Ti2O3 V2O3
TiO2 V2O5
Cr2O3
CrO3
TiCl3
TiCl4
VCl3
V
III
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
MnO
FeO
MnO2 Fe2O3
Mn2O7
Co
Co2O3
NiO
Cu2O
CuO
ZnO
CrCl2
CrCl3
MnCl2
MnCl3
CoCl2
NiCl2
CuCl
CuCl2
ZnCl2
VI
VII
VI
V
Fe
FeCl2
Fe2Cl6
VI
IV
III
IV
V
IV
III
III
III
II
I
II
I
II
I
II
III
II
III
II
II
IV
V
IV
V
IV
IV
III
III
II
I
II
81
W;afm%arl f,i
fhdok jH
Ti
TiCl3/Al2(C2H5)6
nC2H4
taf;aka nyqwjhlrKh
V2O5or vanadate(VO3-)
2SO2+O22SO3
iamY l%uh
Fe
Fe or Fe2O3
N2+3H2 2NH3
fyan l%uh
Ni
Ni
RCH = CH2+H2RCH2CH3
udcka ksIamdokh
Cu
Cu or CuO
CH3CH2OH+1O2CH3CHO+H2O
t;fkda,a" t;ke,a njg TlaislrKh
Pt
Pt
Pt
Pt
2SO2+O22SO3
c c ia
) nmY l%uh
4NH3+5O24NO+6H2O
NONO2HNO3
wefudakshdj,ska khs%la w,h
ksmou
+V
+IV
+III
+II
c,Sh djKfha oS
jKh
ly
ks,a
fld<
whkh
VO2+
VO2+
V3+
V2+
ku
vhsTlafidjefkah(V)
Tlafidjefkah(IV) jefkah(III)
jefkah(II)
whkh
dioxovanadium(V) ion
whkh
oxovanadium(IV) ion
whkh
vanadium(II) ion
82
whkh
vanadium(III) ion
m%oYkh lrkak'
O jKj,ska hq;a ixfhda. iEu yd tajdfha f,dayj, TlaislrK wjia:d
O u wjOdrKh lrkak'
wod< m%ia;dl yd j.=.; l< f;dr;=re isiq lKavdhj,g mjrk ,o
83
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
TlaislrK wxlh
+II
+III
+IV
+VI
+VII
Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
Ndial
n, Ndial
WNh.=KS
n, wd,sl
wd,sl
TlaislrK wxlh
+II
+III
+IV
+VI
iQ;%h
TlaislrK wxlh
VO
V2O 3
VO2
V2O 5
+II
+III
+1V
+V
Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
n, wd,sl
WNh.=KS
n, wd,sl
wd,sl
wd,sl-Ndial
iajNdjh
Ndial
Ndial
WNh.=KS
wd,sl
85
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 06
bf.kq M,
Cr, Mn, Fe, Co yd Cu hk uQ,jH H2O, NH3 yd Cl- hk ,s.k ^nkaOk& iu`.
ixlSK
,s.k
moaO;sh
H2O
3+
Cr
[Cr(H2O)6]3+
ks,a-o
NH3
Co2+
Cu2+
ly Uqre
[Cr(NH3)6]3+
frdai
[Co(NH3)6]2+
ly
ly Uqre
Cl-
[CoCl4]2-
,d ks,a
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
ks,a
[CuCl4]2-
ks,a
ly
86
ly
;e,s
87
ksmqK;dj 5'0
ld,fo
( 04
bf.kq M,
88
(ii)
(iii)
Ok wdfrdams; nkaO ldKav we;s g tajdfha bx.%Sis kfuys w.g 'bh' - (ium) hk m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,ef'
ksoiqka :+
NH3 - NH2 - yhsriSksh
- Hydrazinium
(4)
(5)
(6)
oeka ixlSK whkh k lsu l< yels h' fuys m<uqj nkaO ldKav
o" fojkqj f,dayh o" k lrkq ,ef' ku ,sf tu jpk w;r
bv fkd;eug j. n,d .; hq;= h'
ksoiqka :[Co(NH3)6]3+ hexaamminecobalt(III) ion
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ hexaaquairon(II) ion
2+
[Cu(NH3)4] tetraamminecopper(II) ion
(7)
(8)
(ii)
92
ksmqK;dj 6'0
ld,fo
( 03 hs'
bf.kq M,
my; oelaf'
ldnka mrudKq folla w;r m%n, tal nkaOk" oa;aj nkaOk yd ;%s;aj nkaOk
iEosh yels h' ldnka wh;a y;r jk ldKavfha mj;sk is,slkaj,g idfmalaIj
S f
a .ka
ldnka idok C - C, C = C, C C yd C - H nkaOk" jvd by< nkaOk Yla;k
hqla; jk nj kslaIKh lr we;'
wod< f;dr;=re my; j.=f oelaf'
nkaOkh
nkaOk Yla;sh
$kJ mol-1
C-C
C=C
C C
C- H
Si - Si
Si - H
346
610
835
413
226
318
ldnka mrudKqjlg iyixhqc nkaOk y;rla iEosh yels h' f wkqj fmkS
93
3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)
94
ksmqK;dj 6'0
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
.ksh's
tla tla l%shdld ldKavh iys; ixfhda. ioDYH fY%aKs k lr ksoiqka bosm;a
lrhs'
lrkq ,ef'
ia:dk.; (delocalized)
bf,lafg%dak j,hla idoka ia:dhS we;s pl%Sh
ldnksl ixfhda. wefrdauel ixfhda. jYfhka ye|skaf'
C6H6 wKql iQ;%fhka oelafjk fnkaiSka" wefrdauel yhsfrdldnk ixfhda.
l=,lfha ir, u ixfhda.h f'
fndfyda ldnksl ixfhda.j, ldnka oduhg khsg%cka" Tlaiscka jeks IumrudKq inkaO f oS ldnka yd inkaO jQ mrudKq w;r oHq;a-RK;d
fjki fya;=fjka tu mrudKq ldKavh iska ixfhda.hg ,dlaIKsl jQ
m%;sl%shdld;ajhla ,nd foa' t jeks mrudKq ldKavhla l%shdld ldKavhla
(functional group) f,i ye|skaf' h ixfhda. wKqjl mj;sk l%shdld
ldKav wkqj tajd j. lrkq ,ef'
l%shdld ldKavh
OH
ioDY fY%aKsfha ku
we,afldfyd,
Alcohol
WodyrK
CH3CH2OH Ethanol
we,ayhsv
Aldehyde
CH3CHO
lSfgdak
Ketone
CH3COCH3 Propanone
O
C
H
Ethanal
O
C
95
O
C
OH
ldfndlais,sla w,
Carboxylic acid
w, laf,darhsv
Acid chloride
tiagr
Ester
weuhsk
Amine
O
C
Cl
O
C
O
NH2
O
C
NH 2
NH 2
weuhsv
Amide
CH3CONH2 Ethanamide
weuhsfkda w,
CH3CHNH2COOH
2-Aminopropanoic acid
we,als,a fya,hsv*
CH3CH2Cl Chloroethane
COOH
wh;a jk ixfhda. f;dard j.= .; lsug yd wod< ioDY fY%aKs f.dv kexug
wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
96
ksmqK;dj 6'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
m%ldY lrhs'
IUPAC kS;s fhdod .kska Ih ksfoaYfha i|yka jHQyuh iSudjg we;=<;a
97
ldKavh
m%Odk l%shdld
ldKavh jYfhka ku
wdfoaY ldKavh
jYfhka ku
Thsla w,h
oic acid
Tta
oate
weuhs
amide
we,a
al
ihfkd
cyano
f*dauhs,a
formyl
ka
one
Tlafid
oxo
,a
ol
yhsfrdlais
hydroxy
weuhska
weuhsfkd
O
C
amine
amino
---------------------------------------------------------------------------whska
whska
yne
yne
Bka
Bka
ene
ene
fyaf,da
halo
-NO2
khsfrd
nitro
1 j.=j - l%shdld ldKavj, m%uqL;dj wvq fjk ms<sfj<g ilia lrk ,o fY%aKsh
98
ldnka mrudKq
.Kk
1
2
3
4
5
6
kdu uQ,h
meth
eth
prop
but
pent
hex
wkqrEm yhsfrdldnkfha
ku
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane
99
ksmK
q ;dj 6
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ish u jHQy iQ;% w|shs'
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd w|sk ,o ish u jHQy iQ;%" jHQy iudjhl yd
;%sudk iudjhl f,i j. lrhs'
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels iudhl w;=ka fYaIs; l<
,laIK iys; iudjhlj, jHQy w|shs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la
(
tlu wKql iQ;%h we;s tlsfklg fjkia jHqy mej;Sf ixisoah iudhl;dj
f,i ykajhs'
ixfhda.hl iudjhl tlsfklg fjkia fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K fmkah
yels h'
ldnksl ixfhda.j, iudjhl;dj my; wdldrhg j. l< yelshs'
iudjhl;dj
;%sudk iudjhl;dj
jHqy iudjhl;dj
odu
iudjhl;dj
ia:dk^msyg
s
q &
iudjhl;dj
l%shdld ldKav
iudjhl;dj
odu iudjhl;dj
tlu ioDY fY%aKshg wh;a" tlu wKql iQ;%h i|yd ldnka odufha iajrEmh
fjkia fuka odu iudjhl ,ef'
CH3
ksoiqka( CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3
yd
hqfka (Butane)
m%;r
s Emwjhj
iudjhl;dj
mdr;%sudk
iudjhl;dj
CH3 CH
CH3
2-fu;s,afm%dfmaka (2-Methylpropane)
ia:dk iudjhl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;%h" tlu l%shdld ldKavh iy tl u ldnka iels,a, mej;sh
o l%shdld ldKavh inkaO j we;s ldnka mrudKqj fyda l%shdld ia:dkfha
msysu fyda fjkia fuka ia:dk iudjhl ,ef'
100
ksoiqka (
OH
^i&
CH3
Propan-1-ol
CH
CH3
Propan-2-ol
^ii&
But-1-yne
Cl
^iii&
But-2-yne
Cl
Cl
O
1,2-Dichlorobenzene
Cl
1,3-Dichlorobenzene
O
CH 3CH 2
CH 3
Propanal
C
CH 3
Propanone
^ii&
CH 3CH 2
CH 3
OH
Propanoic acid
C
O
CH3
Methyl ethanoate
;%sudk iudjhl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;%h yd tlu jHQy iQ;%h we;s uq;a" ;%sudk wjldYfha nkaOk
osYdk; we;s wdldrh fjkia fuka" fjkia jHQy ,eu ;%u
s dk iudjhl;dj
k f' fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ;%sudk iudjhl w;=frka
tlla wksflys omK m%;snh jk jHQy m%;srEmwjhj iudjhl f,i
ye|skaf' tlla wksflys omK m%;snh fkdjk jHQy mdr;%sudk iudjhl
k f'
mdr;%sudk iudjhl;dj
cHd;sl iudjhl;dj mdr;%sudk iudjhl;dj fmkakq lrk tla
wjia:djls' C } C oa;aj nkaOkhl oS
nkaOkhg wu;r j mj;sk
nkaOkh ksid tu ldnka mrudKqj,g nkaOkh jgd ksoyfia N%uK ug
fkd yels h' f fya;=j ksid wvx.= mrudKq tl u wdldrhg nkaOkh we;s
kuq;a tajdfha ;%sudkfha msysu fya;= fldg f.k fjkia kHdi mej;sh yels
h' th cHd;sl iudjhl;dj f,i ykajhs'
tfia ,efnk fjkia jHQyj,g cHd;sl iudjhl hehs lshkq ,ef'
101
a
C
C
q
yd
k tu ixfhda.h cHd;sl iudjhl;dj fmkajhs'
by; wjia:djl oS iudk ldKav folla oa;aj nkaOkfha wCIhg idfmaCI j
tl u me;af;a jQfha k thg isia ^cis& iudjhlh hhs o fome;af;a msysfha
k thg g%dkaia ^trans) iudjhlh hhs o lshkq ,ef'
ksoiqka - But -2-ene
CH3
C
H
CH3
C
H
CH3
C
H
cis iudjhlh
H
C
CH3
trans iudjhlh
ksmqK;dj 7'0
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
ia;r lrhs'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk ioDYH fY%aKs Tiafia tajdfha fN!;sl .=K
;dmdxlh
360 C
280 C
90 C
Pentane
2- Methylebutane
2, 2 Dimethylpropane
we,alk
S j, o fN!;sl .=K fndfyda rg we,aflakj, fN!;sl .=Kj,g iudkhs'
we,alhskj, o O%eh;dj wvq neka fN!;sl .=K w;ska we,alhsk o wkqrEm
103
uqy
q lrKh
WodyrKh
cHd;sh
fh
sp
sp2
H
C=C
H
H
sp3
H
H
;,Sh
p;=ia;,Sh
.ekSu i|yd ldnka mrudKqf bf,lafg%dak W;af;a; wjia:djg m;a bka miq
uqyqlrK l%shdj,shg wj;SK jk nj Wml,amkh l< yels h'
tal nkaOk"
Ndck fuka ms<sfj<ska
nkaOk idok wdldrh ia;r l< yels h'
104
oa;aj nkaOk iy
;%s;aj
N+ wjia:dj
W;af;a; wjia:dj
N+ wjia:dj
W;af;a; wjia:dj
sp
N+ wjia:dj
W;af;a; wjia:dj
H
H
H
CH4
105
C2H4
nkaOk
nkaOk
nkaOk
nkaOk
C2H2 wKqj
uqy
q lrKh
sp3
1.112
sp2
1.103
sp
1.079
iQ;%hg wod< ixfhda.h ne.ska ,sug isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak' ta w;=ka ir,
we,aflakhl" we,alSkhl yd we,alhskhl jHQyh" Tjqka f jk g;a bf.k f.k
we;s uqyqlrK weiqka meyeos,s lrkak'
mka;sh lKavdh ;=klg fnod methane, ethene yd ethynej, ldnka mrudKqj,
106
ksmqK;dj 7'0
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
fnkaiSka i|yd fll=f,a fhdackd l< jHQyh u.ska wKqf oa;aj nkaOk
;=kla oelajj
Q ;a " we,alk
S ;rug fnkaik
S a wix;Dma; ke;' f ksid fnkaik
S j
a ,
jHQyh fll=f,a jHqyhg iudk fkd jk nj meyeos,s h'
C
C
C
C
C
C
fuu fo ysia B;,fhka oelafjkafka fnkaiSka fuu jHqy fol w;r udre
jk nj fyda iu;=,s; mj;sk nj fyda fkd f' im%hqla;;djh hs'
iy w;r fjki meyeos,s lr fokak'
wKql ldlaIsl jdoh u`.ska fnkaiSkaj, jHQyh jvd;a fyd|ska meyeos,s f'
tys ish u ldnka mrudKq sp2 uqyqlrKh we;'
107
tys iu;
>
tk"
h hq;= h'
yhsrckSlrK tka;e,amsh
tk ^360-208& }
m%udKhlska fnkaiSka tys fll=f,a jHQyhkg
jvd ia:dhSj mj;sk nj meyeos,s h'
fll=f,a jHqyh
im%hqla;;d Yla;sh
- 360 kJ mol
-1
>
>
C6H6 wKql iQ;%hg wod< j ;sh yels jD; odu jHQyhla we|Sug isiqkag mjikak'
tu jHQyj, oa;aj nkaOk" ;%s;aj nkaOk fyda tu nkaOk foj.h u fyda mj;sk
nj;a" ta wkqj tajd wix;Dma;;d mlaIdj,g ms<s;=re h hq;= nj;a Tjqkag wjOdrKh
lrkak'
108
ksmqK;dj 7'0
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
ia;r lrhs'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk is lrk ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHQyh
iyixhqc nkaOk
nkaOk f'
nkaOk"
nkaOkj,g jvd ia:dhS
neka we,aflak idudkH ridhkd.dr m%;sldrl iu`. ^ OH-, CN-, H+ wdosh
iu`.& m%;sl%shd idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a m%;sl%shd fkd fmkajhs'
we,aflakj, nkaOkj, O%eh;dj b;d wvq ksid m%;l
s h
s% ;dj wvq we;' nkaOk
wdrNl m%;sls%hdj
Cl
'
Cl
Cl
'
'
Cl
Cl
'
'
Cl
H
2Cl
CH3
'
Cl
CH 3
CH2Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
Cl
'
CH2Cl
CHCl2
'
CHCl2
'
HCl + CH3
'
Cl + CH3Cl
'
HCl + CH2 Cl
'
Cl + CH2Cl2
'
HCl + CHCl2
'
Cl + CHCl3
109
'
Cl
Cl
Cl
'
HCl + CCl3
CCl3
'
'
CCl3
Cl + CCl4
kej;Sf m%;l
s h
%s d
'
Cl
'
H 3C
'
Cl Cl
Cl
'
CH3CH3
CH3
R
+
C
H
H
+
110
Cl
CH 3 CH + CH 2
m%d:l ldfndlegdhkh
C2 u;
fm%dafgdakSslrKh
3
CH 3 2 CH 1 CH 2
Cl u;
fm%dafgdakSslrKh
CH 3 + CH CH 3
oa;Shsl ldfndlegdhkh
fmfrdlaihsv
oaO%ejh hs'
C
H + ( Br
H
Br
Br-
Br+
Br
Br
idka
CH 2
CH2 + H2SO4
CH3
OSO 3H
CH3CH2OSO3H + H2O
CH3CH2OH + H2SO4
111
wdl,kh f'
CH
H 2O
CH
CH 3 CHO+ H+
CH 2 CH
O H
Bfkda,h we,ayhsvh njg laIKslj m%;sixOdkh jkafka
ia:dhS;dj by< jk ksid h'
isis,a laIdh
ys
CH 2
CH 2
CO
OH
OH
Wod (
yd
we,alhskj, ;%s;aj nkaOkh idok C g
inkaO H ^w.%ia: yhsv%cka& wd,s
l .=K olajhs'
fuu we,alhskj, wd,sl H f,day u`.ska ia:dmkh l< yel'
H
CH 3
CH3
CH3
C H
Na
Na +C
NH3/Cu2Cl2
NH3/AgNo3
CH 3
NaNH2
CH 3+ H2
CH 3 C
CH 3 C
Na+C
CCu
CAg
CH 3+ NH3
112
ksmqK;dj 7'0
ld,fo
( 07 hs'
bf.kq M,
113
jryka ;=< we;s im%hqla; jHqy ;=< we;s jl% B;, rys; j ksrEmKh lsug
fhduq lrkak' ^B;, Nd; jkafka tla im%hqla; jHQhlska wfkl ,efnk
wdldrh wjfndaO lr .ekSug muKS'&
*S%,a l%d*a we,als,alrKh
ksc,Sh AlCl3 jeks ia w,hla yuqf oS fnkaiSka" we,als,a fya,hsv iu.
m%;sl%shdf' fuys oS thg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaaY f'
R
ksc,Sh' AlCl3/R-Cl
ksc,Sh
ye,ckSlrKh
ye,ck jdylhla we;s g fnkaiSka ye,ck iu. ^Cl2 fyda Br2& m%;sl%shd
lsfuka fnkaiSka j,hg ye,ck ldKavhla wdfoaY f' fuys oS ye,ck
jdylh u.ska ye,ck wKqj O%elrKh lrk neka ye,ck wKqjg
bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,ig l%shd l< yels f'
Br
ksc,Sh FeBr3/Br2
114
Tlail
s rKh
jeks idudkH Tlaisldrl u.ska fnkaiSka TlaislrKh fkdf'
tfia jqj;a fnkaiSka j,hg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka ixfhda.
u.ska TlaislrKh fnkafidhsla w,h idohs' ^fuu l%shdjg
K2Cr2O7 Nd;d l< yel'
COOH
CH 3
H +/KMnO 4
H + /KMnO 4
fhduq lrkak'
isiqka lKavdh ;=klg fnod my; i|yka tla hka;%Khla ms<sn| ia;r lsulaa
ksmqK;dj 7'0
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKav f;d" merd fyda fugd YdNsuqL
l< yelshs'
fuysoS fojk wdfoaYs; ldKavh inkaO jkqfha m<uq wdfoaYs; ldKavhg
" ye,ck
CH3
Wod (
CH3
CH3
NO 2
50 C
NO 2
fnkaiSka j,hg wdfoaYs; bf,lafg%dak wdlYl ldKav u.ska j,h l%Sh
Wod (
NO 2
NO 2
CH3Cl $ ksc,Sh AlCl3
CH 3
117
ksmqK;dj 8'0
( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
( 11 hs'
( we,als,a fya,hsv" m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl f,i j.
lrhs'
ksoiqka olajka C - X nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh iu.
we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd
flfrys olajk keUqre;dj inkaO lr olajhs'
we,al,
s a fya,hsv kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% d is lrk
;;a;aj hgf;a oS laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd sks,a laf,darhs
tu m%;sl%shd fkd oelaug fya;= meyeos,s lrhs'
.S%kd m%;sldrlh ms<sfh, lrk wkaou iy th olajk
m%;sls%hd meyeos,s lrhs'
H
R
X
m%d:l
H we,al,
s a fya,hsv
C
H
R
X
oa;Sh
s l
s
we,al,
s a fya,hsv
;D;Sh
s l
s
we,al,
s a fya,hsv
t neka
wd,sl yhsrcka mrudKqjla bj;a lrka we,als,a fya,hsvh bj;a f
m%;l
s h
s% djlg ,la lsf yelshdjla o mj;sh's ye,cka mrudKqj inkaO ldnka
u; msys yhsrcka mrudKq wd,sl nka je jqj;a tajd bj;a fuka ia:dhS
M,hla ,nd fkd foa' t neka hdno ldnka mrudKq u; msys u| jYfhka
wd,sl yhsrcka mrudKq bj;a f m%;sl%shd i|yd iyNd.s f'
OH-
H
+
C=C
+ H2O + X-
idohs' RX + Mg
RMgX
RMgX j, nkaOk O%elrKh fya;=fjka ue.akSish yd nekq ldnka m%n,
RH + Mg ( CH3COO) X
Wod ( RMgX + CH3COOH
RMgX + CH3OH
RH + Mg ( OCH3 ) X
RMgX + RNH2
RH + Mg ( RNH ) X
RMgX + H-C CR RH + MgX(C CR)
R-MgX + NH3 RH + Mg(NH2 )R
C 4 H 9 Cl wKql iQ;%h i|yd ;sh yels ish u we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHQy isiqka ,jd
wkaojkak'
tla tla iudjhlh idok .S%kd m%;sldrlh yd tajd w," we,afldfyd, yd wek
yuqf idok M,j, jHQy ,sug fhduq lrkak'
119
ksmqK;dj 8'0
( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
OH
OH
fya,hsvj, kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% dj mshjr follska is jk m%;l
s h
s% djla
f,i i,lkq ,ef'
f wkqj mshjr folska isjk m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosm;a l< yels h'
1 mshjr
Br
120
Br
2 mshjr
OH
OH
121
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
08 hs'
bf.kq M,
lrhs'
oHq;aRK;d fjki inkaO lr .kska we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkfha
O%eh iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
we,afldfyd,j, we;s wka;-wKql n, iu`. tajdfha fN!;sl .=K inkaO
lrhs'
we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkh u" C - O nkaOkh u" bj;a u iy
TlaislrK m%;sls%hd jHQyh iu`. inkaO lr olajhs'
we,afldfyd,j, .=K mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'
H
R
OH
m%d:l
we,afldfyd,
OH
oa;Sh
s l
s
we,afldfyd,
OH
;D;Sh
s l
s
we,afldfyd,
fN!;sl .=K
C2H3
O
C2H5
122
O
C2H5
jHjydl kduh
iQ;%h
;dmdxlh$ oC
c,fha jH;dj$g
^c,h 100 g l djH jk
we,afldfyd, ialkaOh&
fu;s,a we,afldfyd,a
t;s,a we,afldfyd,a
n - fm%dmhs,a ""
n - hqghs,a ""
n - fmkaghs,a ""
n - fylaihs,a ""
n - fymaghs,a ""
n - Tlaghs,a ""
CH3OH
CH3CH2OH
CH3CH2CH2OH
CH3(CH2)2CH2OH
CH3(CH2)3CH2OH
CH3(CH2)4CH2OH
CH3(CH2)5CH2OH
CH3(CH2)6CH2OH
64.5
78.3
97
118
123.8
136.5
176
195
7.9
2.3
0.6
0.2
0.05
+ Na
R - O-Na+ + 1/2 H2
R-OH
R-I + H2O
fuys oS ZnCl2 W;afm%arlhla f,i l%shd lrhs' M,h f,i ,efnk we,als,a
fya,hsvh ksid m%;sl%shd udOHfha wd,;djla we;sf' wd,;dj we;s ug
.; jk ld,h weiqfrka m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,als,a fya,hsv
lia m%;sldrlh iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj iei|sh yels h'
c,fha djH m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,afldfyd,j,g muKla fuu
mlaIdj iSud f'
R/
R - C - OH +
R/
ksc,Sh ZnCl2 /
idka HCl
R - C - Cl + H2O
R//
R//
lia m%;sldrh iu. we,afldfyd,j, m%;sl%shd YSs>%;dj my; oelaf'
;D;Sshsl
we,afldfyd,
>
oa;Shsl
we,afldfyd,
>
m%d:l
we,afldfyd,
ksc,Sh Al2O3 $
C
H
C
OH
C= C
fyda idka H2SO4 $
we,afldfyd,
we,alSk
124
we,afldfyd, TlaislrK
TlaislrKfhka ,efnk M,h we,afldfyd,fha m%d:l fyda oa;Sshsl fyda
;D;Sshsl fyda iajNdjh u; r|d mj;S'
i) m%d:l we,afldfyd,
[O]
O
R
[O]
CH2 OH
R
H
C
OH
ldfndlais,sla w,h
CH OH
[O]
O
R
C
R/
lSfgdak
125
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
04 hs'
u;=lr fmkajhs'
we,afldfyd,j,g idfmalI
a j *Sfkda,j, by< wd,sl;dj yd kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s
m%;sls%hd flfrys olajk wvq leue;a; W; m%;sls%hd bm;a lr fmkajd fohs'
*Sfkda,j, .=K mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'
fidah iu. m%;sl%shd l<;a NaOH iu. m%;sls%hd fkdlrhs' kuq;a *Sfkda,a
fidah iu. fukau NaOH iu`. o m%;sl%shd lrhs'
2C6H5OH + 2Na 2C6H5O-Na+ + H2
C6H5OH + NaOH C6H5O-Na+ + H2O
*Sfkda,aj, ldnka mrudKq sp2 uqyqlrK wjia:df mj;sk neka yd fnkaiSka
j,fha
bf,lafg%dak j,dj iu`. Tlaiscka we;s lr .kakd im%hqla;;dj
yg.kakd oa;aj nkaOk iajNdjh ksid *Sfkda,aj, ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh"
we,a f ldfyd,hl ldnka - Tla i s c ka nka O khg jvd fl h' t neka
we,afldfyd, fuka fkdj" *Sfkda, kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% dj,g iyNd.s
fkd f'
126
oukak'
fidah yhfrdlaihs djKh 1 cm3 muK tl;= lr fydka fid,jd
idlPd lrkak'
127
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
( 02 hs'
bf.kq M,
OH
Br
Br
+ 3 Br2
+ 3HBr
Br
2"4"6-g%hsfn%dafud*Sfkda,a
^ii& *Sfkda,a khsfrdlrKh i|yd ;kql HNO3 muKla jqjo m%udKj;a f'
OH
OH
OH
;kql HNO3
20 0C
NO 2
+
NO 2
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
O
R
HCN
R
H
H
R
O-
O
C
CN
CN
OH
H H
CH 3
H
H
CN -
CN
ihfkdyhsk
% a
Cyanohydrin
O
CH 3
C
CH 3
OMgBr
CH3
CH 3
R - MgBr
CH3
O
CH3
CH3
^ii& H+/H2O
129
CH3
OH
H+/H2O
CH3
C
R
CH3
kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,kh
..
..
NH - NH2
R
C =O +
NO 2
lSfgdak
(ii)
NO 2
OH
NO 2
NO 2
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,ayhsriska
^2"4-DNP&
c,kh
by; w;rueos M,h iEKq .i u c,kh wjika M,h jk
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,ayhsrfidak ,ef'
NO 2
OH
R
C = N NH
NO 2
NO 2
NO 2
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,y
a hsrfidak
^;o ly fyda ;e,s mdg wjlafIamhla&
TlaisyrKh
fuys oS we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak we,afldfyd, njg TlaisyrKh f'
(i) LiAlH4/h<s
C=O
(ii) H2O/ H
R
R
C=O
B;r
C
R
NaBH4 /fu;fkda,a
H
R
R
(ii)
OH
OH
Zn(Hg) $id'HCl
R
C=O
Zn(Hg) $id'HCl
C
H
130
we,ayhsv TlaislrKh
R
+
C = O + 2[ Ag (NH3) 2] + 3OH
R
C = O + f*a,sx djKh
Cu 2O
+R
.fvd,a r;=
wjfCIamh
+ 3H2O
f*a,sx djKh u`.ska o we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak tlsfkl fjkalr ykd.; yels h'
(iii)
H+/KMnO4
O
R
+ Mn2+
C
OH
H
R
C=O
H+/K2Cr2O7
O
R
+ Cr3+
C
OH
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
04 hs'
ldnks,a ixfhda.j,
>
+ OH- R
>
+ H2O
>
>
.. '
HO
.. '
C = O
C = O + H2 O
H
O-
H
O
CH 3
CH2
C =O
CH3
CH
H
CH2
C = O
H
OCH3
CH
OH
H
CH2
CH3
C = O + H2O
CH
H
CH2
we,afvda,a
132
C = O + OH
2CH3
CH 3
OH
CH 3
NaOH(aq)
CH3
C = O
CH2
C = O
CH 3
H
H $
+
CH3
CH
CH2
OH
CH3
CH 3
CH2
CH3
C = O
CH
CH
C = O
CH3
H+ $
CH3
C = O
+ H2O
CH 3
C = O + H2O
CH
CH3
CH3 C
C = O ,
CH3 CH2
H
C = O,
CH3 H
CH3
C = O ,
CH3
CH 3
C = O,
C = O ,
133
C = O,
CH3 CH2
ksmK
q ;dj 9
( Tlaic
s ka wvx.= fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. ldfndlai,
s l
s a
w,j, jHQyh iy .=K ixikaokh lrhs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
06 hs'
134
RCOOH + Na
RCOOH + NaOH
RCOOH + NaHCO3
iu`.
m%;sls%hd lr
m%;sls%hd lr
fidah *Sfka
fidah *Sfka
idoka H2 msg lrhs' idoka NaOH
djKh ;=< h f'
OH
m%;sls%hd lr
m%;sls%hd lr
RCOO Na +
idoka H2 msg lrhs'
C
O -H
NaHCO3
djKh iu`.
m%;sls%hd lr
R -O Na+ idoka H2 m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
msg lrhs'
R - OH
NaOH djKh
Na f,dayh iu`.
m%;sls%hdjla
ke;'
m%;sls%hdjla
ke;'
m%;sls%hd lr
RCOO Na
idoka NaOH
RCOO Na +
idoka CO2
O
R
OH
+ H+
O
R
C
O
C
O
135
ldfndlais,sla whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys im%hqla; jHQy *Sfka whkfha
im%hqla;j,g jvd ia:dhS jk neks' fuu ia:dhS;djg fya;=jkqfha ldfndlaisf,a
whkfha im%hqla; jHqyj, RK wdfrdamKh by< oHq;a RK;djlska hq;= Tlaiscka
mrudKq u; mej;Suhs'
C - O nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd
PCl3/ PCl5 iu`.
OH
PCl3
Cl
OH
+ H3PO3
Cl
C
PCl5
+ POCl3 + HCl
we,afldfyd, iu`.
O
CH3
C
OH
+ C2H5OH
H+
O
CH3
+ H2O
C
O-C 2H 5
LiAlH4
CH3
CH2 CH2
OH
O-H
136
ksmK
q ;dj 9
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
03 hs'
nj m%ldY lrhs'
w, laf,darhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
tiagrj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
w, laf,darhsj, m%;sls%hd
^i& fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu`. m%;sls%hdj
w, laf,darhs NaOH iu`. m%;sl%shd jQ g wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h
iEfoa' fuh m%;sl%shd udOHfha oS ldfndlaisf,a ,jkh jYfhka mj;S'
O
R
NaOH
O
R
NaOH
OH
Cl
O Na+
m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh
OO
R
NaOH
O
R
Cl
OH
Cl
-OH
+ Cl-
OH-
OH
O
C
O-
H 2O
Cl
OH
O
R
+ H
Cl
137
O
R
+ C2H5-OH
Cl
O-C 2H 5
O
C
^vi &
O
NH 3
Cl
tauhsv
NH 2
tiagrj, m%;sls%hd
^i& tiagr ;kql w, u.ska c,fokh wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h iy
we,afldfyd,h ,nd fohs'
O
R
H20
O
R
+ C2H5OH
OC 2H 5
OH
O
NaOH
OC 2H 5
CH 3
+ C2H5OH
O Na +
-
tauhsvj, m%;sls%hdj
^i& NaOH iu`.
tauhsv c,Sh NaOH djKhla iu`. WKqiq l<g NH3 msg lrka wkqrEm
ldfndlais,sla w,fha fidah ,jKh idohs'
O
R
c,Sh
NaOH
NH 2
O
R
+ NH3
O Na+
138
ksmK
q ;dj 10
( ,dlaIKsl m%;l
s h
%s d iy .=K weiqrk
s a wek iy weks,k
S a ms<n
s |
Yaf,aIKfha fhfohs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
we;s ixfhda. wek jYfhkaa ye|skah yels h' wek" m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd
;D;Shsl jYfhka j. lrkq ,ef' we,als,a fya,hsv yd we,afldfyd, fuka
fkdj" wek j.SlrKh flfrkqfha khsrcka mrudKqjg inkaO we;s
we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav ixLHdj wkqjhs' wefudakshdj, yhsrcka mrudKq
;=fkka tlla fjkqjg we,als,a fyda we,a ldKavhla inkaO we;s ixfhda.
m%d:l wek f,i ye|skf
a ' wefudakh
s dj, yhsrcka mrudKq folla fjkqjg
we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav folla inkaO we;s ixfhda. oa;sShsl wek
f,i o yhsrcka mrudKq ;=k fjkqjg we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav ;=kla
inkaO we;s ixfhda. ;D;Shsl wek f,i o ye|skaf'
ksoiqka (
CH3NH2
CH3 N CH3
CH3 N CH3
CH3
H
m%d:l wek
oa;Shsl wek
;D;Shsl wek
NH2 + R/
R/
COCl
NH
NH2
+ R/
C
139
R/
R
H + H2O
(iv)
R-NH2
we,als,a
vhfidaksh
laf,darhs
140
ksmK
q ;dj 10
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
,jK c,Sh yhsfrdlais,a whk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr kej;;a wekh ksoyia f'
t neka wek c,hg jvd Ndial jk w;r" yhsfrdlais,a whkhg jvd wvq
Ndial;djlska hqla; nj meyeos,s f'
RNH 2 +H 3 O +
RNH 3 + +H 2 O
RNH 3 + +OH -
RNH 2 +H 2 O
wek" we,afldfyd,j,g jvd Ndial f'
141
O-
O
R C
R C
NH2
N+H2
Tlaic
s kaj, wl oHq;R
a K;dj ksid wefrdauel wekj,g o jvd weuhsvj,
Ndial;dj wvq h'
142
ksmK
q ;dj 10
ld,fo
( 05 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
vhfidaksh ,jKh ksmojd .kakd wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
vhfidaksh ldKavh c,h" H3PO2, CuCl, CuCN, CuBr yd KI iu`. islrk
m%;sia:dmk m%;sls%hd ,shd olajhs'
vhfidaksh ,jKh bf,lafrd*hs,hla f,i yeisfrk m%;sls%hd i|yd
ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
weks,Ska khsria w,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr *Sfkda,a ,nd foa'
OH
NH2
NaNO2 /HCl
+ N2 + HCl
- c,h iu`.
OH
H2O/
- CuCl iu`.
+ N2 + HCl
Cl
CuCl/ HCl
- CuBr iu`.
N +2 Cl -
+ N2
Br
CuBr/HBr
143
+ N2
- KI iu`.
KI
+ N2
- CuCN iu`.
CN
CuCN/KCN
+ N2
+ N2 + H3PO3 + H+
H2 O
m%;sls%hd
vhfidaksh ,jKh *Sfkda,a iu`. r;= jKhlska hqla; jk ixfhda.hla
o -kemaf;da,a iu`. ;e,s jKhlska hqla; ixfhda.hla o ,nd foa'
OH
/ NaOH
N=N
HO
r;=
OH
/ NaOH
HO
N=N
;e,s
fokak'
tu ixfhda.j, khsrcka mrudKq i;= tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.au odhl lsug we;s
144
145
bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;
bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhka isiqkag iy
.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fjd fndfyda
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; Nd. fomd;fka;=j iska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska
o f;dr;=re imdokh lrk ,o l%ufo fjhs' tfyhska tajd inkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a we;ehs wfmalaId flf' tu m%fNao fufiah(
01' mejre
02' jHdmD;s
03' ilaIK
04' .fIK
05' kslaIK
06' m%oYk$ bosm;a lsu
07' lafIa;% pdld
08' fl ,s; mlaIK
09' jHQy.; rpkd
10' jD; .%ka: mlaIK
11' ksudKd;aul l%shdldrl
12' Y%jK mlaIK
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl
14' l:kh
15' iaj ksudK
16' lKavdh l%shdldr
17' ixl,am is;shu
18' oa;aj ck,
19' ;a;s mqj;am;a
20' m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyka
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a
22' jdo
23' idlPd uKav,
24' iuka;K
%
25' laIKsl l:d
26' N+ld rx.k
ykajd oS we;s fuu bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u iEu tllau iEu Ihhla
inkaOfhka ieu Ihh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u
Ihhg" Ih tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a h hq;=h; j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kq-b.ekakq yd we.hS m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sf' tajd
.=rejreka iska iqiq mos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu msKsi fhdod .;
hq;= fjhs' tajd Nd; fkdfldg u. yeu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfoksl
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| jOkhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%oYkh lsu;a
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'
xi 146
idys;H uYkh
1'4
1'6
ixl,am is;sh
147
1'7
jdrh 2 WmlrKh 01
148
.Kkh ls
m%dfhda.sl mCIK
149
m%dfhda.sl mCIK
6'1
idlPd uKav,
6'4
ixl,am is;shu
150
ixl,am is;shu
m%oYk
151