Advance Level - Teacher Guid 12 PDF

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^2009 jif isg ls%hd;aul f&
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m%:u uqo%Kh - 2009
ISBN 978 - 955 - 654 - 434 - 3
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cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
msg ljrh.a,diafyd f.a imhd( fldiala m%fya,sldj" imhd iska ;udf.a u j,s.h .s, f.k
isu bkahdkq uQ,hla we;s woyils' fkdfn,a ;Hd.,dNS fN!;sl oHd{ fI,avka ,S
.a,diafyd iska wk ,o fuu ;%h u.ska Yajh ms<sn| wmf.a woyi ixfla;j;a lrhs'
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jI 2007 6 iy 10 hk fYa%Ksj,g ykajd fok ,o ksmqK;d mdol bf.kq
b.eka m%fYh l%ufhka jika jir 7" 8" yd 11 hk fYa%Ksj, Ih ud,dj
inkaOfhka o fhdod .kakd ,o w;r 2009 jif th w'fmd'i^W$fm<& mka;sj,g
wod< Ihud,dj ikaOfhka o jHdma; lsug cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kfha Ihud,d
imdoljreka iu;a ;sf' tuksid 12 iy 13 jk fYa%Ks j, O Ih yd wod<
Ih ksfoaY o .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y o isiqka ;=< m%.=K l<hq;= ksmqK;d o
ksmK
q ;d ug o ms<n
s | iia;rd;aul f;dr;=re bm;a fldg ;sf' fuu f;dr;=re
;u Ih yd wod< bf.kq - b.eka wjia:d imdokfha .=rejrekag uy;afia
m%fhdackj;ajkq we;'
w'fmd'i ^W'fm<& Ih i|yd .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y ilia lsf Ihud,d
imdoljreka iska lksIaG oa;Shsl Ihud,dj yd fcHIaG oa;Shsl ^10" 11 fYa%Ks&
Ihud,dj ilik g wkq.ukh fldg we;s m%fYhg jvd fjkia jQ m%fYhla
wkq.ukh fldg we;s nj i|yka lrkq leue;af;' 6" 7" 8" 9" 10 yd 11 hk fYA%Ksj,
Ih lreKq b.ekaf wkq.ukh l<hq;= bf.kq yd b.eka m%fY
inkaOfhka .=rejreka wNsu; wdlD;shlg fhduq lrk ,o uq;a w'fmd'i^W'fm<&
Ih ksfoaY yd .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y imdokfha .=rejrekag ;u wNsu;h
m ls%hdlsug;a m%Yia; ksoyila N=la;s ug;a bv m%ia:dj i,id ;sf' fuu
;,fha .=rejrhdf.ka wfmaCId lrkqfha ta ta Ih tallhg fyda mdvug ksh;
ksmqK;d iy ksmqK;d ug jOkh lsu msKsi fhda; bf.kq l%uj,ska ;uka
wNsu; b.ekakq l%uhla fhdod .ekSu h' ;uka fhdod .kakd b.ekakq m%fYh
i;=gqodhl yd ldhlaIu f,i fhdod .kska wfmalaIs; ksmqK;d yd ksmqK;d ug
<`.d lr .ekSu .=rejreka iska fkdmsfy<d bgq lrkq ,eh hq;= h' fuu ksoyi
.=rejrekag ,nd ug ;SrKh lrk ,oafoa w'fmd'i ^W'fm<& Nd.fha we;s jeo.;alu
iy tu Nd.h flfrys wOHdmk moaO;sfha ish u wh olajk ixf nj ie,ls,,
a g
f.k nj igyka lrkq leue;af;'
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh .=rejreka yg udye`.s w;afmd;la fjd hs m%d:kh
lr' wfma orejkaf.a keKei mdokakg fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yfha we;s
f;dr;=re l%ufo iy Wmfoia wmf.a .=rejrekag ksis u`. fmkaula lrkq we;ehs
wfmaCId lr'
uydpdh ,d,a fmfrd
wOHlaI ckrd,a
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh'
iii
ix{dmkh
okakd foa mj;ajd f.k hdug yd mQjfhka ;SrKh lrk ,o foa bf.kSug ld,hla ;siafia
lghq;= lsrSu ksid" mj;sk foa kej; f.dv keSug mjd wo wmg yelshdj we;af;a iq
jYfhks' mdi,a ugf bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfha uyd mudK fjkila we;s lrka
fodrg jk fuu oa;shsl wOHdmkh ms<sn| kj iyY%lfha m<uq jk Ihud,d
m%;sixialrKh" tlS fkdyelshdj ch .ekSu i|yd lghq;= lrk w;r okakd foa
ixialrKhg;a" mQjfhka ;SrKh fkdl< foa .fIKhg;a" fyg mej;sh yels foa
f.dvkeSug;a yelshdj we;s rgg jevodhS mqrjeis msila ys lsu wruqKq fldg ykajd
oS ;sf'
Tn 6-11 fY%aKsj, fuu Ihh u fyda fjk;a Ihhla fyda W.kajk .=re Nj;l= k
w'fmd'i' ^W'fm<& i|yd;a ie,lsh hq;= ugulska wfmalaId lrk kj bf.kq-b.eka
l%u ms<sfj;aj,g wkq.; u jvd;a myiq jkq we;' ta ta ksmqK;d Tiafia ksmqK;d ug
ykd .kska tajd idlaId;alrKhg iqiq l%h
s dldrl ie,iq lr .ekSu f m%;i
s xialrKh
hgf;a jeo.;a fjhs' bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh ;=< .=rejrhd f ;dla biau;= l<
l%ums<sfj;a j;udkhg fkd.e<fmk nj;a" isiqka ;ks ;ks j bf.k .kakjdg jvd
w;aoelS fnodyod .kska iyfhda.fhka bf.kSu w:j;a nj;a kj N+ldjlg msfik
.=re Nj;=ka f;are .; hq;= fjhs' ta wkqj .=rejrhd miqmiska iska" YsIHhd boshg f.k
tk bf.kq-b.eka l%u yels ;dla f;dard .kska b.ekau kj ulg f.k taug
lghq;= lsu fuys oS wfmalaId flf'
oa;shsl wOHdmk Iud,d m%;sixialrKh hgf;a cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska 6-11
fY%aKsj, .Ks;h" oHdj" fi!LHh yd Ydl wOHdmkh" ;dlaIKh yd jdKsc oHdj hk
Ihhkag wod< j imdokh lrk ,o .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y mYS,kh l< fyd;a YsIH
flakaSh" ksmqK;d mdol yd l%shdldrl fmrgq lr .;a bf.kqu yd b.ekau ms<sn|
meyeos,s woyila Tng ,efnkq we;' f .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y uska bosm;a lrkq
,nk l%shdldrl W;aidy .kafka bf.kqu" b.ekau yd we.hSu tl u fosldjla u;g
f.k taughs' tfia u 5E wdlD;sh mok lr .kska o iyfhda.S bf.kq ^Co-operative
Learning& l%ums<sfj;a fhdod .kska o fuf;la fidhd f.k we;s foa kej; f.dvkka
bka Tng f.dia kj ksmehq ys lrka Wodjk fyg oskhg l,a we;s j iQodk ug;a
f l%shdldrl YsIHhdg bv i,id fokq we;'
ksudKYS,S .=re mrmqrla ys lsf wruqKska b.eka l%shdj,shg wod< l%shdldrl
ika;;sfhka f;dard .;a l%shdldrl lsysmhla muKla w'fmd'i' ^W'fm<& .=re udf.damfoaY
ix.%yhkag we;=<;a lr ;sf' tfy;a imhd we;s wdoY l%shdldrl mYS,kfhka o
w'fmd'i' îdfm<& m%;sixialrKh mok lr .;a uQ,Ou ms<sn| wjfndaOh je oshqKq lr
.kska o Ihhg yd mka;shg .e<fmk mos l%shdldrl ie,iq lr .ekSf Yd,
ksoyila Tng we;' f .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yhg we;=<;a wdoY l%shdldrl is wdldr
jQ f;dr;=re iuQyhla Tng imhhs' iEu l%shdldrlula wdrNfha u Tn olskafka tu
l%shdldrlu Tiafia YsIHhd f.k hdug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk wjidk b,lalhhs' ksmqK;dj
hkqfjka k lr we;s fuh mq,a h' oS> ld,Sk h' B<g i|yka ksmqK;d ugu fuu
ksmqK;dj fj; <d u i|yd isiqka iska idlaId;a lr .; hq;= O yelshdj,ska tla
yelshdjla muKla biau;= lrhs' f wkqj n,k l, ta ta ksmK
q ;d ugu wod< ksmK
q ;djg
jvd iqfYaIS h' fl ld,Sk h' B<g we;af;a wod< l%shdldrlu wjidkfha .=re Nj;d
iv
kslaIKh lsug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk phd lsysmhls' .=re isiq fomdYjhg u nrla

fkdjk fia f phd .Kk mylg iSud lsug W;aidy ord ;sf' bf.kq M, jYfhka
ykajd we;s f phd ksmqK;d ugug jvd iqfYaI jk w;r Ih lreKq mok lr .;a
yelshd ;=klska o bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfhka u;= lr .kakd fmd yelshd follska o
iuka; fjhs' Ih yelshd ;=k Ialr;d wkqms<sfj,ska fm< .iajd we;s w;r wvq ;rka
m<uq folj;a idlaId;a lr .ekSu i|yd mka;sfha iEu isiqjl= u bf.kq-b.eka
l%shdldrlf yoj; f,i ie,flk .fIKh fj; fhduqlr .ekSug .=re Nj;d lghq;=
l< hq;= wdldrh l%shdldrlf < fldgiska bosm;a lr ;sf' kshqla;slrKh Êngagement& k jk tlS mshjfrka iEu l%shdldrlula u wdrN jqj o l%shdldrl ie,iq lsu
wdrN jkafka 5E wdlD;sfha fojk "E" wl=rg wod< .fIKfhka nj Tn wu;l fkdl<
hq;= h'
.fIKhg Êxploration& u fmkajk Wmfoia wdoY l%shdldrlj, B< fldgihs'
.egf O me;sj,ska ;u lKavdhug ,efnk me;a; muKla .fIKfhka bf.kqug
fhduqjk isiqka" bf.kq-b.eka l%u rdYshla Tiafia wod< wka; fj; f.k hdu i|yd
.=rejrhd f Wmfoia fm< .iajhs' m%Yak Tiafia is lrkq ,nk uYkd;aul wOHhk
Înquiry-based Learning& fyda l%shdfjka bf.kqug u mdok w;aoelS mdol bf.kqu Êxperiential Learning& fyda f;dard .ekSug fuys oS .=re Nj;dg ksoyi ;sf' by; lsk
wdldrfhka fyda isiqka ,nk oekqu mdol lr .kska Ihhg iqfYaIS jQ fyda Ihud,df
Ih lsysmhla yryd osfjk fyda .eg i|Su i|yd Tjqka fhduq lr .ekSu w'fmd'i'
^W'fm<& Ih .=re Nj;=kaf.a j.lSu fjhs'
fujka .eg mdol bf.kq-b.eka l%u ; h:d: mok lr f.k ie,iq lsu
w:j;a h' u;fNaohg ;=vq oS we;s ;;a;aj" Wml,ams; ;;a;aj" iudka;r woyia fuka u
m%d:l uQ,dY% f i|yd fhdod .ekSug Tng ksoyi ;sf' lsheu" f;dr;=re tla/ia lsu
yd l<ukdlrKh" m%;HflaIKh" kslaIKh" idlPd lsu" l,ams; f.dvkeSu yd
mlaId lsu" mqfrdal:k mlaId lsu" m%Yak yd ms<s;=re ilia lsu" iurEmKh" .eg
i|Su yd fi!kaohd;aul ldh wdosh .fIKh i|yd fhdod .; yels l%uYs,am lsysmhls'
hdka;%sl bf.kqula fia ie,flk lgmdv lsu jqj o fkdjeo.;a hehs wu;l lr oeug
fuys oS bv ;nd ke;'
isiqyq l=vd lKavdh jYfhka .fIKfha fhfo;s' .=re Nj;d i;= oekqu neyeka ,nkq
fjkqjg .=re iydh ,nd .kska oekqu yd wjfndaOh f.dvk;s' lKavdhf fiiq wh
iu woyia yqjudre lr .kska fidhd .;a oekqu je oshqKq lr;s' f ish,a, m%Yia:
ugka isjkafka isiqkag wjYH lsh jH yd fhojq imhd oSug .=re Nj;d bosm;a
jqjfyd;a h' tfia u <uqka bf.kSfuys fhfok uq ld,h mqrd u lKavdh w;r .ejfika
bf.kqu i|yd <uqkag iydh jqjfyd;a h' fun bf.kq m%fYhl oS wkdjrKh uQ,sl
jQj o" th ksoyia wkdjrKhla fkdjk nj;a ufmkajk wkdjrKhla ^guided discovery&
nj;a Tn f;are .; hq;= fjhs' .=re Nj;df.ka fuka u iu jhia lKavdhfuka o
fmdaIKh fjka fufia bf.k .kakd isiqkag ;h i|yd jeo.;a w;aoelS /ila u
,efnk nj wuq;=fjka lsj hq;= ke;'
.fIKfhka miq j t<fUkafka jrK Êxplanation& wjia:djhs' fuys oS l=vd lKavdh
iQodk jkafka iajlSh wkdjrK iduQyslj;a" ksudKYS,Sj;a iuia; lKavdhug bosm;a
lsughs' bosm;a lsu ms<sn| j.lSu lKavdhf ish fokd w;r iu fia fnoS ;su;a
v
bosm;a lsu i|yd kjH l%u f;dard .ekSug isiqkag we;s ksoyi;a fuys fYaI;ajhhs' bka
wk;=re j t<fUk ia;drK Êlaboration& mshjf oS wmeyeos,s foa meyeos,s lsug" idjoH
foa ksjeros lsug" .s,syqKq foa imQK lsug isiqkag bv ,ef' tfia u oekgu;a okakd
fohska neyerg hka w;a u woyia bosm;a lsug jqj o isiqkag wjldY we;' iEu
l%shdldrlula u wjika jkafka .=rejrhd bosm;a lrk fl foaYkhlsks' ifm%aIK
N+ldj fj; hdug fuh .=re Nj;dg bv i,id fok w;r wjOdkhg ,la j ;sfnk
ksmqK;d ugu hgf;a Ih ksfoaYh uska ykajd oS ;sfnk ish u jeo.;a lreKq
wdjrKh jk mos f foaYkh meje;aug .=re Nj;d j. n,d .; hq;= fjhs' iEu .=re
Nj;l= u wksjdhfhka l< hq;= f ia;drKhg u fmkau i|yd ta ta l%shdldrl
ie,eiaf wjidk fldgfia ie,iq lr ;sf'
idudkH wOHdmk moaO;sh ;=< wo oDYHudk jk .eg ch .ekSu i|yd .kqfokqjlska
wdrN oS> .fIKhla" isiq jrK yd ia;drK fm<la yd iudma;l
s .=re ifm%I
a Khlska
ie ,;a mKduk .=re N+ldjlska iuka; kj wOHdmk l%uhla fufia moaO;shg
ykajd oSug cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh lghq;= lr we;' .=re Nj;d m%uL
q j lrk b.ekaula
fjkqjg .=re u fmka hgf;a isiqka ksr; jk bf.kqula f,i fuh ye|skah yels h'
isiqyq lshe jH mYS,kh lrka o .=Kd;aul fhojq Nd; lrka o .fIKfha
fhfo;s' oskm;d mdi,a mefKka m%S;sfhka W.ks;s' ;hg yd jev f,dalhg wjYH
ksmqK;d /ila u mdi,a wOHdmkh yryd idlaId;a lr .ks;s' ka;k yelshd" iudc
yelshd yd mqoa., yelshd jvjd .kska cd;sh f.dv keSu i|yd iQodk fj;s' f
ish,af,a id:l;ajh i|yd wdoY m%Yakj,g ms<s;=re ,shka u;lfha r|jd .;a oekqu
uid n,k Nd. l%uhla fjkqjg ; h:d:hkag uqyqK oSug YsIHhd i;= iQodku
fidhd n,k Nd. l%uhl wjYH;dj lemS fmfka'
fuu bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfha lemS ffmkk ,laIKhla jkafka l%shdldrlu mqrd u
osfjk fohdldr jQ o w:dka; jQ owe.hS Êvaluation& l%shdj,shhs' kshqla;lrKh o .=re
wNsu;h mos fmr oekqu inkaO we.hSula i|yd fhdod .; yels h' tfia u .fIKh;a"
jrKh;a" ia;drKh;a ;=<ska we.hSu Yla;su;a lr .ekSu m%K .=re Nj;l=f.a j.lSu
fjhs' ,s; mlaIK wju lrka mdi,a mdol we.hS jevms<sfjf<a h:d:jdoS iajNdjh
/l.ekSu i|yd;a" jdr mlaIK i|yd wksjdh m%Yak we;=<;a lrka mdi,a mdol we.hS
jevms<sfj< fj; mdi,a msia keUqre lr .ekSu i|yd;a" bf.kqf kshu M, idlaId;a lr
.;a nj lshefjk iq;;H we.hS Âuthentic Evaluations& jevms<sfj<la rgg ykajd oSu
i|yd;a lghq;= rdYshla oekgu;a cd;sl ugfuka wdrN ;sf' l<ukdlrK mdYajfha
ukd WmfoaYk kdhl;ajh yd ;;a;aj iy;sl lsf j.lSu hgf;a f kj jevms<sfj<
id:l lr .kska w;a Y%S ,xldjla i|yd fodrgq jD; lsu rf hym; m;k ish
fokdf.a u ifudaOdksl j.lSu fjhs'
foaYudkH wdpdh whs' t,a' .sksf.a
iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a Îhud,d ixjOk&
oHd yd ;dlaIK mSGh
cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh
vi
wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsjqvh

rch u.ska ish u mdi,a isiq orejka fj; mdi,a fm<fmd;a fkdf,a ,nd fok
w;r u .=re Nj;=ka fj; .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y ,nd u u.ska .=re bf.kq yd b.eka
ls%hdj,sh jvd;a M,odhS lr .ekSu wruqK lr .efka'
Ih ksfoaYfha lafjk ksmqK;d idlaId;a lr .ekSu i|yd isiqka fufyhjk
kshuqjd jkafka .=rejrhd h' tneka tu ldhh uekka jgyd f.k fuu .=re udf.damfoaY
ix.%y mYS,kfhka b.eka ls%hdj,sh ms<sn| j ukd mphla ,nd f.k ksmqK;d mdol
lr .kska bf.kq ls%hdj,sfhka Wmu m%fhdack ,nd .kakd wdldrh ms<sn| j isiqka
kqj;a lsf j.lSu Tng mejf'
j;udk f,dalfha wNsfhda. ch.; yels isiq mrmqrla ys lsf Ndrr ldhNdrfha
kshe,S isk Tng fuu.ska bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sfha .=Kd;aul jOkhla we;s lsug
yels jkq we;ehs Yajdi lr'
v,s' t' tka' f' mqIaml=udr
wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a
wOHdmk m%ldYk fomd;fka;=j"
biqremdh"
n;a;ruq,a,'
2009' 07' 21
vii
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mS' u,m;srK uhd
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jHdmD;s ks,Od
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iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od
tka' uqyqkaoka uy;d
iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od
Ih WmfoaYkh
uydpdh ' wd' wdhr;ak uhd
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uydpdh v' ' ' Our;ak uhd
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wdpdh tia' wd' ' frdaid uhd
- fld<U Yaj oHd,h
wdpdh mS' v' tia' fla nKavdrKdhl uhd - fmardfoaKsh Yaj oHd,h
uydpdh f' fla' ' chfk;a;s uhd
- fld<U Yaj oHd,h
uydpdh tia' wd' ' ld,sx.uqo,s uhd
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wdpdh t' fla' chkkao uhd
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wdpdh ' ' tka' ' ohd uhd
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wdpdh mS' .Slshkf.a uhd
- YS% chjOkmqr Yaj oHd,h
mj;kh v' ta' ' r;akiQh uhd - Y%dl m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od - cd'w'wdh;kh
im;a mqoa., odhl;ajh

wdpdh fgd ueflda,a uhd " WmfoaYl" cd'w'wdh;kh
v' ta' ' r;akiQh uhd" Y%dl m%Odk jHdmD;s ks,Od - cd'w'wdh;kh'
' t' t' B' lu,r;ak nKavdr uhd" wkqrdOmqr u'u' " wkqrdOmqr'
tia' t' ijvk uhd" W;=re ueo m<d;a wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j" wkqrdOmqr'
' wd' chis uhd" je,a,jdh l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h" je,a,jdh'
t' t' mS' wdhr;ak uhd" oHdf,dal uy oHd,h" .d,a,'
isis,a fmfrd uhd" Ydka; f;dauia oHd,h" ud;r'
v' ' mshodi uhd" f;,sc, " u'u " f;,sc,'
hQ' v' m;auis uhd" {dfkdaoh uy oHd,h" l;r'
fla' ' tia' .=Kr;ak uhd" l;r uy oHd,h" l;r'
tia' ta' ' tka' jhs' iqrr h" isudfjda nKavdrkdhl oHd,h" fld<U 07
mS' wd' rEnisxy h" Oumd, oHd,h" mkaksmsh'
mS' .=Kisxy h" ' tia' fiakdkdhl oHd,h" fld<U 08'
' ijqkaorrdcka uhd" kef.kysr m<d;a wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j" ;s%l=Kdu,h'
viii
tia' iqodlrka uhd" ;s%l=Kdu,h" l,dm wOHdmk ldhd,h" ;s%l=Kdu,h'

tia' mlsfoka uhd" mlH cd;sl mdi," ud;f,a'
tia' wd' chl=ud uhd" rdclSh oHd,h" fld<U 07'
u,aldka;s odkm;srK h" rdyq, oHd,h" ud,df'
ta' f' wd' nKavdr uhd" Ourdc oHd,h" uykqjr'
msgljrh
wd' wd' fla' m;srK h

m.Kl msgq ieliqu
wd' wd' fla' m;srK h

wd' ta' ' whs' oikdhl h
fj wvh
www.nie.lk
O iydh
ux., je,smsh uhd

moaud rjOk h
rx;a ohdjxY uhd
ix
mgqk
msgqj
wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh
iii
ix{dmkh
iv
wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsjqvh
vii
bf.kq M, yd fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdldrl

tallh 1 kq
tallh 2 hdka;% oHdj
12
tallh 3 foda,k iy ;rx.
28
tallh 4 ;dm fN!;slh
63
mdi, mok lr .;a ;lafiarelrKh
81
xi
01 tallh - kq
ksmqK;dj 1'0
( fN!;sl oHdf mlaIKd;aul iy .Ks;uh rduqj ms<sn|

ie,els,su;a fjka .fIK is lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 1'1
( fN!;sl oHdf Ih m:h yd .fIK i|yd oHd;aul

l%ufoh fhdod .ekSu ms<sn| uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
Yla;sh" Yla;s mrsKduh iy Yla;sh iu. mod:fha yeisu ms<sn|j yeoeula
f,i" fN!;sl oHdj meye,s lrhs'
uQ,sl wxY+ka iy uQ,sl n,j, isg Yajfha jHqyh olajd Yd, mrdihlg
wjOdkh fhduq lrk Ihhla f,i fN!;sl oHdj ia;r lrhs'
iajNdl ixisoa ia;r lsug;a" tfkod ; lghq;= i|yd;a fN!;sl
oHdf uQ,Ouhka Nd; l< yelafla flfia o hkak m%ldY lrhs'
u;= oelafjk kQ;k iudc lghq;= i|yd fN!;sl oHdj fhdod .; yelafla
flfia o hkak ia;drKh lrhs'
.ukd.ukh
ikaksfokh
n,Yla;s iemhqu
ffjoH lghq;=j, fh
mD iy wNHdjldY .fIK
oHd;aul .fIK i|yd oHd;aul l%uh fhdod .kshs'
fN!;sl oHdf m%.;sh kslaIK u; yd thska .kq ,nk ks.uk u; mok
we;s nj ms<s.kshs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
fN!;sl oHdj" Yla;sh iy mod:fha yeisu ms<sn| wOHhkhla f,i
fN!;sl oHdf Ih m:h
tfkod ;fha fN!;sl oHdj
oHd;aul l%ufha mshjrj,a
kslaIKh
l,ams;h
mlaIKh
jdoh fyda kshuh
mqfrdal:kh
kslaIKh
oHd;aul l%ufha m<uq mshjr o;a; tl;= lsu i|yd kslaIKh hs' o;a; ir,
kslaIK u`.ska ,nd .; yels fyda tajd mlaIKd;aul m%;sM, h yels hs'
l,ams;h
l,am;
s h hkq tys ;dlsl fyda mlaIKd;aul m%;M
s ,h ,nd .ekSug iy mlaId
lsu i|yd lrkq ,nk Wml,amkh hs' l,ams;h mlaId lsu mlaIKhla
f,i yekaf'
mlaIKh
h fohla wkdjrKh" fidais fyda wdoYkh lsug ls%hd;aul lrk md,s;

ls%hd ms<sfj, mlaIKhla f' l,ams;h j,x.= oehs ks.ukh lsug mlaIK
is lrkq ,ef' mlaIKfha m%;sM, l,ams;hg Wmldrhla fkdf k
mlaIKd;aul ls%hd ms<sfj, fidais l< hq;= f' ls%hd ms<sfj, m%;sj; l<
g o m%;sM, ;jrg;a l,ams;hg mriamr frda f k" tg uq,a l,ams;h
lrKh l< hq;= f' tg lrKh l< l,ams;h mlaId lsug fjk;a
mlaIKhla ie,iq l< hq;= h'
jdoh
mlaIKd;aul m%;sM, l,ams;h ;yjqre lrhs k l,ams;h iajNdjfha lsish

me;slvla ms<sn| jdohlaa njg m;ajk w;r th kslaIs; lrKq u; mok jQ
oHd;aulj ms<s.; yels fmd uQ,Ouhla f'
mqfrdal:kh
kj jdoh m%fYfuka Yaf,aIKh lsfuka" iajNdjfha iuyr fkdokakd

wxYhka ms<sn| mqfrdal:kh l< yels h'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
fN!;sl oHdf Ih m:h fjka lr ykd .ekSu i|yd id'fm< mka;sfha
bf.k.;a O oHd Ihhka ikaikaokh lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

YsIHhkag .fIKh lsu i|yd mjrkak'
jIdj we;su" oyj, yd rd;s%h we;su" N=lmd we;su jeks iajNdl

ixisoaka ia;r lsug fN!;sl oHdj Nd; l< yels wdldrh'
.ukd.ukh" ikaksfokh" n,Yla;s iemhqu" ffjoH lghq;=j, fh"
mD iy wNHdjldY .fIK i|yd fN!;sl oHdf fh'
kQ;k iudcfha jk lghq;= iqjmyiq lr .ekSu i|yd fN!;sl oHdj
fhdod .kakd wdldrh'
oHd;aul .fIKh i|yd u;a l%uhla f,i oHd;aul l%uh ykajkak'
oHd;aul l%ufha iSudjka ms<sn|j idlPd lrkak'
ksmqK;dj 1'0
fN!;sl oHdf mlaIKd;aul iy .Ks;uh rduqj ms<sn|

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'2
( ffoksl wjYH;d iy oHd;aul lghq;=j, tall ksjer

j Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
uQ,sl fN!;sl rdYSka iy jHq;amkak fN!;sl rdYSka ia;r lrhs'
fN!;sl rdYSka uekSug uQ,sl SI tall yd jHq;amkak SI tall W; wkaokaa
Nd; lrhs'
uQ,sl fN!;sl rdYSka y;
fN!;sl rdYSka uekSug uQ,sl SI tall yd mmQrl SI tall fol ^j.=j 1'1&
uQ, ûQ,sl&
rdYSka
tallh
ixfla;h
ialkaOh
.
ld,h
oHq;a Odrdj
;dm.;sl WIaK;ajh
ma; ;Sj%;dj
jH m%udKh
lsf,da.a/
grh
;;amrh
wemshrh
fl,akh
lekafv,dj
ujq,h
kg
m
s
A
K
cd
mol
;, fldaKh
>k fldaKh
fhkh
iafgfhkh
rad
sr
j.=j 1'1 uQ,sl SI tall y; iy mmQrl SI tall fol'
uQ,sl rdYSka weiqfrka jHq;amkak rdYska

jHq;amkak rdYska lsysmhl tall uQ,sl tall weiqfrka
jHq;amkak tall lsysmhl fYaI kduhka ^j.=j 1'2&
SI tallj, .=Kdldr iy Wm .=Kdldr oelaug Wmi.
Wmi. lsysmhl w.h" kduhka iy ixfla;
iuyr fN!;sl rdYskaj,g tall fkdue;
jHq;amkak rdYsh
tallh
ku
n,h
mSvkh
Yla;sh" ldhh
cjh
ixLHd;h
oHq;a wdfrdamKh
oHq;a .dul n,h
oHq;a m%;sfrdaOh
oHq;a ikakdhl;dj
fm%arl;dj
Od;dj
pqnl i%djh
pqnl i%dj >k;ajh
ixfla;h
ksgka
meial,a
cQ,a
fjd
yia
l+f,da
fjda,a
iSukaia
fyka
*er
fn
fgia,d
N
Pa
J
W
Hz
C
V
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
S =
H =
F =
Wb =
T =
kg m s-2
kg m-1 s-2
kg m2 s-2
kg m2 s-3
s-1
As
kg m2 s-3 A-1
kg m2 s-3 A-2
kg-1 m-2 s3 A2
kg m2 s-2 A-2
kg-1 m-2 s4 A2
kg m2 s-2 A-1
kg s-2 A-1
j.=j 1'2 jHq;amkak fN!;sl rdYSka lsysmhl fYaI kduhka iy ixfla;'

WodyrK jYfhka %;dkH tall moaO;sh iy cgs tall moaO;sh i|yka lsu'
oekqu yqjudref iy fjf<| lghq;=j, we;sjk Ialr;d lsysmhla idlPd
lrkak'
uQ,sl rdYs y; f,i ialkaOh" ." ld,h" oHq;a Odrdj" ma; ;Sj%;dj" ;dm.;sl
WIaK;ajh" iy jH m%udKh ykajd fokak'
uQ,sl rdYSkaf.a tall iy ixfla; ykajd fokak'
j.M,h" mudj" >k;ajh" f.h" ;ajrKh" n,h jeks rdYs uQ,sl rdYS" wdY%fhka
m%ldY l< yels nj iy tajd jHq;amkak rdYSka f,i k lrk nj meye,s
lrkak'
id fm< mka;sj, bf.k .;a iuyr fN!;sl rdYSka f;dard" tajd SI tall iu.
j.= .; lrkak'
jHq;amkak tallj,g Nd; lrk fYaI k iy ixfla; ykajd fokak'
^j.=j 1'2&
SI tallj, .=Kdldr iy Wm .=Kdldr Nd; meye,s lrkak' Wmi. ykajd
fokak'
Wmi. fhh hq;af;a SI tallhg bfhka nj;a Wmi.h iy tallh w;r
mr;rhla fkd;sh hq;= nj;a meye,s lrkak' tallj, .=Ks;hla f,i ,shk
wjia:dj, tajd w;r tla mr;rhla ;sh hq;= nj meye,s lrkak'
Wod - mm, ms, N m
WodyrK lsym
s hla f.k tallh m%ldY lsu iy tys w.h ,su ms<n
s | wjfndaOhla
,nd u'
4
ksmqK;dj 1'0
fN!;sl oHdf mlaIKd;aul iy .Ks;uh rduqj ms<sn|

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'3
( udk weiqka fN!;sl rdYs ms<sn| uid n,hs'
ld,fo
04 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
fN!;sl ilrKj, ksrjoH;dj mlaId lsug" fN!;sl ilrK jHq;amkak
lsug iy fN!;sl rdYsj, tall ,nd .ekSug udk fhdod .kshs'
ialkaOh" . iy ld,fhys udk ms<sfj,ska M" L, iy T f'
uQ,sl rdYs weiqfrka jHq;amkak fN!;sl rdYsj, udk'
udk Nd;fhka ilrKhl ksrjoH;dj mlaId lsu'
fok ,o isoahla i|yd fN!;sl rdYSka w;r inkaO;dj'
ilrKhl wvx.= fkdokakd rdYshl tall iy udk'
tall fkdue;s rdYSkaj,g udk fkdue;'
Wod - j;k wxlh

>IK ix.=Klh
jHq;amkak fN!;sl rdYshla uQ,sl fN!;sl rdYSka yd inkaO jk wdldrh udk
u`.ska oelafjk nj meye,s lrkak'
m%f.h" ;ajrKh iy n,h jeks WodyrK weiqka rdYshl udk" tall
moaO;sfhka iajdh;a; nj meye,s lrkak'
ilrKhl ksrjoH;dj mlaId lrk whqre WodyrK lsysmhla f.k idlPd
lrkak'
udk Yaf,aIKfhka fN!;sl rdYSka w;r inkaO;d ksKh lrkak'
Wod - ir, wj,nhl foda,k ld,dj;h r|d mj;skqfha tys . iy wod<
ia:dkfha .=re;ajc;ajrKh u; nj i,ld rdYSka w;r inkaO;dj ,nd
.kak'
ksmqK;dj 1'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'4
( wod< kq f foda I h wju jk m .e,efmk kq

WmlrKh f;dard f.k kq ksjer j ,nd .kshs'
( 08 hs'
ld,fo
bf.kq M,
(
tfkod ;fha iy mlaIKj, oS kq ,nd .ekSf jeo.;alu ia;r
lrhs'
O fN!;sl rdYSka uekSug .e<fmk kq WmlrK Nd;d lrhs'
kq ,nd.ekSug jZkshr le,smrh" p, wkalaIh" uhsfl%dgr bial=remamq
wdudkh" f.da,udkh" f;o`vq ;=,dj" iso`vq ;=,dj" bf,lafg%dksl ;=,dj" rdu
>ldj iy ixLHdxl rdu >ldj Nd; lrhs'
kq WmlrKhl fodaIh ,nd .kshs'
Nd.sl fodaIh iy m%;sY; fodaIh .Kkh lrhs'
mlaIKhl wjidk m%;sM,h flfrys fodaIfha idfmalaI w.h n,mdk wdldrh
;lafiare lrhs'
kqulg Yd,;ajhla yd tallhla we;'
fN!;sl rdYsj, kq Yd, mrdihla ;=< yss we;'
. uekssf b;d l=vd w.hka ys isg b;d Yd, w.hka olajd we;s nj ^Wm
mrudKql wxY=j, isg Yajfha kslaIKh lrk ,o wE;u r olajd" 10-15 m
isg 1027 m &
ld,h uekSf b;d l=vd w.hkA ys isg b;d Yd, w.hka olajd we;s nj'
^mrudKql yeisj, isg Yajfha jhi olajd" 10-24 s isg 1018 s &
ialkaOh uekSf b;d l=vd w.hka ys isg b;d Yd, w.hka olajd we;s nj
^bf,lafg%%dakhl ialkaOfha isg ukaodlsKshl iAlkaOh olajd" 10-30 kg isg
1040 kg&
WmlrKhl l=vdu kqu iy uq,dxl jro
ksrfmalaI fodaIh
Nd.sl fodaIh
m%;sY; fodaIh
jksh uQ,Ouh
bial=remamq uQ,Ouh
taldx. fodaI
jer f,i l%udxls;" udmlfha jer f,i i,l=Kq lr we;s Y+kH i,l=K
fyda fifuka ls%hd lrk rdu >ldj jeks fodaI iys; WmlrK ksid fuh
is f' kqu lsysm jdrhla kej; kej; .ekSfuka fujeks j.fha fodaIj,g
6
n,mEula we;s fkdf' wjika m%;sM,h .Kkh lrk f;la th wkqudk l,

yels fkdf' fujeks j.fha fodaI bj;a lr .ekSug fYdaOkhla fhu" kq
WmlrKh udre lsu fyda th kej; l%udxlkh lsu is l< yelsh'
wyUq fodaI
f fodaIj, ;ru mlaIKh lrkakdg WmlrK fl;r fyd|g myrKh
l< yels o hkak u; r|d mj;S' mlaIKh lrkakd th fydka is lrhs k
wyUq fodaIh l=vd fjhs' fok ,o rdYshla i|yd mdGdxl .Kkdjla ,nd f.k
tajdfha uOHkHh ,nd .ekSfuka iuia; fodaIh wvq f'
kq WmlrKhl mudKhla we;' tu mudKfhka ,nd .; yels l=vdu
kq u la we;' tu kq WmlrKh Nd;fhka l= v du kq u g jvd
ksrjoH;djhlska hq;= kqula ,nd.; fkdyel' WodyrKhla jYfhka gr
rEf,ys l=vdu kqu 1 mm fjhs' tuksid gr rE, Nd;fhka 1 mm lg jvd
ksrjoH;djhlska hq;= kqula wfmalI
a d l< fkdyel' tk gr rE, Nd;fhka
17'3 cm fyda 17'4 cm jeks mdGdxl m%ldY l< yels jqj;a" 17'35 cm jeks mdGdxlhla
m%ldY l< fkdyel'
kqula .ekSf ish yels Wmu fodaIh o mudKfha l=vdu kqu fjhs'
fodaIfhys ;ru ukskq ,nk m%udKh iu. ie,els,a,g .; hq;=h'
Wod'(
^208
1& mm fndfyda rg ksjer kquls'
^2 1 & mm fndfyda rg ksrjoH fkdjk kquls'
fodaI ikaikaokh lsf ksrfmalaI fodaIh" Nd.sl fodaIh iy m%;sY; fodaIh
Nd;hg .kq ,nhs'
^208
1 & mm mdGdxlh iòyd ksrfmalaI fodaIh 1 mm fjhs'
Nd.sl fodaIh 1$208 ^} 0'0048& fjhs' m%;sY; fodaIh 0'48% fjhs'
fodaIh m%ldY lsf idudkHfhka id:dxl tllg muKla oelau m%udKj;a
neka by; w.hka fol ms<sfj,ska 0'005 iy 0'5% f,i oelah yelsh'
kqul ksrjoH;djh m%udKj;a tlla f,i i,lkq ,nkafka fodaIh 1% fyda
thg wvq k h' ta ksid . uekSu iòyd gr rE,la Nd; lrkafka k 100 mm
os.la uksk g we;s jk m%;sY; fodaIh 1$100 } 1% f' f ksid 10 cm g jvd
fl r m%udK uekSug gr rE,lska ,efnk ksrjoH;djh m%udKj;a ke;ehs
i,lkq ,ef' tjeks wjia:djl . uekSu ioyd 1 mm g jvd wvq l=vdu kqula
we;s WmlrKhlaa Nd; l< hq;= f' f iòyd jZksh uQ,Ouh fyda bial=remamq
uQ,Ouh weiqka ;kd .;a mudK iys; WmlrK Nd;d l< hq;=h'
oHd.dr mlaIK
kq WmlrK Nd; lsu
jZksh le,smrh
uhsfl%dg bial=remamq wdudkh
f.da,udkh
p, wkalaIh
7
ksmqK;dj 1'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'5
( wjia:djg W; f,i ffoYsl wdl,kh yd fNaokh fhdod

.ksh's
ld,fo
08 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
uq ia:dmkh" m%f.j, im%hqla;h iy n,j, im%hqla;h fiug ffoYsl
l%uh Nd;d lrhs'
n, moaO;shl im%hqla;h fiug ffoYsl fNaok l%uh Nd; lrhs'
ffoYsl iy wosY ixl,amh
ffoYsl iy wosY w;r we;s fjki
wosY rdYs ir, wxl .Ks;uh l%ufhka wdl,kh l< yels kuq;a ffoYsl rdYS
wdl,kh lsf ffoYslfha Ydj ie,ls,a,g .; hq;= f'

ffoYslhla iY fLd LKavhlska ksrEmKh l< yels h' fLdf f.ka
ffoYslfha Yd,;ajh oelafjk w;r B ysfika ffoYslfha Ydj oelaf'
ffoYsl wdl,kh
ffoYsl iudka;rdi% uQ,Ouh
ffoYsl ;s%fldaK l%uh
ffoYsl fNaokh
ffoYslhl cHd;sl ksrEmKh ykajd fokak
ia:dmk ffoYslh ie,lSfuka ffoYsl wdl,kh ioyd ffoYsl ;s%fldaKh
ksudKh lsu'
ffoYsl iudka;rdi% ;sh ykajkak'
ffoYsl fNaokh ykajkak'
ffoYslj, im%hl
q ;
A h fiu ioyd ffoYsl iudka;rdi% ;sh" ffoYsl fNaok
l%uh iy ffoYsl ;s%fldaK l%uh Nd;h ioyd WodyrK lsysmhla idlcd
lrkak'
ksmqK;dj 1'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'6
( mlaIKd;aul o;a; m%ia;dl j ksrEmKh lrka f;dr;=re

ksjer j ,nd .kshs'
ld,fo
04 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
m%ia;dr Nd; lr p,Hhkaf.a yeisu ksrEmKh yd mqfrdal:kh islrhs'
mlaIKd;aul o;a; m%ia;dlj ksrEmKh lsu'
inka; rdYsj, kq .Kkdjl j.= .; l< w.hhka mlaId lsfuka
muKla ixLHd w;r mj;sk inkaOh jgyd .ekSu fndfydag wmyiq f'
tjeks inkaO;d wkdjrKh lr .ekSu i|yd m%ia;dl l%uh nyq, j Nd;d
flf' tu`.k
s a m%;M
s ,j, ;%uh oiqkla fmkak
q lrk w;r o;a; w: ksremKh
myiq fjhs'
iajdh;a; yd mrdh;a; p,Hhka
fndfyda mlaIKj, wms tla jrlg tla p,Hhla muKla fjkia lrk
w;r m<uq rdYshg inkaO hehs wkqudk lrk ;j;a rdYshl wekqrEm w.hhka
kslaIKh lruq' fuu rdYsj,ska m<uq rdYsh" tk iajdh;a; p,Hh ;sria
LKavdxl mudKh ^X-wlaIh& Tiafia;a" mrdh;a; p,Hh isria LKavdxl
mudKh ^Y - wlaIh & Tiafia;a m%i;
a dr .eka jQ g m%i;
a drfhka b;d myiqfjka
rdYska w;r inkaOh ksrEmKh l< yels h'
mudK f;dard .ekSu
m%ia;drh m%ia;dr fld,h imQKfhka msfrk m mudKj, mrdi f;dard

.; hq;= h' iajdh;a; p,Hhfha ^X- rdYsh& w.hhkaj, mrdih iy x- wlaIh
Tiafia we;s wjldY ixLHdj igyka lr .kak' m%ia;dr lvodisfha wkq
fldgiaj, g myiqfjka fnh yels m%Odk fn wvx.= jk m;a" ish u
w.hhka wka;.; jk m;a mudK f;dard .kak' 1" 2" 5 iy 10 jYfhka we;s
wkq fn jvd fhda.H fjhs' 4 iuyrg Nd;hg .kshs' kuq;a 3" 7 fyda 9
lsisfgl Nd;d fkd lrkqfha" tajd u.ska m%ia;drhlska w.hhka ,nd .ekSu
b;d wmyiq neks' Y wlaIh Tiafia mudKhg tu ls%hdj,shu Nd;hg .;
hq;= h' kuq;a Y wlaIh Tiafia;a X wlaIh Tiafia;a fn tlu wdldrhg h
hq;= ke;' fndfyda wjia:dj, LKav wlaI lefmk ia:dkh p,H rdYSka
folu i|yd Y+kH u w;HjYH fkdf' m%ia;dr .ekah hq;= w.hhka b;d
9
Yd, fyda l=vd jk g m%Odk fnul w.h oelaug Wmu wxl foll fyda
;=kl ixLHdjla .=Kdldr idOlhlska .=Klr olajkak' mudKfha we;s Yd,
w.hg ol=Kq miska 102 fyda 10-6 jeks .=Kdldr idOlhla Nd; lrkak'
wlaI k lsu
l=uk wlaIfha l=uk p,Hh m%ia;dr .; l< hq;= o hkak ;SrKh l< miq
m%ia;dr .; lrk rdYsh Bg W; tallh iu. ,shkak' by; fofha i|yka
l< m .e,fmk mudK Nd; lr m%ia;dr lvodisfha m%Odk fn Tiafia
wxl ,shkak' m%ia;dr lvodisfha by< m%ia;drfha ud;Dldj meye,sj ,shkak'
m%ia;drh i,l=Kq lsu yd weu
,laIH i<l=Kq lsf ishq ;=vla iys; mekai,lska l=vd ;s;a ;nd tla tla
,laIHh l=vd jD;a;hlska m%fYfuka jg lrkak' m%ia;drhla wef ishu
,laIH iqug jl%hla u; msysgk fia weu yeugu myiq fkdf' tjeks
wjia:djl uOHl w.h ksfhdackh jk m ,laIH fYa%Kshla yryd iqug
jl%hla weh hq;= h' Wiia fm< mlaIKj, m%ia;dr fndfyduhla ir, fLd
fjhs' idOdrK ir, fLdjla weu i|yd wju jYfhka o;a; ,laIH yhlaj;a
Nd; l< hq;= h' o;a; ,laIH fLdf fome;a;g u iudkj fnfok m
kQ,la fyda kso fmfkk fldajla ;efuka jvd;au iqiq ir, fLdj
,nd.; yels f'
m%ia;drfha yevh
iajdh;a; p,Hh jeu wkqj mrdh;a; p,Hh je jkjd o wvq jkjd o
hkak m%ia;drfha yevfhka tlajru m%oYkh f' th fjkiaf YS>%;dj
ms<sn| lsisjla fmkakq lrhs' ,laIH ir, fLdjla u; msysghs k p,Hhka
w;r fh inkaO;djla we;' p,Hhka tlsfklg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl
f k tajd Y=kH lrd tlg ,`.d jk w;r ir, fLdj uQ, ,laIHh yryd
.uka lrhs' uQ, ,laIHh yryd fkdhk ir, fLd u.ska wkqf,dau inkaO;d
fmkakq fkd flf'
m%ia;drfha nEjqu fyj;a wkql%uKh
y, x j,ska fnfuka m%ia;drfha nEjqu ,nd .; yels h' P(x1,y1) iy

Q(x2,y2) ,laIH fol yels ;r wE;ska msysgk m f;dard .; hq;= h' P iy
Q i|yd o;a; ,laIH f;dard .ekSfuka je,lsh hq;= h'
10
wka;#LKavh
m%ia;drfhka LKav wlaI fokh jk ia:dkj,ska jeo.;a f;dr;=re ks;ru
,nd .; yels h' fuh ir, fLd fuka u wfkl=;a j.fha jl% i|yd o wod<
fjhs' Nd; l< mudK Y+kHfhka wdrN jkafka k muKla wka;#LKavh
iDcqju ksrEmKh f' tfia fkdf k wkql%uKh iy ir, fLdj u; msys
tla LKavdxl hq.,hla Nd;fhka wka;#LKavh .Kkh l< yels h' i,l=Kq
lrk ,o ,laIH Wmk;shla (trend) fmkajhs k m%ia;drh tu Wmk;sh olajk
Ydjg la lsu ^nysksfIKh& idOdrK h' fuf,i Wmk;sh olajk Ydjg
m%ia;drh la lsug ;ks brla fjkqjg lv brla fhdod .kq ,nhs' tu.ska
m%i;
a drfha tu fldgi i|yd mlaIKd;aul o;a; wm i;= fkdjk nj oelafjhs'
tall
oHd.dr .Kkh lsj, ksje/ tall Nd; lsug j.n,d .; hq;= h'
ish u fN!;sl ksh;hka iy uksk ,o rdYSka tlu tall ldKavhlg ix.;
f k fuu .Kkh lsj,ska w:j;a m%;sM, ,nd fohs'
m%ia;drhla wef is;ays ;nd .; hq;= jeo.;a lreKq ia;r lrkak'
iajdh;a; p,Hh f;dard .ekSu
mrdhka; p,Hh f;dard .ekSu
m%ia;drfha ud;Dldj
m%ia;dr lvodisfha m%fhdackhg .; yels bv m%udKh fydka Nd; jk m

mudK fhu
wlaIj, rdYs yd tall k l< hq;= h'
fok ,o o;a; m%ia;dlj ksrEmKh lr p,Hhkaf.a yeisu ms<sn|j mqfrdal:kh

lrk f,i isiqka yg mjrkak'
11
02 tallh - hdka;% oHdj

ksmqK;dj 2'0
( wm wjg is jk p,s; .Ks;uh iy fN!;sl oHd;aul

uQ,Ou u; Yaf,aIKh lsu i|yd mokula we;s lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 2'1
( jia;=j, ir, fh p,s;h" m%laIsma; iy idfmalaI p,s;h

Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
iudka;r ud.j, tlu Ydjg iy reoaO Ydjg .uk lrk jia;=j, tla
jia;=jlg idfmalaIj wfkla jia;=f msysu yd m%f.h .Kkh lrhs'
ksh; ;ajrKhlska ir, fh ud.hl .uka lrk jia;=jl p,s;h ia;r
lsug iy mqfrdal:kh lsug p,s; ilrK Nd; lrhs'
m%laIsma; yd inkaO p,Hhka ia;r lsu iy .Kkh ls ;=<ska m%laIsma;h
u m;s; jkafka l=uk ia:dkhl o hkak mqfrdal:kh lrhs'
;ajrKh" m%f.h iy ia:dmkh .Kkh lsug ld,h tfhka ia:dmkh
iy ld,h tfhka m%f.h m%ia;dr W; wkaoka Nd; lrhs'
idfmalaI p,s;h ms<sn| ixl,amh
fmdf<djg idfmalaIj iudka;r Ydj,g .uk lrk jia;+ka foll idfmalaI
m%f. i|yd m%ldYkh
V (A, B) = V (A, E) + V (E, B)

iudka;r ud.j, idfmalaI p,s;h
tlu Ydjg
reoaO Ydjg
fh p,s;h ia;r lsug
ld,h tfhka ia:dmkh (s-t) m%ia;dr
ld,h tfhka m%f.h (v-t) m%ia;dr Nd;h
(s-t) m%ia;dr" (v-t) m%ia;dr njg mrsj;kh lsu iy tys f,dauh

my; i|yka wdldrfha p,s;j, .eg iu yd mqfrdal:kh
;sria ;,hla u; ksh; ;ajrKhla hgf;a p,s;h
.=re;ajh hgf;a isria p,s;h
>IKh rys; wdk; ;,hla u; p,s;h
m%laIsma;
12

wod< ixisoa meye,s lsug idfmalaI p,s; ms<sn| ixl,amh Nd; lrkak'
hl .uka lrk mqoa.,fhl=g fmfkk m jeys xjl p,kfha oDYH
Ydj" N+ ia:djr pkasldjl p,s;h jeks WodyrK lsysmhla idlPd lrka

idfmalaI p,s;h meye,s lrkak'
A, B iy E iuqoafoaY rduq ;=kla i|yd
V (A, B) = V (A, E) + V (E, B)
ykajd fokak ^jHq;amkak lsu wjYH fkdf&

by; ilrKh Nd;fhka iu i|yd wod< .eg imhkak'
my; i|yka m%ia;dr we| w:l:kh lr m%ia;drj,ska ljr f;dr;=re ,nd .;
yels o hkak ia;r lrkak'

r - ld, m%ia;dr
ia:dmk - ld, m%ia;dr
m%f. - ld, m%ia;dr
v - t m%ia;drh weiqfrka p,s; ilrK ,nd .kak'
p,s; ilrK Nd;fhka iu i|yd wod< .eg imhkak'
13
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'2
( n, im%hqla;h iy n, >QKh Nd; lr jia;=jl fh

p,s;h iy N%uK p,s;h md,kh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
n, fNaokh iy wdl,kh i|yd ;s Nd; lrhs'
n,hl N%uK wdprKh .Kkh lrhs'
iudldr yevfhka hq;a ixhqla; jia;=j, .=re;aj flakah fidhd .kshs'
n,hl ,dlaIKsl .=K
n, iudka;rdi% ;sh weiqfrka tal,laI n, foll im%hqla;h'
icd;Sh yd cd;Sh iudka;r n, foll im%hqla;h
n, moaO;shl im%hqla;h my; i|yka l%u weiqfrka
n, nyqwi% l%uh
n, fNaok l%uh
>QKh w: oelau iy n,hl N%uK wdprKh .Kkh lsu'
n, hq.auhl >QKh
tal;, n, moaO;shl iM, >QKh
iudka;r n,j, im%hl
q ;
a weiqfrka jia;j
= l .=re;aj flaka h ms<n
s | ixl,amh
ialkaO flakah ms<sn| ixl,amh
n,hlg Yd,;ajhla" Ydjla iy Wmfhda.S ,laIHhla we;s nj WodyrK Nd;
lr wdoYkh lrkak
wdk; n, foll im%hqla;fha Yd,;ajh iy Ydj fidhd .ekSu i|yd
iudka;ri% kshuh Nd;fhka ilrKhla jHq;amkak lrkak'
fYaI wjia:d f,i =00, 900 iy 1800 wjia:d;a" n, fol Yd,;ajfhka
iudk wjia:dj;a idlPd lrkak'
tal;, n,j, im%hqla;h fiug n, nyqwi% l%uh iy n, fNaok l%uh
Nd; lrkak'
zn,hl >QKhZ iy zn, hq.auhl >QKhZ hk mo Nd;fhka oDV jia;=jl
N%uK wdprKh idlPd lrkak'
jia;=jl .=re;aj flakah ykajd fokak'
wdia;rhl .=re;aj flakah ksKh lrkak'
iudka;r n,j, im%hl
q ;
a h weiqfrka iudldr yevfhka hq;a ixhql;
a jia;j
= ,
.=re;aj flakah fiug isiqkag mjrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
n, iudka;rdi% kshuh Nd; lr jia;=jl nr ksKh lsu'
14
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'3
( jia;=jla iu;=,s; j ;eu i|yd wjYH ;;a;aj yiqrejhs'
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
,laIHhdldr jia;=jl iu;=,s;;dj i|yd wjYH ;;a;aj Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
tlsfklg iudka;rj iy wdk;j ls%hd lrk n, ;=kl iu;=,s;;dj i|yd
wjYH;d ia;r lrhs'
n,j, iu;=,s;;dj wdYs%; ir, .eg iug n, ;s%fldaK m%fhh iy >QK
ms<sn| uQ,Ouh Nd; lrhs'
,laIHhdldr jia;=jl iu;=,s;;dj
,laIHhdldr jia;=jla u; ls%hd lrk im%hqla; n,h Y=kH f k tu
jia;=j iu;=,s;;df we;ehs lshkq ,ef

oDV jia;=jl iu;=,s;;dj
oDV jia;=jla iu;=,s;j mj;S k
I ish u Ydj,g we;s im%hqla; n,h Y=kH f iy
II kEu wlaIhla jgd uq jHdj;h Y+kH f'
fuys II jk m%ldYkh >QK ms<sn| uQ,Ouh f,i yeka f'
tal ,laIH tal;, n, ;=kla hgf;a iu;=,s;;dj
iudka;r n, ;=kla hgf;a iu;=,s;;dj
n, ;s%fldaK m%fhh
n, nyq wi%h
iu;=,s;;djfha wjia:d
ia:dhs
wia:dhs
WodiSk

tal;, n, moaO;shla iu;=,s; u i|yd idOdrK ;;a;aj wdoYkh lrkak'
tal,laIH tal;, n, ;=kla hgf;a iu;=,s;;dj idlPd lrkak'
iudka;r tal;, n, ;=kla hgf;a iu;=,s;;dj idlPd lrkak'
n, ;s%fldaK m%fhh meye,s lrkak'
>QK ms<sn| uQ,Ouh meye,s lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
n, >QK ms<sn| uQ,Ouh Nd; lr jia;=jl nr ksKh lsu'
15
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'4
( jia;=jl p,s; wjia:d md,kh lsu i|yd p,s;h ms<sn|

ksgkaf.a kshu Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 18 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
ksh; ialkaO iy ksh; n, inkaO .;sl wjia:d Yaf,aIKh lsug p,s;h
ms<sn| ksgkaf.a kshu iy >QK ms<sn| ixl,amh Nd; lrhs'
n,h iy p,s;h inkaO .Kkh ls lrhs'
.;sl moaO;s u; >IKfha n,mEu Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
jia;=jla u; ls%hd lrk n,h Yaf,aIKh lsug yd iM, n,h ksKh lsug
ksoyia n, rEm igyka Nd; lrhs'
wjia;sh ms<sn| ixl,amh
.=re;ajc ialkaOh iy wjia;s ialkaOh
wjia;s iy wjia;s fkdjk rduq
wjia;s fkdjk rduqjla ;=< n, meye,s lsug wjia;s n, ixl,amh
ykajdu
fh .uH;dj yd wdf.h
p,s;h ms<sn| ksgkaf.a kshu
ksgkaf.a m<uq jk kshuh
n,h w: oelau
;ajrKh fkdjk jia;=jla .;sl iu;=,s;;df mej;Su'
>IKfhka f;dr p,s;h ^Wml,ams; wjia:d&
ksgkaf.a fojk kshuh
F = ma jHq;amkak lsu
ksgkh w: oelau'
ksgkaf.a ;=kajk kshuh
ls%hdj iy m%;sls%hdj
ish n, hq.,a jYfhka ls%hd lsu ^mej;Su&
n, wfkHdkH jYfhka jia;= u; ls%hd lsu
fh .uH;d ixia;s uQ,Ouh
ir, fh .egq iy msmqre i|yd .uH;d ixia;s kshufha fh'
16
iajhx iSre udre n,

wd;;sh
f;rmqu
>IKh
ia:s;sl >IKh
.;sl >IKh
>IK ix.=Klh
ksoyia n, igyka
mq`M,a mrdihl jk O is i|yd ksgkaf.a kshuj, fh ^tla n,hla
fyda n, lsysmhla ls%hd lrk jia;=jl ialkaOh ksh; g&

n,h yd p,s;h w;r inkaOh k p,s;hla mj;ajd .ekSug n,hla wjYHh
hkak fkdf' p,s;h fjkia lsug n,hla wjYH f' fjk;a whqrlska
lsjfyd;a jia;=jl m%f.h fjkia lsug th u; im%hqla; n,hla ls%hd fkd
lrhs k tys m%f.h tf,iu mj;S' jia;=jla u; im%hqla; n,hla ls%hd
lrhs k tys m%f.h fjkia h hq;=u f'
ksgkaf.a kshu yd inkaO .eg if my; i|yka ls%hd ms<sfj, iqiq
nj lsj yelsh'
1' l=uk jia;=jla i,ld n,kafka o hkak meye,sj m%ldY lsu
2' tu jia;=f muKla ksoyia n, igyka weu
3' tu igyfkys .=re;ajc n,h" tys nr i,l=Kq lsu
4' jia;=j fjk;a oE iu. iamY jk ,laIH igyfkys i<l=Kq lr tu
,laIHj, ls%hdlrk n, weu' ishu n, meye,sj k lsu'
5' uq n,fha iy ;ajrKfha Ok Ydj ;SrKh lsu
6' ksgkaf.a fojk kshufha ilrKh fhu'
Tn fuu ls%hd ms<sfj< wkq.ukh l< fyd;a Tng f yd inkaOj ish u
wod< .eg iug yels f' ixlSK wjia:d mek ke.=Kq g fjk;a
m%fYhka Nd;d lsu wjYH fkdf'
17

wjia;s ixl,amh meye,s lsug WodyrK fokak ^cj frdaoh&
wjia;s ialkaOh iy .=re;ajc ialkaOh hk ixl,am ii|kak'
p,s; wjia:dj fjkia lsug we;s fkdleue;a; f,i wjia;sh meye,s lrkak'
.=re;ajc ialkaOh fiug idudkH .=re;ajc ;=,djla Nd; lrkak'
wjia;s rduq iy wjia;s fkdjk rduq w;r fjki meye,s lrkak'
flaka dmid n,h" fldfhda,i
s a n,h jeks WodyrK weiqfrka wjia;s fkdjk
rduq ;=< we;sjk wjia;s n, ykajkak'
.e,s,Sfhdaf.a wdk; ;, mlaIKh is lrka n,h ms<sn| ixl,amh myokak'
;ajrKh fkdjk jia;=jla .;sl iu;=,s;;djhl mj;sk nj meyeos,s lrkak'
>IKfhka f;dr p,s;fha iajNdjh wdoYkh lrkak'
ls m WmlrKh fyda fjk;a iqiq ls%hdldrlula u.ska
m ksh; g& iy
F^m
m ^F ksh; g& nj fmkajkak'
fh jd u. Nd; lr wdoYkh lrkak'
p,s;h ms<sn| ksgkaf.a kshu
fh .uH;d ixia;s uQ,Ouh
.uH;d fjki iy m%f. fjki hk wdldr fol u.ska ksgkaf.a fojk
kshuh m%ldY lrkak'

.;sl iy ia;sl wjia:d meye,s lsug >IK kshu Nd; lrkak'
ksoyia n, igyka weiqfrka wod< wjia:d meye,s lrkak'
18
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'5
( N%uK p,s;h yd jD;a;dldr p,s;h ms<sn| ixl,am uid

n,hs'
ld,fo
( 18 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
N%uKh jk jia;j
= la u; lsh
% d lrk n, ksKh lsfuka tys p,s;h mqfrdal:kh
lrhs'
;sria jD;a;hla jgd taldldr f.fhka p,kh jk jia;=jl wjia:djka
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'
jD;a;dldr m:hl taldldr f.fhka p,kh jk jia;=jl flakadNsidrS
;ajrKh .Kkh lrhs'
tjeks jia;=jl flakaNsidrS ;ajrKh th u; ls%hd lrk n,hg inkaO
lrhs'
N%uK p,s;hg yd jD;a;dldr p,s;hg inkaO .Kkh ls islrhs'
N%uK p,s;h yd inkaO mo
fldaKsl ia:dmkh
fldaKsl m%f.h
fldaKsl ;ajrKh
N%uK ixLHd;h iy
tajd fh p,s;fha wkqrEm rdYSka yd inkaO lsu
N%uK p,s;fha ilrK

wjia;s >QKh N%uK p,s;fha wjia;sh f,i
wjia;s >QKh ialkaOh iy N%uK wlaIfha isg we;s r wkqj p,kh f'
ialkaO jHdma;shl wjia;s >QKh
fldaKsl .uH;dj
fldaKsl .uH;d ixia;sh
jHdj;h
19
taldldr jD;a;dldr p,s;hl fhfok jia;=jla i|yd

tys fldaKsl f.h iamYSh f'
tys ;ajrKh flakah foig f'
taldldr jD;a;dldr p,s;h yd inkaO mo
ixLHd;h
iamYSh f.h
wdj; ld,h
flakadNsid n,h
flakadNsid ;ajrKh
iy

N%uK p,s;fha uQ,Ou Nd;fhka meye,s l< yels tfkod ;fha w;aoelS
idlPd lrkak'
fldaKsl m%f.h iy wjia;s >QKh w;r inkaOh wdoYkh lsug N%uK
fih Nd; lrkak'
N%uK mqgqjl jd isk mqoa.,fhl= N%uKh jk frdaohla ;sria j w,a,d
f.k l%ufhka tys wlaIh isria iy ;sria lrk g N%uKh kslaIKh lrkak'
N%uK p,s;h wdoYkh lsug oHd.drfha we;s WmlrK Nd; lrkak'
w;a foflka Ndr folla ord f.k N%uK mqgqjl jd isk mq.,fhl=
Tyqf.a w;a fol fomig ysjd kej; ,x lrk g fldaKsl m%f.fha fjki
kslaIKh lrkak'
moaO;shla u; ndysr jHdj;hla l%shd fkdlrkfka k moaO;sfha fldaKsl
.uH;dj ixia;sl j mj;sk nj meyeos,s lrkak'
fldaKsl .uH;d ixia;s kshuh f.dvk.kak'
jD;a;dldr m:hl .uka lrk jia;=jl flakah foig t,a, jQ ;ajrKh
iy
ka fokq ,nk nj fmkajkak'
fh p,s;h iy N%uK p,s;h ii|kak' ^j.=j 2'1&
20
fh iy fldaKsl p,s; w;r wkqrEm;djka

fh p,s;h
fldaKsl p,s;h
ia:dmkh
fldaKsl ia:dmkh
^fhka j,ska&
m%f.h
fldaKsl m%f.h
;ajrKh
fldaKsl ;ajrKh
ksh; ;ajrKh i|yd
ksh; fldaKsl
;ajrKhla i|yd
ialkaOh ^fh
wjia;sfha kquls&
wjia;s >QKh
^N%uK wjia;sfha
kquls&
n,h
hq.auh fyda jHdj;h
.uH;dj
fldaKsl .uH;dj
ldhh
ldhh
wdf.h
fldaKsl wdf.h
W;a;drK pd,l Yla;sh
N%uK pd,l Yla;h

s
ksgkaf.a ilrKh
ksgkaf.a ilrKh
F ksh; n,hla i|yd
ksh; jHdj;hla i|yd
ldhh
ldhh
wdf.h
fldaKsl wdf.h
j.=j 2'1 fh iy fldaKsl p,s;j, wkqrEm;djka
21
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'6
( hdka;%sl Yla;sh mfNdackh iy mKduKh m,odhs f,i

is lrhs'
ld,fo
( 16 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
Yla;s fjkia iy ldhlaIu;d .Kkh lsug lrk ,o ldhh" pd,l
Yla;sh" Nj Yla;sh iy cjh i|yd jk ilrK Nd; lrhs'
Yla;s ixia; uQ,Ouh iy hdka;%sl Yla;s ixia;s uQ,Ouh Nd; lrhs'
.;sl moaO;s Yaf,aIKh lsug" hdka;s%l Yla;sh" cjh" lrk ,o ldhh iy
hdka;s%l Yla;s ixia;sh wdYs%; .eg i|hs'
zldhhZ iy zYla;shZ hk mo
my; oE i|yd ilrK
fh p,s;fha lrk ,o ldhh
N%uK p,s;fha lrk ,o ldhh
O wdldrfha hdka;%sl Yla;s iy pd,l Yla;sh iy Nj Yla;sh i|yd
ilrK
.=re;ajc Nj Yla;sh
m%;Hdia: Nj Yla;sh ^l%shd Yla;sh&
fyda
W;a;drK pd,l Yla;sh"

N%uK pd,l Yla;sh"
Yla;s ixia;s uQ,Ouh
hdka;%sl Yla;s ixia;s uQ,Ouh
zcjhZ hk mofha w: oelau
22
k hkq n, ksh;h f'

fuys K
jia;=jl Nj Yla;sh hkq tys msyu fyda yevh wkqj .nvd we;s ldhh
lsf yelshdjhs'
idudkHfhka Nj Yla;sfha fjkia u .kq ,nkafka f;dard .;a Y+kH
msysul isg h' fuh wjia:djg wkqj" uqyq ugu fyda fmdf<dj fyda
Tka,a,djl my;u ugu fyda h yels h'

m ialkOfhka hq;a jia;=jla .=re;ajc lafIa;%h ;=< h Wilg tief
.nvd jQ Nj Yla;sh
u.ska fokq ,nk nj fmkajkak'
jiA;=jl pd,l Yla;sh tys p,s;fha m%;sM,hla f,i .nvd jQ ldh lsf
yelshdj nj meye,s lrkak' tys fh p,s;fha m%;sM,hla f,i W;a;drK

pd,l Yla;shla ;sh yels w;r tys N%uKfha m%;sM,hla f,i N%uK pd,l
Yla;shla o ;sh yels h'
m%;Hdia: Nj Yla;sh meye,s lsug WodyrK idlPd lrkak'
.=re;ajc lafIa;%hla ;=< ksoyfia my<g jefgk jia;=jl p,s;h i,ld
pd,l Yla;sh + Nj Yla;sh = ksh;hla nj fmkajkak'

fuu uQ,Oufha j,x.=;djh ksKh lsug ir, wj,nhl ngdf.a p,s;h
i,lkak'
23
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'7
( ffoksl ;fha yd oHd;aul lghq;=j, ksYap, ;r,

ms<sn| uQ,Ou iy kshu Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
fyhdf.a WmlrKh iy U ngh fhdod f.k j j, >k;aj ieieu wdYs%;
.eg i|hs'
.eg iu iy dj moaO;shl lsh
% dld uQ,Ou meye,s lsu i|yd meial,af.a
uQ,Ouh fhdod .kshs'
bms,u
S yd .s,u
S wdYs;
% ixiso
a meye,s lsu iy .eg iu i|yd wdlsiaf.a
uQ,Ouh iy bms uQ,Ouh Nd;d lrhs'
>k;ajh" idfmalaI >k;ajh iy mSvkh
jia;s mSvkh i|yd m%ldYkh
U k,h iy fyhdf.a WmlrKh Nd;fhka jj, >k;aj ieie|Su
meial,af.a uQ,Ouh yd tys fh
Wvql=re f;rmqu
oDYH nfrys wvqu iy Wvql=re f;rmqu w;r inkaOh
wdlsiaf.a uQ,Ouh
bms uQ,Ouh
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh (
mSvkh w: olajkak'
mSvkh ffoYslhla fkdjk nj meye,s lrkak'
ksYap, iudcd;Sh jhla ;=< mSvkh i|yd m%ldYkh
jHq;amkak lsug isiqkag mjrkak'

meial,af.a uQ,Ouh meye,s lrkak'
dj celal=jl ls%hd;aul uQ,Ouh ia;r lsug meial,af.a uQ,Ouh Nd;
lrkak'
meial,af.a uQ,Oufha fh idlPd lrkak'
jhla ;=, we;s mSvkfha wdprK" jh ;=< jia;=jla u; W;ama,djl;d n,hla
we;s lsug iy jia;+ka mdfjkafka flfia o hkak meye,s lsug fhdod
.kak'
24
jia;=jla mdu i|yd ;sh hq;= ;;a;ajh ksKh lrkak'

jHhla ;=< ,laIHhl mSvkfha .=K idlPd lrkak'
j foll >k;aj ieieu i|yd fyhdf.a WmlrKh yd U ngh Nd;
lrkak'
Wvql=re f;rmqu ykajd wdlsiaf.a uQ,Ouh m%ldY lrkak'
iqiq ls%hdldrl weiqfrka wdlsiaf.a uq,Ouh wdoYkh lrkak'
wdlsiaf.a uQ,Ouh i|yd m%ldYkhla jHq;amkak lrkak'
bms uQ,Ouh idlPd lrkak'
jj, >k;aj fiu i|yd ir, judkh Nd; lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
jj, >k;aj ieieu
U - ngh Nd;fhka
fyhdf.a WmlrKh Nd;fhka
judkh Nd; lr jj, >k;aj ieieu
25
ksmqK;dj 2'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'8
( ffoksl cS;fha yd oHd;aul lghq;=j, m%jdy jk

;r, ms<sn| uQ,Ou iy kshu Nd; lrhs'
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
wkjr:" wdia;h m%jdyhla i|yd idka;;H m%jdy ilrKh Nd; lrhs'
.eg iu i|yd nZkQ,S uQ,Ouh fhdod .kshs'
taaldldr m%jdyh - fok ,o kEu ,laIHhla miq lrk ish u ;r, wxY+ka
tlu f.fhka tlu ud.hla wkq.ukh lrhs'

wdl+, p,s;h -
wl%uj;a m%jdyh
m%jdy fLdj -
;r, wxY=jla wkq.ukh lrk m:h
wkdl+, fLdj jl%hls' tys kEu ,laIHhlg we iamYlh tu ,laIHfha
;r, wxY=f m%f.fha Ydj Tiafia f' taldldr m%jdyhl wkdl+, fLdj
m%jdy fLdj yd iumd; f'
wdia;h m%jdyh taldldr m%jdyfha fYaI wjia:djls' O wkdl+, fLdj,
wxY+ka O f.j,ska .uka lrk kuq;a fuys fok ,o kEu wkdl+,

fLdjl ish u wxY=j, m%f. iudk f'
iai%d fkdjk m%jdyh" idka;;H ilrKh" nzkQ,S uQ,Ouh yd inkaO
wdprK
wimSvkh ;r,
mSvkhg Ndckh l< g mudj ie,lsh hq;= wkaoka fjkia fkdjk oE wimSvH
f,i ie,fla' j idudkHfhka wimSvH f' jdhq ksielfhka u imSvH jQj;a"
jdhqj ;=<ska .uka lrk jia;=j fyda jia;=j miqlr hk jdhqf m%f.h" jksfha
f.h yd ii|k g l=vd hehs imhd we;ak wmg ;jrg;a nzkQ,s ilrKh
Nd; l< yels h'
taldldr m%jdyhla i|yd idka;;H ilrKh
wkdl+, m%jdyhla i|yd nzkQ,S uQ,Ouh iy j,x.= jk ;;a;aj
26
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh (

wdia;h" wkdl+, yd wdl+, m%jdy wdoYkh lrkak'
taldldr m%jdyhla i|yd idka;;H ilrKh ykajkak'
wkdl+, m%jdyfha fhfok iai%d fkdjk wimSvH ;r,hla i|yd nzkQ,s
uQ,Ouh ykajd meye,s lrkak'

oHd.drfha ;sfnk WmlrK Nd;fhka nzkQ,S uQ,Ouh ykajd meye,s
lrkak'
nzkQ,S uQ,Ouh fhh yels wjia:d idlPd lrkak'
27
0 3 tallh - foda,k iy ;rx.

ksmqK;dj 3'0
( ksidf.a ixf mrdih je hqKq lr .ekSu i|yd ;rx.

ms<sn| .fIKfha fhfohs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 3'1
( fN!;sl oHd;aul moku weiqfrka foda,kh .%y lrhs'
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;h i|yd w;HjYH ;;a;aj ia;r lsu iy tys wdj;
ld,h .Kkh lsu is lrhs'
foda,kh jk jia;=jl p,s;h th u; ls%hd lrk n,h iu. inkaO lrhs'
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;fha fhfok jia;=jl Yla;sh .Kkh lrhs'
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;h foda,kfha fYaI wjia:djla f,i
ir, wkq j ;S h p,s ; fha zixLHd;hZ" zwdj; ld,hZ" ia : dmkh iy
zia;drhZhk mo
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;fha ,dlaIKsl ilrKh
taldldr jD;a;dldr p,s;hl m%lafIamKhla f,i ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;h
ksrEmKh lsu
foda,kfha l,dj
foda,k foll l,d wka;rh
fok ,o ld,hl ia:dmkh
iy
fuys
ksh;hls'
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;hl ia:dmk- ld, m%ia;drh
ir, wj,nhl foda,kh
l=vd foda,k i|yd foda,k ld,dj;h
ieye,a fy,slaiSh kaklska t,ajk ,o ialkaOhl foda,kh
foda,k ld,dj;h
m - ialkaOh
k - kq ksh;h
28
hkq
ksoyia muka; y lD; foda,k

wkqkdoh
ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;hl Yla;sh yd Yla;s mKdukh ^j.=j 3'1&
j.=j 3'1 ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;hl Yla;sh yd Yla;s mKdukh

foda,khl ia:dmkh" ia;drh" wdj; ld,h iy ixLHd;h w: oelaug"
ir, wj,nh fyda nr fh kakla jeks foda,k moaO;s kslaIKh lrkak'
foda,k moaO;shl Yla;s mKdukh idlPd lrkak'
ir, wkqj;S p,s;h w: olajkak'
ir, wkqj;S p,s;h" taldldr jD;a;dldr p,s;hl m%lafIamKhla f,i
ksrEmKh l< yels nj fmkajkak'
by; ksrEmKfhys m%fhdackj;a nj idlPd lrkak'
foda,kfha l,dj ^fldaKh& ykajkak'
29
ir, wj,n folla Nd;fhka l,d wka;rh ykajkak'

ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;fha iajNdjh meye,s lsug ia:dmk - ld, m%ia;drh
Nd; lrkak'
ir, wj,nhl . iy tys foda,k ld,dj;h w;r inkaOh wkdjrKh
lrkak'
iqiq ls%hdldrl Nd; lr muka; foda,kh weiqfrka ksoyia foda,kh
ykajkak'
ndgka wj,n mlalIKh weiqfrka lD; foda,kh iy wkqkdoh wdoYkh
lrkak'
hdka;s%l wkqkdoh i|yd WodyrK lsysmhla idlPd lrkak'
foda,kj, jeo.;alu idlPd lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
ir, wj,nh Nd; lr .=re;ajc;ajrKh ksKh lrkak'
fy,slaiSh kaklska t,a,k ,o ialkOhla weiqfrka ialkaOh yd foda,k
ld,dj;h w;r inkaOh fiu'
ndgka wj,n weiqfrka wdoYkh
30
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'2
( O wdldrfha ;rx. p,s; yd tajdfha Nd; ms<sn| uid

n,hs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
;rx. p,s;h wxY=kaf.a ir, wkqj;Sh p,s;h wdYs%;j ia;r lrhs'
wkajdhdu iy ;Shla ;rx. fjka fldg olajhs'
;rx. p,s;h m%ia;dl j ksrEmKh iy iu l,dia: ^tlu l,df& iy Iu
l,dia: ^tlsfklg reoaO l,df& ,laIH ykd .kshs'

;rx. p,s;h yd inkaO .eg i|hs'

ia:dmkh ;rx.fha Ydjg ,nlj isjk g ;Shla ;rx. we;s f'
ia:dmkh ;rx. Ydf fLdj Tiafia isjk g wkajdhdu ;rx. we;s f'
;rx.hl jQ wxY=kaj, h fudfyd;l ia:dmkh" r iu. p,kh m%ia;dl
ksrEmKh'
iu l,dia: iy Iu l,dia: ,laIH'
iu l,dia: ,laIH weiqfrka ;rx. wdhduh'

;rx.h Tiafia we;s wxY+ka foll l,d wka;rh" tlla wfkl miq mi hk m
pl%hlska Nd.hla f ^ fldaKh fhkaj,ska &

m%.uk ;rx. i|yd ixLHd;h (f) " ;rx. wdhduh (
)" f.h ^v &" ia;drh
Â& iy l,d wka;rh hk mo

fok ,o ,laIHhla yryd ;;amrhl .uka lrk ;rx. YsI ixLHdj ;rx.
p,s;fha ixLHd;hg iudk f'

;rx.hla m%pdrKh jk
inkaOh
f.h tys ixLHd;hg yd ;rx. wdhduhg we;s
f,i
iu;=,s; msysf isg Wmu ia:dmkh ia;drh f'
31

;rx. ms<sn| wjfndaOh ,nd .ekSu i|yd lUhl lmkh" ia,skalsh fyda /<s;s
gexlsh jeks wjia:d fhdod f.k kslaIK ,nd .kak'
/<s;s gexlsh iy ia,skalsh fyda m.Kl iudlrK ^computer simulations)
weiqfrka my; oE wdoYkh lsug ls%hdldrl is lrkak'
mod:fha ixl%uKhla fkdue;sj ;rx. Yla;sh ixl%uKh lrk nj
;Shla iy wkajdhdu ;rx.
;rx.j, ,dlaIKsl ykd .kak'
;Shla ;rx. iy wkajdhdu ;rx.
;rx.fha ixLHd;h
ia;drh" l,d wka;rh iy ;rx. wdhduh
inkaOh jHq;amkak lrkak'

;rx.hla u; msys wxY= i|yd ia:dmk - ld, m%ia;drh weiqfrka ia;drh
iy wdj; ld,h meye,s lrkak'
;Shla iy wkajdhdu ;rx.j, r iu. wxY=j, ia:dmkfha m%ia;dl
ksrEmKh meye,s lrkak'
;rx.hl iu l,dia: wxY=ka foll iy Iu l,dia: wxY+ka foll l,d
wka;rh meye,s lrkak'
l,d wka;rh i,lka ;rx. wdhduh ykajkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
ia,skalsh $ lef;dav lsrK foda,fkalaIh Nd;fhka ;rx. wdoYkh lsu'
32
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'3
( ;rx.j, .=K mok lr .kska tajdfha Nd; ms<sn| uid

n,hs'
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
;rx.j, fmd .=K f,i mrdj;kh" j;kh" ksfrdaOkh iy j;kh
ia;r lrhs'
my; i|yka oE yg .ekSu meye,s lsug ;rx. wia:dmk uQ,Ouh Nd;
lrhs'
ksfrdaOkh
ia:djr ;rx. iy
kq.eiq
j;kh" kq.eiq iy ia:djr ;rx. wdYs%; .Kkh ls is lrhs'
;rx. mrdj;kh
;rx.hl u;= i|yka mrdj;k i|yd l,d fjki
oDV udhslul
ksoyia udhsul
;rx. j;kh
;rx. f.h weiqfrka j;k wxlh
j;k wxlh" ;rx. f.h iy ;rx. wdhduh weiqfrka m%ldY lsu
j;kh is jq g ;rx.hl ;rx. wdhdufha iy f.fha isjk fjki

j;kh is jQ g m;kh jk ;rx.fha ixLHd;h fjkia fkd f'
O%ejKh
;rx. wia:dmkh uQ,Ouh
;rx. foll im%hqla;fha m%ia;dl ksrEmKh
rEm igyka Nd;fhka ;rx. ksfrdaOkh
ksudKld yd kdYld ksfrdaOkh
ia:djr ;rx. yg .ekSu
ia:djr ;rx. i|yd wksjdh wjYH;d
33
ia:djr ;rx.j, .=K

ia:djr ;rx.j, m%ia;dl ksrEmKh
ksIamkao iy m%iamkao yg .ekSu
ia:djr ;rx. iy m%.uk ;rx. ieieu'
kq.eiq we;su
kq.eiq ixLHd;h

my; ;rx.j, mrdj;kh kslaIKh lsu i|yd iqiq ls%hdldrl lrkak'
/<s;s gexlshl ;, ;rx.
jks ;rx.
lUhl we;sjk ;rx.
ia,skalshl we;sjk ;rx.
m;k ;rx.hg wkqrEmj mrdj;k fldaKh" ;rx. wdhduh" ixLHd;h" f.h
iy m%.uk Ydj hk mo weiqfrka mrdj;sl ;rx.fha ,dlaIKsl idlPd
lrkak'
ia,skalsh$ fy,slaish kak Nd; lr oDV mrdj;kh iy uD mrdj;kh
wdoYkh lr wjia:d fofla l,d wka;rh meye,s lrkak'
;rx. mrdj;kh wdoYkh i|yd m.Kl iudlrK (computer simulations)
fhdod.kak'
/<s;s gexlsfha c, ;rx. $ 3 cm ;rx. lg,h weiqfrka j;kh kslaIKh
lsug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
m;k ;rx.hg wkqrEmj ;rx. wdhduh" ixLHd;h" f.h" m%pdrK Ydj iy
;rx.j, yevh weiqfrka j;s; ;rx.fha ,dlaIKsl idlPd lrkak'
;rx.j, j;kh wdoYkh i|yd m.Kl iudlrK (computer simulations)
fhdod .kak'
/<s;s gexlsh $ 3 cm ;rx. lg,h" weiqfrka ;, ;rx. j;kh kslaIKh
lsug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
m;k ;rx.hg wkqrEmj j;khg Ndckh jQ ;rx.fha j;k fldaKh" ;rx.
wdhduh" ixLHd;h" f.h iy m%pdrK Ydj hk mo weiqfrka j;s; ;rx.fha
,dlaIKsl idlPd lrkak'
j;kh wxlh w: olajkak'
;rx. j;kh wdoYkh i|yd m.Kl iudlrK (computer simulations) fhdod
.kak'
wia:dmkh ms<sn| woyila ,nd .ekSug ia,skalsh fyda lUhla jeks hdka;s%l
wdlD;s kslaIKh lrkak'
wia:dmk uQ,Ouh m%ldY lr idlPd lrkak'
34
/<s;s gexlshl c, ;rx.j, ksfrdaOk rgd kslaIKh lsug ls%hdldrl is
lrkak'
rEm igyka Nd;fhka ksudKldrS iy kdYld ksfrdaOkh idlPd lrkak'
lmlhla Nd;fhka isyska ;ka;=jla lmkh lr ia:djr ;rx. wdoYkh
lrkak'
ia:djr ;rx. we;su i|yd wksjdh wjYH;d meyeos,s lrkak'
ia:djr ;rx. we;su m%ia;dl j ia;r lrkak'

by; ls%hdldrlj, " ksIamkao iy m%iamkao we;su wdoYkh lrkak'
uhsfl%df*dakhla iy lef;dav lsrK foda,fkalaIhla Nd; lr ksIamkao iy
m%iamkaoj, msysu mqfrdal:kh lrkak'

tlu ixLHd;fhka hq;a iriq,a folla f;dard f.k tlla u; b iaj,amhla
;jrd tajd tlg kdo lr kq.eiq kslaIKh lrkak'
wdikak f,i iudk ixLHd;j,ska kq.eiq yg .ekSu m%ia;dlj myokak'
ilrKh jHq;amkak lrkak'
ia:djr ;rx.j, iajNdjh wkafIKh lsu i|yd my; ls%hdldrlu lrkak'

1000 ml kq irdjla ;sriaj ;nd th ;=< ishq fmdfrdamam l=vq w;=rkak'
irdf jD; fl<jr wi, l=vd iamSlrhla ;nd th Y%jH ixLHd; ix{d
cklhlska fmdaIKh lrkak'

3 kHz muK ixLHd;hla imhd k<h ;=< we;s jd;fha yg .kakd ia:djr
;rx.j, m%;sM,h kslaIKh lrkak'
ia:djr ;rx.hl .=K meye,s lrkak'
ia:djr ;rx. iy m%.uk ;rx. w;r fjki ia;r lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK /<s;s gexlsh Nd;fhka ;rx.j, .=K wdoYkh lrkak'
35
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'4
( p,Hhka yiqrejka ;ka;=j, yd o~qj, lmk

m%fhdackhg .kshs'
ld,fo
( 14 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
;ka;= iy o`vqj, yg .kakd ia:djr ;rx. i|yd wkqkdo ixLHd;j, ixLHd;aul
rgd meye,s lrhs'
N+ lmk ;rx. iy iqkd we;su ia;r lsug ;rx. ms<sn| oekqu Nd;
lrhs'
;ka;=j, yd o`vqj, ia:djr ;rx. rgd wdYs%; .Kkhka is lrhs'

;ka;=jl ;Shla ia:djr ;rx.
we ;ka;=jl we;sjk O wdldrfha lmk meye,s lsug rEm igyka
;ka;=jl we;sjk ir,u lmk h ûQ,slh&
;ka;=jl we;sjk Wm;dk iy m%ixjdo
tla tla lmk i|yd ;ka;=f . iy ;rx. wdhduh w;r inkaOh
weos ;ka;=jl ;Shla ;rx. f.h i|yd iQ;%h"
;ka;=jl uQ,sl iajrh i|yd m%ldYkh
oKavla ;=< wkajdhdu ;rx. f.h i|yd iQ;%h"
oKavla ;=< we;sjk ia:djr ;rx.
tla fl<jrla l,m l<
ueka l,m l<
;;a NdKavj, ls%hdld;ajh îuyr ix.S; NdKav&
N+ lmk ;rx." g mudKh iy iqkd'
36
N+ lmk oHdj hkq l=ula o@

N+ lmk oHdj hk N+lmd iy mDh ;=<ska yd ta jgd .uka .kakd N+
lmk ;rx. ms<sn| wOHhkh f'
N+ lmk ;rx. hkq fudkjd o@
mDh ;=< we;s mdIdKj, laIKsl | je fyda iafMdagkh u.ska Wmok
Yla;s ;rx. N+ lmk ;rx. f' tajd mDh ;=<ska .uka lrk Yla;sh jk
w;r N+ lmk fLh u.ska igyka flf'
N+ lmk ;rx. j.
N+ lmk ;rx. j. lsysmhla we;s w;r tajd O l%uj,g .uka lrhs' m%Odk
j. fol mD wNHka;r ;rx. (body waves) iy mDIah ;rx. (surface
waves) fjhs' mD wNHka;r ;rx." mDfha wNHka;r ia:r yryd .uka
.kakd w;r mDIah ;rx. mD mDIaGh Tiafia .uka .kshs'
mD wNHka;r ;rx. (body waves )
N+ lmdljlska ksl=;a jk mD:s wNHka;r ;rx. (body waves ) mDfha
wNHka;rh ;=<k
s a .uka lrka" mDIah ;rx.j,g (surface waves ) jvd blaukska
<`.d f' fuu ;rx. mDIah ;rx.j,g jvd (surface waves ) Wia ixLHd;hlska
hql;
a h'
P ;rx.
mD wNHka;r ;rx.j, m<uq j.h P ;rx. fyj;a m%d:l ;rx.
(primary waves) f' fuh N+ lmk ;rx.j, f.j;au j.h jk w;r
tys M,hla f,i N+ lmk uOHia:dkhla fj; m<uqfjka u <`.d f' P
;rx. >k mdIdK fyda mDfha j ia:r ;=<ska o .uka lrhs' jks ;rx.
jd;h f;rmS iy weoSj,g Ndckh lrkakdla fuka fjd mdIdK ;=<ska
.uka lrk g th f;rmS iy wej,g Ndckh lrhs' jks ;rx.
cfk,a rej f;rmS iy wej,g Ndckh lrk g cfk,a rej,
we;sjk fooeu Tn Y%jKh lr we;' N+ lmdjla we;s jk P ;rx.
iuyrg i;=kag Y%jKh l< yels h' WodyrKhla jYfhka N+lmdjlska
we;sug fmr n,a,kaf.a Wvq re y`v wikakg ,ef' ^ksYa; f,i
olajkafka k mDIah ;rx. <`.d ug fmr& idudkHfhka ksiqkag
oefkkqfha tu ;rx.j, .eu yd foou muKs'
37
P ;rx. tu`.ska we;s lrk f;rmS iy we ksid imSvk ;rx. f,i o

yekaf' P ;rx.j,g wkql+,j ;rx.h p,kh jk Ydj Tiafia u wxY+ka
p,kh jk w;r th Yla;sh .uka lrk Ydj f th iuyrg ;rx.h

m%pdrKh jk Ydj f,i yekaf ^rEmh 3'1&
P ;rx. wkajdhdu ;rx. fYaIhla f'
rEmh 3'1
P ;rx.j, ksrEmKh
38
S ;rx.
fofjks j.fha mD wNHka;r ;rx. (body waves ) S ;rx. fyj;a

oa;Shsl ;rx. f' fuh N+lmdjlska Tng oefkk fofjks ;rx. hs' S
;rx. " P ;rx.hg jvd fifuka .uka lrhs' th lsisu j udOHhla ;=<ska
.uka fkd lrk w;r .uka l< yelafla >k mdIdK ;=<ska muKs' mDh
wNHka;rfha ndysr yrh (outer core) jhla nj ks.ukh lsug S ;rx.j,
fuu .=Kh Wmld f' ;rx.h .uka lrk Ydjg ^;rx." m%pdrK Ydjg&
,nlj mdIdK wxY= by<" iy my<g fyda me;af;ka me;a;g p,kh
lrjhs' ^rEmh 3'2& S ;rx. ;Shla ;rx." fYaIhla fjhs'
rEmh 3'2
S ;rx.j, ksrEmKh
39
mDIah ;rx. ^surface waves)

mD lfnd, ;=<ska muKla .uka lrhs' mDIah ;rx. wNHka;r ;rx.j,g
jvd wvq ixLHd;hlska hqla;h' tys m%;sM,hla jYfhka N+lmdudkfhka
,efnk igyk u`.ska myiqfjka fjkalr ykd .; yelsh' th wNHka;r
;rx.j,g miqj <`.d jqj;a" N+lmdjlska isjk ydkshg iy kdYhg
imQKfhkau j.lsjhq;= jkafka mDIah ;rx.hs' jvd;a .eUqre N+lmdj,
fuu ydksh iy ;rx.j, Yla;sh wvq f'
f,d ;rx. ^Love waves)
m<uq j.fha mDIah ;rx. f,d ;rx. f,i ye|ska f' 1911 fuu j.fha
;rx. i|yd .Ks;uh wdlD;shla ksudKh l< %;dkH cd;sl A.E.H f,da
f.ka miqj fuu kduh fhdok ,' th f.j;au mDIah ;rx. jk w;r
fmdf<dj me;af;ka me;a;g p,kh lrhs' f,d ;rx. imQKfhkau ;sria
p,s;hla we;s lrjhs' ^rEmh 3'3&
rEmh 3'3
f,d ;rx.j, ksrEmKh
40
f,s ;rx. (Rayleigh waves)

fojk j.fha mDIah ;rx.h f,s ;rx.hhs' fcdaka ,shia iag" f,s
idjrhd iska 1885 oS fjdfha meje;au .Ks;uh jYfhka mqfrdal:kh lrk
,oS'
fmdl=Kl fyda id.rfha c, ;rx. /<s we;s fjka .uka .kakd wdldrhg fjd
u.ska mD mDIaGh /<s we;s lsulg Ndckh lrhs' (Rolling) f ksid fjd
u.ska ;rx.h .uka .kakd osYdjg N+h by< my< iy me;af;ka me;a;g p,kh
lrjhs' ^rEmh 3'4& N= lmdjlska we;sjk fndfyduhla fi, fjd ksid is
f'
rEmh 3'4
f,s ;rx.j, ksrEmKh
41
g mudKh
N=lmdjl Yd,;ajh uekSug fhdod .kq ,nk jvd;au m%p,s; mudKh hs' tu
mudKfhka oelafjk w.h" N=lmdf we;s jQ m%n,u ;rx.fha ia;drfha
,>q.Klhg iudkqmd;sl f' WodyrKhla jYfhka 7 u.ska jd;d jk N= p,kh
iys; le,Uqu 6 u.ska jd;d jk le,Uqu fuka 10 .=Khla Yd, h'
g mudKfha je jk tla tla tallh i|yd N=lmdjlska ksl=;a flfrk
Yla;sh 30 .=Kdldrhlska je f'
iqkd (Tsunami)
iqkd hkq fjr< yd .egqkq g Yd, jHikhla iy ; ydks is l< yels
Yd, ;rx. fYa%Kshls'
iqkd hk jpkh zjrdh ;rx.Z hk w:h we;s cmka jpkhlska ysjQjls' iqkd
iuyrg jer wdldrhg zjvh ndh ;rx. Z f,i ykajhs'
jvh ndh u.ska iqkd we;s fkdf' ûqyqo u; i| u.ska we;s lrk .=re;ajc
n,h ksid jvh ndh we;sf& iq<`. u.ska idudkH ;rx. we;s f'
iqkd we;sh yelafla
c,h hg N+lmd u.ska
.sksl msmsu u.ska
uqyq m;=f,a kdhhE u.ska
wNHdjldIfha isg c,h ;=<g weo jefgk .%dyl len,s yd W,aldmd; u.ska
iqkd fndfyduhla we;s jkafka c,h hg N+lmd u.sks' iqkdhla we;su
i|yd N+lmdj u.ska g udmlfha igyka lrk w.h 6'75 lg jvd je h
hq;= h' iqkdj,ska ishhg 90 la muK meismsla id.rfha is f'
iqkdhl ;ru
iqkdhg b;d .= ;rx. wdhduhla we;' ^100 km olajd .&
wdj;h o b;d .= f ^.eUqre c,fha mehla muK&
.eUqre uqyqfoa iqkdhl Wi h yelafla 1 m la muKs'
.eUqre uqyqfoa fndfydag iqkd oel .; yels jkafka l,d;=rlsks' f ksid
.eUqre uqyqfoa iqkdh wkdjrKh lsu b;d wmyiq f'
iqkdhl f.h
jD; iuqfha 970 km h-1 g jvd jeh ^mshdir fc hdkhla fuka f.j;a f&
imQK id.rh yryd .uka lsug meh lsysmhla .kshs'
42
idudkH uqyq r< îq< u.ska cks; jk& 90 km h-1 la muK f.hlska .uka lrhs'
iqkdfha Wi
iqkdhla isria j 30 m olajd by< hd yelsh'
fndfyda iqkd uqyqo 3 m lg by< kxjhs'
wjikajrg we;s jQ iqkdh iuyr ia:dkj, ;rx.h 9 m la Wig kxjd we;'

fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdj,sh
;Shla ;rx. wdoYkh lsug iqiq ls%hdldrl lrkak'
we ;ka;=jl ;Shla ;rx. f.h i|yd
ilrKh fokak'
we ;ka;=jl ia:djr ;rx. kslaIKh i|yd mlaIKh lsug isiqka fhduq
lrkak'
O lmk fmkaug by; mlaIKh Nd; lr" Wm;dk ykd .kak'
tla tla lmk i|yd ;ka;=f . iy ;rx. wdhduh w;r inkaOh
jHq;amkak lrkak'
;ka;=jl uQ,sl iajrh i|yd
iQ;%h jHq;amkak lrkak'
udOHhl wkajdhdu ;rx.j, f.h i|yd
ilrKh fokak'
tla fl<jrla l,m l< iy ueka l,m l< oKavl uQ,sl lmk ia;r
lrkak'
oKavla ;=< wkajdhdu ;rx. f.h .Kkh lrkak'
N+ lmk ;rx." g mudKh iy iqkd ixlaIsma;j idlPd lrkak
oHd.dr mlaIK (
lmkh jk ;ka;=jla Nd; lr iriq,l ixLHd;h fiu' ^jksudkh&
ixLHd;h iy lmk . w;r inkaOh fiu'
43
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'5
( p,Hhka yiqrejka jdhq l|kaj, lmk m%fhdackhg

.kS'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
k, ;=< ia:djr ;rx. i|yd wkqkdo ixLHd;j, ixLHd;aul rgd meye,s
lrhs'
tla iriq,la iy iriq,a lg,hla Nd; lr jd;fha jks f.h iy
wdka;fYdaOkh ksKh lsug mlaIK ie,iq lrhs'
k, ;=< ia:djr ;rx. wdYs%; .Kkh ls is lrhs'
jd;h ;=<ska jksh m%pdrKh
jdhqjla ;=< wkajdhdu ;rx. f.h i|yd
ilrKh
jdhqjla ;=< jks ;rx.hl f.h flfrys WIaK;ajfha iy ujq,sl ialkaOfha
n,mEu ia;r lsu i|yd
ilrKh
WIaK;ajh ksh; g jks f.h flfrys msvkfha n,mEula we;s fkdjk nj

k,hla ;=< we;s jd;h lmkh lsf l%u'
k,h ;=< yg .kakd ia:djr ;rx.
tla fl<jrla jid we;s iy fofl<jr u jD; j we;s k,j, lmk
lmk j, m%ia;dl ksrEmKh
lmk i|yd k,fha . iy ;rx. wdhduh w;r inkaOh
k,h i|yd wdka;fYdaOkh
k,h ;=< we;s jdhq lf|ys O wkqkdo wjia:d'

jdhqj ;=< lmkhla we;s l< g jdhqjla ;=<ska wkajdhdu ;rx.hla .uka lrk
nj meye,s lrkak'
;rx.hl f.h
- ilrKfhka fokq ,nk nj m%ldY lrkak'
- ilrKh jHq;amkak lsug mmqK jdhq ilrKh Nd; lrkak'
44
;rx.fha f.h WIaK;ajh u; r|d mj;sk nj meye,s lrkak'
WIaK;ajh ksh; g ;rx.fha f.h tys mSvkfhka iajdh;a; nj meyeos,s

lrkak'
jdhqka ;=< ;rx. f.h yd inkaO .eg iokak'

jD; k, iy tla fl,jrla jid we;s k, ;=< jdhq l|ka lmkh ug
i,iajkak'
m;k iy mrdj;k ;rx. wia:dmkh u ksid ia:djr ;rx. we;s jk nj
meye,s lrkak'
iqiq ls%hdldrlula weiqfrka ksIamkao iy m%iamkaoj, idfmalaI msys fidhkak'
k,fha . iy ;rx. wdhduh w;r inkaOh jHq;amkak lsug ksIamkao iy
m%iamkaoj, idfmalaI msys Nd; lrkak'
k,fha wdka;fYdaOkh meye,s lrkak'
fok ,o iriq,la i|yd uQ,sl iajrfha iy m<uq Wm;dkfha wkqkdo wjia:d
fidhkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK (
ixjD; k,hla Nd; lr jd;fha jks f.h ksKh lsu
tla iriq,lska
iriq,a lg,hlska ^m%ia;dl l%uh&
45
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'6
( fvdma, wdjrKfha Nd; ms<sn| uid n,hs
ld,fo
( 08 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
W; .Kkh ls iu. fvdma, wdjrKh jksh i|yd fhdohs'
fvdma, wdjrKh Nd; lr oDYH ixLHd;fha fjkia yd inkaO ixisoa
ia;r lrhs'
fvdma, wdprKh
ixLHd;fha fjkia
m%Njh p,kh jk g
kslaIlhd p,kh jk g
m%Njh iy kslaIlhd hk fofokdu p,kh jk g
ilrK
iajksl .s.=reu (sonic boom)
46
W;aiajksl f." mSvk ;rx. (Supersoinc speeds ; Shock waves)

jks m%Njhka ksYap, wkdjrlhla foig jks f.hg iudk f.hlska tk
jk m .uka lrhs k wkdjrKh l< ixLHd;h wm; jYfhka Yd,
jk nj
iy
ilrK mqfrdal:k lrhs' thska w:j;a
jkafka rEmh 3' 5a u.ska woyia lrk m m%Njh b;d f.fhka .uka lrk neka
th tys f.da,Sh ;rx. fmruqK yd tlaj .uka lrk njhs' m%Njfha f.h jks
f.h wNsnjd hk g l=ula isf o@
rEmh 3'5 (a) S jks m%Njh Vs f.fhka p,kh jk w;r th jks f.hg iudk
f' ;jo tu`.ska ;rx. fmruqKq ksmojk f.hg o iudk f' (b) S jks m%Njh
jks f.hg jvd je Vs f.fhka p,kh jk w;r ;jo th ;rx. fmruqKqj,g;a
jvd f.j;ah' m%Njh S msysf we;s g tu.ska W1 ;rx. fmruqK we;s lrk w;r S6
msysf oS W6 ;rx. fmruqK we;s lrhs' ishu f.da,Sh ;rx. fmruqKq v jks
f.fhka m%pdrKh jk w;r fla;=l mDIaGhla Tiafia talrdYS fjka mSvk ;rx.hla
idohs' fuu fla;=j ue fla;=j (Mach Cone) f,i y\qkajhs'
tjeks W;aiajksl f. i|yd by; ilrK ;j rg;a fhh fkdyel' m%Njfha

O msysj, cks; jk f.da,Sh ;rx. fmruqKq rEmh 3'5 (b) ys ia;rj
oelaf' fuu rEmfha kEu ;rx. fmruqKl wrh vt f' fuys v hkq jks f.h
jk w;r t hkq m%Njh ;rx. fmruqK ksl=;a l< fudfydf;a isg .; jQ ld,hhs'
rEmh 3'5 (b) ys oaudk rEmhlska oelafjk m ish u ;rx. fmruqKq V yevfha
wdjrKhla f.a fmdl=rla f,i msysghs' ;rx. fmruqK we;a; jYfhka u ;s%udk
f,i ysfok w;r fmdl=reu ksid ue fla;=j kka ykajk fla;=jla idohs'
mDIaGfha kEu ,laIHhla yryd hk g fmdl=re ;rx. fmruqK yisfha fjkia
jk jdhq mSvkfha by< iy my< hE we;s lrk neka mDIaGh f.a msvk
;rx.hla (shock wave) we;s f hehs lshkq ,ef' rEmh 3'5 (b) j,ska oelafjk
m ue= fla;= fldaKh kka yekafjk fla;=f wO fldaKh
u.ska fokq ,ef'
47
wkqmd;hhg ue wxlh hhs lshkq ,efn' lsish wyiahdkhla ue wxl 2'3

lska mshdir lrkafka hehs mejisfuka w:j;a jkafka tys f.h wyiahdkh
mshdir lrk jd;h ;=< jks f.h fuka 2'3 jdrhla f,ih' jks f.h
wNsnjd hk wyia hdkhlska ^rEmh 3'6& fyda m%laIsma;hlska cks; jQ mSvk ;rx.hla
u.ska msms y~la ksmojhs' fuhg iajksl .s.=reula (sonic boom) hhs lshkq ,nhs'
fuys jdhq mSvkh m<uqj laIKslj je bkamiq idudkH ;;a;ajhg wdmiq
meKsug fmr idudkH ;;a;ajhg jvd wvq f' rhs*,hlska fj ;enQ g
wefik Yofhka fldgila WKavh u.ska we;s lrk iajksl .s.=reu (sonic boom)
f' .= lihla f.fhka jkk g tys ;=v jks f.hg jvd je f.fhka
p,kh fjka l=vd iajksl .s.=reula (sonic boom) we;s lrk w;r lifha
msmqreula we;s f'
rEmh 3'6 Navy FA 18 fc hdkh ;gq u`.ska ksmojk ,o mSvk ;rx.' mSvk ;rx.fhka
jdhq mSvkh laIKslj my; jeulg ,lajk neka jd;fha we;s c, wKq >kSNjkh
fuka ula iEu fuf,i ia f'
48

h ud.hg wdikak j isgf.k isk kslaIlfhl=g wefik m .uka
lrk hl k,d yfvys ixLHd;fha p,kh weiqfrka fvdma, wdprKh
meye,s lrkak'
ksYap, kslaIlfhl=g wefik m Tyq miqlr hk r:hl k,d yfvys ixLHd;h
fjkia jkafka flfia o hkak rEm igyka weiqka meye,s lrkak'
ksYap, jks m%Njhla miqlr hk r:hl isk kslaIlfhl=g wefik m
ixLHd;fhys fjkia u rEm igyka weiqka meye,s lrkak'
jks m%Njhka kslaIlhd;a fofokdu p,kh jk g kslaIlhdg wefik m
ixLHd;fhys fjkia u rEm igyka weiqka meye,s lrkak'
,S fm follg i l< ijiu iriq,a folla lmkh lr tlla ia:djr j
;nd wfkl iu. ;a;sh foig p,kh fuka wefik kq.eiq u.ska fvdma,
wdprKh wdoYkh lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
/<s;s gexlsh weiqfrka fvdma, wdprKh wdoYkh lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
fvdma, wdprKfha fh ms<n
s | fidhd n,d jd;d lsug iy fvdma, wdjrKh
Nd; lr ixisoaka meye,s lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
iajksl .s.=reu (sonic boom) flfhka meye,s lrkak'
oDYH ixLHd;h i|yd ilrK
meye,s lrkak'
49
jks f.h
kslaIlhdf.a f.h
m%Njfha f.h
oDYH ixLHd;h
i;H ixLHd;h
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'7
( jks ,dlaIKsl ms<sn| ie,els,su;a fjka jksh ksmou

iy m%pdrKh is lrhs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
jksfha ,dlaIKsl .=K ia;r lrhs'
O wjia:d meye,s lsug ksia lk i|yd ixLHd;h tfhka ;Sj%;d

ugu m%ia;drh Nd; lrhs'
;Sj%;d ugu ^fvisfn,h& iy ;Sj%;dj inkaO .Kkh ls is lrhs'

;dr;dj keue;s .=Kh iy th ixLHd;hg olajk inkaO;dj
jks .=Kh iy th ;rx. wdldrhg olajk inkaO;dj
yf ier iy th ia;drhg olajk inkaO;dj
jks ;rx.hl ia;drh iy jks ;Sj%;dj w;r inkaO;dj
Y%jH;d foay,sh
fokd foay,sh
jks ;Sj%;d ug ^fvisfn,a&
w;sjks ;rx. Nd;h
wfOdajks ;rx. Nd;h
w;sjks iy wfOdajksj, fh
50
ksia lk i|yd jksfha ixLHd;h tfhka jks ;Sj%;d ugu w;r m%ia;drh
rEmh 3'7 ksia lk i|yd jksfha ixLHd;h tfhka jks ;Sj%;d ugu
ksia lk b;d Yd, ixLHd; iy ;Sj%;d mrdihl m%;spdr olajhs' m%;spdr pl%h
rEmh 3'7 ys fmkajd we;' jks ixLHd;h tosfhka jks ;Sj%;d ugu m%ia;dr
.; lr we;' my; we;s ika;;sl pl% fLdfjka idudkH lkl m%;spdrh
ksrEmKh flf' pl%h u; my;u fldgi 1000 Hz isg 4000 Hz olajd we;s f'
fuu ixLHd; idudkH lklg b;d l=vd ;Sj%;d ugul Y%jKh l< yelsh'
fjk;a wdldrhlska lsjfyd;a 100 Hz l ixLHd;hla Y%jKh lsug ;Sj%;d ugu
35 dB l muK h hq;= h' idudkH lklg 20000 Hz la muK ixLHd;hla
Y%jKh lsug ;Sj%;d ugu 40 dB la muK olajd je l< hq;= h' 20 dB l
;Sj%;djl ugul 1000 Hz l ixLHd;hla myiqfjka Y%jKh l< yelsh' kuq;a
100 Hz l ixLHd;hla flfiaj;a Y%jKh l< fkd yels h'
ksfil=g Y%jKh l< yels ixLHd; jhi iu. wvq f' fndfyda ksiqka fuu
Y%jK W!k;dj u.yrjd .ekSug Y%jKdOdrlhl Wmldrh ,nd .kS' okakd jQ
;Sj;
% d ugula iy ixLHd;hlska hq;a jkshla mqo.
a ,fhl=g Y%jKh lsf yelshdj
mlaId lrkq ,ef' mlaIljrhd okakd jQ ixLHd;hlska hq;a Y=oaO jkshla
jdokh lrhs' Tyq fyda weh my;a ;Sj%;d ugulska mgka f.k fYaI ixLHd;h
wod< mqoa.,hdg Y%jKh jk ;=re ;Sj%;dj l=vd mshjrj,ska je lrkq ,ef'
mqoa.,hdg jksh weiqk g Tyqg fyda wehg jksh weiqk nj mlaIljrhdg
oek .ekSug ie,eiau i|yd Tyq fyda weh fnd;a;ula ;o lrkq ,ef' tg
mlaIljrhd rEmfha oelafjk idudkH lk i|yd jks ;Sj;
% d ug iy ixLHd;h
w;r m%ia;drh u; x i,l=Klska ,l=Kq lrkq ,ef' tla;rd iqfYaI ;Sj%;d
ugj,g we;a; jYfhka Y%jKh jQ ixLHd; x u.ska ksrEmKh flf'
mqoa.,fhl=g ;jrg;a fydka fkd wefik ixLHd; oek .eksfuka" tu ixLHd;
51
jOkh lsu i|yd Y%jKdOdrlhla tk b;d l=vd bf,lafg%dksl jOlhla

ie,iq l< hq;= h' tu.ska tu ixLHd;j, jksh tu mqoa.,hdf.a idudkH ;Sj%;d
ugj,g f.k tkq ,ef' WodyrKhla jYfhka rEmfha oelafjk x i,l=K
u.ska mqoa.,hdf.a Y%jK m%;spdrh msySug Ndckh we;s nj fmkakq lrhs'
fYaIfhka Y%jK m%;spdr rgdf ueo mrdihl ixLHd;" my< yd by< fl<jr
w.hhkag jvd krl f' ûeo mrdifha x i,l=Kq idudkH jl%fhka jvd;a wE;a
we;& t ksid Y%jH jKdj,sfha ueo mrdifha ixLHd; jOkh lrk
Y%jKdOdrlhla wod< mqoa.,hdg jvd;a m%fhdackj;a f' wmg imQK Y%jH
jKdj,shu ksielju jOkh l< hq;= fkdf' tg wm jOkh lrkqfha
mqoa.,hd ;=<ska fydka Y%jKh l< iuyr ixLHd;hka h'
ikaksfok lghq;= i|yd jksh ksiqka muKla fkdj i;=ka o Nd; lrk nj
ie,els,su;a h hq;= lreKls' iuyr i;=ka ksiqkag Y%jKh l< yels w.hg jvd
Wia ixLHd;hlska ikaksfokh lrhs' fuu jkshg w;sjksh hehs lshkq ,nk
w;r th 20000 Hz l ixLHd;hg jvd by< ixLHd;j,ska is f' l=re,a,kag iy
iqkLhkag fuu w;sjksh Y%jKh l< yelsh' jjq,kag o mqjk' kdl hd;%dj,
jks fvd f,i Nd; flf' iueka wkdjrKh lr .ekSu i|yd h hg
we;s jia;+ka fidhd .ekSf moaO;sj, w;sjks Nd; flf' frda. ksYaph iy
ms<sh we;=<;aj ffjoH oHdf O fh i|yd o fjd Nd; flf'
WodyrKhla jYfhka wia ls;ailhska iy fN!; ls;ailhska msfgys my;
fokdjkag iykhla f,i idudkHfhka w;sjks Nd; flf'
jksfha ,dlaIKsl .=K ykd.kak'
my; wdprK kslaIKh lsug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
yf ier u; ia;drfha n,mEu
;dr;dj u; ixLHd;fha n,mEu
jks .=Kh wdoYkh lsug lef;dav lsrK foda,fkalaIh iy O ix.S;
NdKav Nd; lrkak'
jks .=Khg fya;= meye,s lrkak'
ksia lk i|yd Y%jH;d foay,sh iy fokd foay,sh meye,s lr jks ;Sj%;dj,
w.hhka fokak'
jks ;Sj%;d ug uekSu i|yd tallh f,i fvisfn,h w: olajkak'
ir, .eg idlPd lrkak'
w;sjksh iy wfOdajksh .=Kd;aulj ykajkak'
w;sjksh iy wfOdajksfha fh .fIKh lr jd;d lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
52
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'8
( oHq;a pqnl ;rx. ms<sn| uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
tla tla m%Odk ;rx. wdhdu mrdij, soHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, .=K iy fh
ia;r lrhs'
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, .=K
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl m%ia;dl ksrEmKh
iajNdlj iy m%fhda.slj oHq;a pqnl ;rx. Wmk wjia:d
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O ;rx.
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, fh (
m%pdrK yd ikaksfok lghq;=j, ffhda ;rx.
pkasldj, iy fi,shq, rl:kj, iQlaIu ;rx.
.Dyia: Wmdx.j," ria: md,lj, iy rd;%S oDIa Wmdx.j, wfOdarla;
lsrK
m%ldY ;ka;=j, iy PdhdrEm Ys,amsfha oDYH wdf,dalh
m%;smk myka iy jdkqyrKfha mdrcnq, lsrK
ffjoH lghq;= iy bxfkare fhj, x lsrK
ffjoH m%;sldrj, .eud lsrK
f,aij, ls%hdld;ajh
wjfYdaIKh
iajhxisoaO fudapkh
W;af;a; fudapkh
f,ai lonj, .=K yd Nd;
wdf,dalh ;rx. wdldrfhka .uka lrhs
wdf,dal ;rx.hla lsrKhla f,i ie,lsh yels h'
53
f,ai
LASER hk moh Light Amplifiction by Stimulated Emission of Radiation ^W;af;a;
lsrK fudapkh u.ska wdf,dalfha jOkh& jpkj, uq,a wl=re Nd; fldg
idok ,oaols' m<uqjk f,airh 1960 ksudKh lrk ,'
(a) ls%hdj
Yla;s ug weiqfrka f,aij, ls%hdj ia;r l< yels h
jHhl ieflnqKq wjia:djg m;a jQ mrudKqj, by< Yla;s ugul we;s bf,lafg%dk
a
my< Yla;s ugulg kej; mefKk g lsrKh fudapkh lrhs' idudkHfhka
fuh wyUq f,i is f' tk iajhx fudapkhla is f' ^rEmh 3'8& lsrKh
ish u Yd j,g fudapkh jk w;r th iupd fkd f' idudkH m%Njhlska
fudapkh jk wdf,dalh fuu ls%hdj,sh ksid is f' flfia fj;;a yhgu
ksjer Yla;sfhka hq;a f*dafgdakhla ieflnqKq mrudKqj fj; <`.d jQ g by<
Yla;s ugul we;s bf,lafg%dakhla my< ugulg jeug fm<fUk w;r ;j;a
f*dafgdakhla ksl=;a f' wmQj isoah k fuu f*dafgdakhg tlu l,dj" ixLHd;h
iy p,s; Ydj ;su hs' W;af;ackh l< f*dafgdakh fkd fjkiaj mj;S' fuu
ixisoah whskaiaghska iska mqfrdal:kh lrk ,' thg W;af;a; fudapkh hehs
lshkq ,nk w;r th
rEmh 3'9 u.ska oelaf'
rEmh 3'8
iajhxisoO
a fudapkh
rEmh 3'9
W;af;a; fudapkh
f,airh ilid we;af;a W;af;a; fudapkh u.ska fudapkh jk wdf,dalh iajhx

fudapkh wNsnjd hk m h' fuh <d lr .ekSug my< ugug jvd bf,lafg%dak
ixLHdjla by< ugf ;su w;HjYH f' tjeks ;;a;ajhlg wmj;k .kkh
hehs lshkq ,ef' fuh idudkH ;;a;ajfha m%;sf,dauh f' kuq;a fuh wdf,dalfha
jOkh i|yd wjYH f' tk fuh idudkHfhka" wdf,dalh jHhla ;=<ska .uka
lsf oS isjk ;Sj%;dj wvq u fjkqjg ;Sj%;dj je uhs' wmj;k .ykh we;s
54
l< yels tla l%uhla" zm%ldY fmdm lsuZ f,i yekaf' fuh f,ai jH
wdf,dalfhka m%;smkh lsfuka iuka;h' E1 iy E2 Yla;sj,ska hq;a ug folla
i,luq' fuys E2 > E1 f' fmdm lrk lsrKfha (E2 - E1)/h ixLHd;hlska hq;a
f*dafgdak wvx.= f k" f*dafgdak wjfYdaIKh u.ska bf,lafg%dak m<uqjk Yla;s
ugfuys isg fojk Yla;s ugu olajd by< hhs ' wjdikdjlg fuka flfia
fj;;a fojeks ugf bf,flafg%dak .kkh jeu wdrN jQ .i fmdm lrk
lsrKh fojk ugu isg m<uqjk ugu olajd W;af;a; fudapkhla fmd<Ujhs'
th ksjer ixLHd;fhka hqla; jqj;a f.dvke.Sula is fkd f'
ug ;=fka moaO;shl ^rEmh 3'10& (E2 - E1)/h ixLHd;fhka hq;a fmdm lrk
lsrKh bf,lafg%dak m<uqjk ugfuys isg ;=kajk ugu olajd by< kxjhs'
t;eka isg iajhx fudapkh u.ska tajd fojks ugu olajd my; jef' bf,lafg%dak
fojk ugf m%udKj;a .= ld,hla / iskafka k fojk ugu iy m<uqjk
ugu w;r wmj;k .ykhla mek ke.sh yelsh' fojk ugf isg m<uqjk
uggu olajd bf,lafg%dak m;s; u ksid iajhx fudaapkh jk f*dafgdakh " fojkqj
W;af;a; f*dafgdakhla fudapkh lrhs' th B<`.g wfkla mrudKqj,ska fndfyda
f*dafgdak ksoyia lrhs' fojk ugu iy m<uqjk ugu w;r f,ai ls%hdj yg
.kS' W;af;a; lsrKhg jvd fjkia ixLHd;hla fmdm lrk lsrKhg we;'
rEmh 3'10 ug ;=fka moaO;shl f,ai l%shdld;ajh
(b) rE f,airh
f,ai i|yd fndfyda jH Nd; l< yelsh' f,ai jH f,i fl%dah l=vd
m%udKhla wvx.= jk fia ixfhda.d;aul weksh Tlaihs iaMlhlska rE o`vq
f,airh iuka; f' th ug ;=fka f,ai j.hg wh;a f' fuys ;=kajk ugu
b;d wdikak Yla;s ugj,ska hq;a l,dmhlska hqla;h' fmdm lrk lsrKh
ksmojkq ,nkafka ly - fld< wdf,dalfhka hq;a ;Sj% iefk,s ksl=;a lrk iefk,s
myklsks' rEmh 3'11 m th m<uqjk ugu ^ ugu& isg l,dmfha tla
ugulg bf,lafg%dak kxjhs' t;ek isg tajd iajhxj ;ia:dhs ^metastable) fojk
ugu olajd my; jef' fuys tajd Yla;s l,dmfha mj;sk ;;amr 10-8 yd ii|k
55
g wdikak jYfhka ,s;;amr 1 l ld,hla mej;sh yelsh' tajd fojk ugu isg
m<uq jk ugu olajd jeug W;af;ackh l< g r;= f,ai wdf,dalh ksl=;a f'
rE oKaf tla fl<jrla wdf,am lr we;af;a th mQK mrdj;khla f,i ls%hd
lrk m jk w;r wfkla fl<jr ;=kj
S wdf,am lr we;af;a wdxYsl ifm%I
a Khg
bv i,ik m h' W;af;a; wdf,dal f*dafgdak oKav f.a fomig mrdj;kh
fuka ;Sj% lonhla ksmof' bka fldgila m%fhdackj;a f,ai m%;sodkh f,i
wO wdf,ams; fl<jka ifm%aIKh f'
rEmh 3'11 rE f,airh
(c) yS,sh - ksfhdaka f,ai

yS,sh iy ksfhdaka Y%Khla fuys Nd; jk w;r rE f,airh u.ska fl wdf,dal
iamkao ksl=;a lrkafka jqjo fuh ika;;slj ls%hd lrka wvq wmid lonhla
ksmojhs' tla wdldrhl oS jdhqj fofl,jr m%ldY iu;, omK folla we;s .
lajdia k<hla ;=< we;' iefk,s mykla fjkqjg fmdm lsug is lrkq ,nkafka
28 MHz l ffhda ixLHd; cklhlsks' jdhqj ;=< oHq;a ickh yS,sh mrudKq
Wia Yla;s ug j,g fmdm lrhs' tajd tg .egq u`.ska ksfhdaka mrudKq Wia
ugulg ieflnqKq ,nhs' tajd wmj;k .ykhka hq;a ksfhdka mrudKq ksmojhs'
tg lsrK fudapkh lrk w;r tajd my; ugj,g jeug W;af;ackh lrkq
,ef'
(d) Nd;
wO ikakdhl f,air m%ldY ;ka;= ikaksfok moaO;sj, Nd; flf' mrdi
fi" fj,aka" iy iqlaIu mm: ksudK i|yd rE f,air Nd; flf'
b;d ishq iy ksjerj . uekSug" kskafodare lghq;= " uqK lghq;=" iy fydf,da
.%E ksudKh wdhg ys,sh ksfhdaka f,ai Nd; flf'
56
fhda; bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdj,sh (

oHq;a pqnl ;rx. ykajd tu ;rx.h foda,kh jk oHq;a iy pqnl lafIa;j
% ,ska
iuka; nj meye,s lrkak'
oHq;a pqnl ;rx. m%ia;dlj w: ksrEmKh lrkak'
iajNdlj iy m%dfhda.slj oHq;a pqnl ;rx. Wmk wjia:d fokak'
la;lfha ishu oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, f.h (3x108 m s-1) ksh;hla nj
meye,s lrkak'
;rx. wdhdufha wvqu wkqj fyda ixLHd;fha jeu wkqj oHq;a pqnl
jKdj,sfha ixrpl .fIKh lr jd;d lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, .=K idlPd lrkak'
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.j, fh ixlaIsma; f,i idlPd lrkak'
f,aij, ls%hdld;ajh ".=K iy Nd; .fIKh lrkak'
f,ai myrKfha ms<m
s eh hq;= wdrlaIl mqfjdamdhhkaj, jeo.;alu wjOdrKh
lrkak'
57
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3'9
( wdf,dal j;kh ms<sn| uQ,Ou tfkod ; wjYH;d

i|yd fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
( 12 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
j;kh ksid yg .kakd m%;sn ksKh lsu i|yd mlaIK ie,iq lrhs'
;, udhsj, j;kh iy mQK wNHka;r mrdj;kh inkaO .Kkh ls
is lrhs'
ldp iy ldp ixhqla; wdYs%; .Kkh ls is lrhs'
j;kh" j;k kshu iy j;k wxlh
m%ldY >k;ajh ialkaOh$ mudj iu. lsisu inkaOhla fkdue;' mdroDYH
jHhl m%ldY >k;ajh inkaO jkafka th ;=<ska wdf,dalfha f.hg muKs'
jH m%ldY .yk nfjka je jk g th ;=<ska wdf,dalh wvq f.fhka .uka
lrhs'
ksrfmalaI j;k wxlh iy idfmalaI j;k wxlh
j;k wxl w;r inkaOh
n2= n2/n1.
inkaOh iy rej, j;k wxlh fiug tys Nd;h
oDYH ia:dmkh i|yd inkaOh ,

wj fldaKh iy mQK wNHka;r mrdj;kh isu i|yd wjYH;d
mQK wNHka;r mrdj;kfha fh
wj fldaKh iy j;k wxlh w;r inkaOh
ms%iauhla ;=<ska wdf,dal j;kh iy wm.ukh
wju wm.ukh iy
inkaOh
58
wm.uk fldaKh m;k fldaKh iy j;k fldaKh w;r inkaOh
jKdj,sudkh iy jKdj,sudkfha m%Odk iSreudre ls

ldphla ;=<ska j;kh
ldphl kdNsh iy kdNs r
W;a;, iy wj;, ldpj,ska iEfok ;d;al iy w;d;al m%;sn
mlaIKd;aul l%uh
lsrK rEm igyka
;d;al iy w;d;al m%;sn ksKh lsug ,l=Kq iuq;sh iu. ldp iQ;%h
m%;snhl fh Yd,kh
ldphl n,h
ldp ixhqla;fha ilrKh

j;k ixisoah" j;k i|yd wjYH;d iy j;k kshu meye,s lrkak'
j;k wxlh w: olajkak ^ksrfmalaI iy idfmalaI&
oDYH .eUqr" ia:dmkh " wdoYkh lsug ls%hdldrl lr tajd i|yd m%ldYk
jHq;amkak lrkak'
lsrK rEm igyka weiqka wj fldaKh iy mQK wNHka;r mrdj;kh ia;r
lrkak'
jHq;amkak lrkak'
lsrK rEm igyka Nd;fhka iy mlaIK is lsu u.ska m%i

s u
a hla ;=<k
s a j;kh
ia;r lrkak'
m;k fldaKfha fjkiau wkqj wm.uk fldaKfha fjkiau fidhd th
m%ia;dlj ksrEmKh lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
wju wm.uk wjia:dj ykajkaak'
jKdj,sudkfha m%Odk iSreudre ls wdoYkh lr fya;= meye,s lrkak'
ldphl kdNsh iy kdNs r ykajd lsrK rEm igyka weiqfrka m%;
s n ksudKh
lsug isiqkaj fhduq lrkak'
ldishdkq iuq;sh iu. ldp iQ;%h jHq;amkak lsug cHd;sl l%uh Nd;
lrkak'
;d;al iy w;d;al m%;sj, ,dlaIKsl mqfrdal:kh lrkak'
c .Ks;uh f,i - ldp iQ;%h Nd;fhka
cHd;sl f,i - lsrK rEm igyka Nd;fhka
mlaIKd;aul i;Hdmkh
ldp ixhqla;h i|yd ilrKh ykajkak'
59
oHd.dr mlaIK (
p, wKalaIh Nd; lr j;k wxlh fiu
ms%iauhla ;=<ska wm.ukh mlaIKd;aul j wkafIKh lsu
wj fldaK l%ufhka ms%iau jHfha j;k wxlh fiu
jKdj,sudkh
jKdj,sudkfhka m%Odk iSreudre ls
ms%iau fldaKh fiu
wju wm.uk fldaKh fiu
ldpj, ;d;al iy w;d;al m%;sn ksKh lsu ^wimd; l%uh&
60
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3' 10
( oDIa fodaIj,g ms<sh fhu i|yd ldpj,ska iEfok

m%;sn ms<sn| kqu W; wkaoka fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
ksia wefiys m%ldY moaO;sh ia;r lrhs'

oDIa fodaI ksje/ lsu inkaO .Kkh ls is lrhs'

oDIa fldaKh w: oelau
r ,laIHh iy wr ,laIHh
oDIa;dkh u; m%;sn iEu
wr oDIal;ajh (myopia), r oDIala;j
a h (hypermetropia) iy tajd fYdaOkh
lsu'
lsrK rEm igyka Nd; lr oDIa fldaKh w: olajkak'
rEm igyka Nd; lr weil m%Odk wx. ykajkak'
lsrK rEm igyka weiqfrka wr oDIal;ajh iy r oDIal;ajh meye,s lr
tu fodaIj,g ms<sh fhdok l%u ia;r lrkak'
61
ksmqK;dj 3'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 3' 11
( m%ldY WmlrK ksudKh lsu" i|yd ldpj,ska iEfok

m%;sn ms<sn| oekqu W; wkaoka fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
( 10 hs'
bf.kq M,
ir, iy ixhqla; wkalaIj, ls%hdld;ajh meye,s lsug lsrK rEm igyka
weu iy wod< .Kkh ls is lrhs'

klaI;% flaIfha ls%hdld;ajh meye,s lsug lsrK rEm igyka weu iy
wod< .Kkh ls is lrhs'

lsrK rEm igyka weiqfrka ir, wkalaIhl idudkH iSreudrej iy fldaKsl
Yd,kh i|yd m%ldYkh

lsrK rEm igyka weiqfrka ixhqla; wkalaIhl idudkH iSreudrej iy
fldaKsl Yd,kh i|yd m%ldYkh

lsrK rEm igyka weiqfrka klaI;% flaIhl idudkH iSreudrej iy fldaKl
s
Yd,kh i|yd m%ldYkh

wkalaI iy flaI idudkH iSreudref fkdmj;sk wjia:d i|yd lsrK
rEm igyka
fhda;
bf.kq$b.eka ls%hdj,sh
Yd,l ldphla f,i wNsid ldphla Nd; lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
lsrK rEm igyka Nd; lr ir, wkalaIh meye,s lrkak'
fldaKsl Yd,kh i|yd m%ldYkhla jHq;amkak lrkak'
ixhqla; wkalaIh Nd; lrk wdldrh wdoYkh lrkak'
lsrK rEm igyka weiqka idudkH iSreudref we;s ixhqla; wkalaIh meye,s
lrkak'
klaI;% flaIh Nd; lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
lsrK rEm igyka weiqka idudkH iSrEudref we;s klaI;% flaIh meye,ss
lrkak'
wkalaI iy flaI idudkH iSreudref fkd mj;sk wjia:d idlPd lrkak'
62
tallh 4 ( ;dm fN!;slh

ksmqK;dj 4'0
( udkj lghq;= imqrd .ekSu i|yd;a" oHd;aul lghq;=j, ;a

;dmh ms<sn| oekqu m,odhS f,i Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 4'1
( wjYH;djg W; WIaK;ajudkh f;dard f.k WIaK;ajh

ksje/j ukshs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
fjkia WIaK;aj mudK iy fjkia j.fha WIaK;ajudk ia;r lrhs'
fl,aka iy fi,aishia WIaK;aj mudK Nd; lsu iy ta w;r inkaO;dj
,nd .ekSu is lrhs'
jia;+ka w;r ;dm iu;=,s;;dj ie,lSfuka ;dmh .,d hdu i|yd wjYH;d
;dm .;s oHdf Y+kHd kshuh
WIaK;ajh hk moh
iuyr .=K WIaK;ajh iu. fjkiau iy WIaK;aj;sl .=Kj, ;sh hq;=
,laIK
oHd;aul kq i|yd Nd; lrkafka ;dm.;sl mudKh hs' th fl,aka (K)
keu;s tallhlska ykajkq ,nk w;r WIaK;ajh T wlaIrfhka ixfla;j;a
lrkq ,ef' th tla wp, ,laIHhla - c,fha ;s%l ,laIHh Nd; lr w: olajd
we;' fuh ix;Dma; c, jdIam" ixY=oaO c,h iy whsia iu;=,s;j mj;akd
273.16 K WIaK;ajhhs'
fi,aishia mudKh
u.ska w: oelaf' fuu mudKfha wp,
,laIH fol jkafka whsia ,laIHh (0 0C) iy yqud, ,laIHh (100 0C) hss' whsia
,laIHh iy ;s%l ,lIHh fjkia jkafka 0.01 K lsks'
WIaK;aj mrsudKhla th mok jQ fYaI .=Kh u; r|d mj;S' WIaK;aj mudKhla
ilia lsf "
(a) WIaK;ajh iu. fjkiajk .=Khla f;dard .ekSu;a
(b) th WIaK;ajh iu. taldldj p,kh jk nj Wml,amkh lsu;a
l< hq;= h'
63
wp, ,laIH folla mok jQ WIaK;ajh i|yd ilrKh
c,fha ;s%l ,laIHh u; mok jQ ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh i|yd ilrKh
fi,aishia iy ksrfmalaI WIaK;aj w;r inkaOh
;ziagr
fuu Wmdx. m%;sfrdaO WIaK;ajudk fuks' WIaK;ajh iu. tys oHq;a m%;sfrdaOh
fjkiaf .=Kh u; WIaK;ajh uekSug fhdod .kS' m%;sfrdaO WIaK;ajudk
fuka fkdj" fjdfha m%;sfrdaOfha WIaK;aj ix.=Klh iDK w.hla .kakd w;r
WIaK;ajfha jeu iu. tajdfha m%;sfrdaOh wdikak jYfhka >d;Sh f,i wvq
f' ;ziagr" fjkia wO ikakdhl Tlaihsv mjqv Y%K lsysmhlska ,dNodhl
f,i ksmojd .kq ,nk wO ikakdhl Wmdx. f' ^ Fe3O4 + MgCr2O4 nyq,j
Nd; lrk Y%Khls& tajd b;du;a Yla;su;a h' tajdfha m%;sfrdaO uekSug iagka
fia;= mm:hla Nd; lrk g th m%;sfrdaO WIaK;ajudkhla fuka is .=Khla
muK ixf f' fuu Wmdx.hg thg u wh;a 1 k m%;sfrdaOhla we;s neka
inkaOl lj, m%;sfrdaOh ie,lsh hq;= fkdf' ;ziagrj,g l=vd ;dm
Od;d we;' tuksid tajd blaukska m%;spdr olajk w;r ukskq ,nk WIaK;ajhg
we;s jk n,mEu l=vd f' idudkHfhka fuys mrdih" -70 0C isg 300 0Colajd
fjhs' fjd m%;f
s rdaO WIaK;ajudkj,g jvd wvq ia:dhS;djla we;s ksid ksrjoH;dj
wvqh'
tla jia;=jl isg ;j;a jia;=jlg ;dmh .,d hEu i|yd uQ,sl wjYH;d wjfndaO
lr .ekSu i|yd iqiq ls%hdldrl lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
tlsfklg fjkia WKqiq nka hq;a jia;= w;r ;dmh .,d hk g ;dmc
iu;=,s;;d wjia:dj hkafkka woyia lrkafka l=ula oehs meye,s lr ;dm .;s
oHdf Y+kHd kshuh meye,s lsug idlPdj > lrkak'
idlPd u.ska" jia;= moaO;shla iudk WIaK;ajfha mj;sk g tajd ;dmc
iu;=,s;;df mj;sk w;r ;dm m%jdyh Y=kH nj hk woyi f.dv k.kak'
WIaK;ajh iu. fjkia jk iuyr .=K j.=.; lsug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
^Wod - lelEre k,hlg mgq re k,hla i lrkak' k,h ;=< we;s fl
rih mgla u.ska lelEre k,h ;=, jdhq l|la isr lr WIaK;ajh iu. jd;fha
mudf p,kh wdoYkh lrkak&
64
idlPdjla u`.ska WIaK;aj;sl .=Kj, ;sh hq;= jeo.;a wx. ,nd .kak'
tu .=Kh
talM, Ys%;hla
ika;;sl Y%s;hla h hq;= h'
WIaK;ajh iu. WIaK;aj;sl .+Kfha fjkia u fh nj Wml,amkh lr
WIaK;ajh tfhka WIaK;aj;sl .+Kh m%ia;drh wkak'
fuu mudKh i|yd wp, ,laIHj, wjYH;dj meye,s lrkak'
fi,aishia WIaK;aj mudKh meye,s lrkak'
c,fha ;s%l ,laIH mok lr f.k ksrfmalaI WIaK;aj mudKh o
"
m%ldYk o ykajkak'
65
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'2
( >kj, yd jj, m%idrKh Nd;hg .kakd wjia:d ms<sn|

uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 04 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
;dmc m%idrKh .Kkh lsrSu iy ta inkaO fh ia;r lsu is lrhs'
c,fha wksh m%idrKh yd inkaO ixisoa meye,s lrhs'
>k jia;=jl WIaK;ajh je l< g tys ." j.M,h iy mudj je f'
fh " j.M, iy mud m%idrKh iy tajd w;r inkaOh
jj,g we;af;a mud m%idrKhla muKs'
jhl ksrfmalaI m%idrK;dj" oDYH m%idrK;dj iy nfka mud m%idrK;dj
w;r inkaOh
>k;ajh" WIaK;ajh iy mud m%idrK;dj ^ksrfmalaI& hk mo weiqfrka
olajk ilrKh
tla;rd fYaI WIaK;aj mrdihla i|yd c,fha m%idrKh idukH jj,
m%idrKhg jvd fjkia f'
WIaK;ajh iu. c,fha mudf iy >k;ajfha p,kfha m%ia;dl ksrEmKh
hk ilrK ,nd .ekS u g
fh" j.M, iy >k m%idrK;djkaj, w: oela Nd;h

>k;aj w;r inkaO;dj ,nd .kak'

WIaK;ajh je l< g lhl fyda oKavl . je jk nj fmkaug ir,
mlaIKd;aul wegjqula Nd; lrkak'
idlPd u.ska WIaK;ajh iu. ." m<, yd >klu jejk nj iy mudj
yd j.M,h o jejk nj ms<sn| woyi f.dv k`.kak'
fok ,o oKavl fh m%idrKh WIaK;aj fjkig iy oKaf .g iudkqmd;sl
jk nj meye,s lr oKav idod we;s jHfha fh m%idrK;dj w: olajkak'
j.M, m%idrK;dj iy mud m%idrK;dj ^>k& ykajd fh m%idrK;dj
iu. inkaO lrkak'
66
>kj, m%idrKfha wdprK iy Nd; idlPd lrkak'
ilrK ,nd .ekSug fh"
j.M, iy >k m%idrKj, w:oela Nd; lrkak'

jhl mudj WIaK;ajh iu. jejk nj fmkaug ir, mlaIKd;aul
wegjqula Nd; lrkak'
jHhl ksrfmalaI m%idrKh iy oDYH m%idrKh iqiq ls%hdldrl weiqfrka
meye,s lrkak'
ksrfmalI
a m%idrKhg iy oDYH m%idrK;dj w;r inkaOh jHq;m
a kak lrkak'
WIaK;ajh iu. >k;ajfha p,kh idlPd lrkak'
>k;aj i|yd
inkaO;dj ,nd .kak
ir, lsh
% dldrlula weiqfrka c,fha wksh m%idrKh ia;r lr tys jeo.;alu
idlPd lrkak'
WIaK;ajh iu. c,fha mudf iy >k;ajfha p,khka ia;r lr tajd
m%ia;dlj w: ksrEmKh lrkak'
67
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'3
( jdhqj, yeis jdhq kshu weiqfrka fidhd n,hs'
ld,fo
( 09 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
jdhq kshuhka mlaIKd;aulj wdoYkh lsu iy mmQK jdhq ilrKh
ia;r lsu is lrhs'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh iy jdhq kshuhkaa Nd; lr .Kkh ls is lrhs'
fndhs,af.a kshuh
pd,aiaf.a kshuh
mSvk kshuh
mmQK jdhqjla ms<sn| woyi
mmQK jdhq ilrKh
fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl msvk kshuh
fhda; bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sh (
wp, jdhq ialkaOhl mSvkh" mudj iy WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj meye,s
lrkak'
jdhq kshuhka ia;r lsu iy meye,s lsu lrkak'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh jHq;amkak lrkak'
fvd,agkaf.a wdxYsl msvk kshuh meye,s lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK
la,a k,h Nd; lr jdhqf.da,Sh msvkh fiu'
ksh; mSvkfha jdhqjl mudj iy WIaK;ajh w;r inkaOh wkafIKh
lsu'
ksh; mudf jdhqjl msvkh iy WIaK;ajh w;r inkaOh wkafIKh
lsu'
68
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'4
( jdhqjla th wvx.= nk u; we;s lrk mSvkh" jdhq ms<sn|

pd,l jdoh weiqfrka uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
WIaK;ajh jdhqjl wKqj, uOHkH pd,l Yla;shg inkaO lrhs'
pd,l jdoh ilrKh Nd; lr .Kkhka is lrhs'
jdhqjla ;=< wKql f. jHdma;sh ^.=Kd;aul j&
jdhq ms<sn| pd,l jdofha uQ,sl Wml,amk
1
kEu jdhjql b;d Yd, wKq ixLHdjla wvx.= f'
2
jdhqjl wKq b;d f.fhka wyUq p,s;fha fhfoa
3
jdhq wKq w;r ix>gk m%;Hdia: f'
4
jdhq wKq iy nfka ;a;s w;r .egqu m%;Hdia: f'
5
fuys wka; wKql wdlIK n, fkdue;'
6
wka; wKql lIK n, ls%hd;aul jkafka wKq w;r .egq mj;sk
w;r;=r muKs'
7
nfka mudj yd ii|k g jdhq wKqlj, mudj fkd .sKsh hq;= ;r
f' tk imQK jdhqju mdfya wjldYh ;=, we;'
mmQK jdhqjla i|yd pd,l jdoh
wKql f. jHdma;sh iy j. uOHkH uQ, f.h
ilrKh
jdhqjla u.ska we;s lrk mSvkh

j. uOHkH f.h
m%ldYkh
fnda,aiaudka ksh;h
69
ufyalI
a mudKfha jdhqjl yeisu ms<n
s | ie,els,u
s ;a jkqfha tys WIaK;ajh
mudj" iy mSvkfha p,kh hs' kuq;a jdhqf yeisu ms<n
s | meye,s wjfndaOhla
,nd .ekSug ;ks ;ks jdhq wKqj, wKalaIh p,kh" ufyalaI rdYSka yd
inkaO lsug yels h hq;= h' fuh is lsug yelshdj ,nd .kqfha pd,l
jdoh u`.sks' idudkHfhka jdohl jx,.=;dj mlaIKhla u.ska fidais l<
yels h hq;= w;r tu jdoh u`.ska .egj ms<sn| fyd| wjfndaOhla ,nd h
hq;= h' jdhq ms<sn| pd,l jdoh" wKqj, p,kh i|yd hdka;% oHdf kshuka
fhdod .kshs' tu.ska jdhqjl mSvkh yd WIaK;ajh i|yd m%ldYkhla wKqj,
f.h" ialkaOh iy wKq ixLHdj weiqfrka ,nd fohs'
jdhq ms<sn| pd,l jdoh weiqfrka .eg i|k g c .Ks;uh ixfla; yd
tall ms<sn| jvd;a ie,els,su;a h hq;= h'
WIaK;ajh ieug u fl,akaj,ska .kq ,nhs'
idfmalaI wKql ialkaOhg tall fkdue;'
ujq,sl ialkaOh hkq ujq,hl ialkaOh f th kg mol-1 f'
WodyrKhla jYfhka"
Tlaisckaj, idfmalaI mrudKql ialkaOh
Tlaisckaj, idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh
} 16
} 32
mrudKql Tlaisckaj, ujq,sl ialkaOh
}0.016 kg mol-1 or 16 g mol-1
wKql Tlaisckaj, ujq,sl ilakOh
}0.032 kg mol-1 or 32 g mol-1
Tlaiscka mrudKqjl ialkaOh
kg

jdhqjla msvkhla we;s lrkafka flfia oehs meye,s lrkak'
jdhq ms<sn| pd,l jdoh Nd; lr ilrK jHq;amkak lrkak'
jdhq ms<sn| pd,l jdofha Wml,amk ia;r lrkak'
70
ksmqK;dj 4'0

;dmh ms<sn| oekqu M,odhS f,i Nd; lrhs'
ksmqK;dj ugu 4'5
( jHj, YsIag ;dm Od;dj weiqfrka jia;= w;r yqjudre

jk ;dm m%udKh m%udKkh lrhs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
jHj, YsIag ;dm Od;dj wdYs%; .Kkh ls yd kq is lrhs'
;dm ydksh ms<sn| .Kkh ls i|yd ksgkaf.a isis,k kshuh Nd; lrhs'
mod:hg ;dmh iemhQ g" wjia:d mhdihla is fkd jkafka k" WIaK;ajh
p,kh f'
jia;=jl WIaK;ajh p,kh jk g jia;=j u.ska yqjudre jk ;dm m%udKh
fjkia f'
jia;=jl ;dm Od;dj
jHhl YsIag ;dm Od;dj ^>k iy j&
yqjudre jk ;dm m%udKh i|yd
ilrKh
mirhg ;dmh ydks jk l%u iy ;dm ydksh wju lsu i|yd mqfjdamdhhka
ksgkaf.a isis,k kshuh
ksh; msvkfha iy ksh; mudf jdhqjl ujq,sl ;dm Od;d
wkqmd;h jdhqf mrudKql;dj u; r|d mj;S'

my; i|yka ls%hdldrlu lsug isiqkag mjrkak'
tlu jia;=j O WIaK;ajhg r;a lr" tlu c, m%udK iys; ijiu le,
gj,g fy,d tajd tlsfklg fjkia wjidk WIaK;ajj,g t<efUk nj
fmkajkak'
idlPdjla u.ska yqjudre jk iM, ;dm m%udKh WIaK;aj fjkig iudkqmd;sl
nj fmkajd jia;=jl ;dm Od;dj w: olajkak'
tlu jHfhka iE tlu WIaK;ajfhka hq;a O ialkaO iys; jia;=j,g
O ;dm m%udK we;s nj fmkaug mlaIK lsug isiqkag mjrkak'
jHhl YsIag ;dm Od;dj w: olajkak'
71
idlPdjla u.ska jia;=jl ;dm m%udKfha fjki
u.ska fokq ,nk
nj fmkajkak'
jdhqjl ujq,sl ;dm Od;d w: olajkak'
;dmh ydks jk l%u iy ;dm ydksh wvq lr .ekSf l%u iy wdrNl WIaK;ajh
fjkia lsfuka ;dm ydksh i|yd fYdaOkhla fhdok wdldrh idlPd lrkak'
iajNdl ixjykh iy lD; ixjykh hgf;a WKq jia;j
= la isi,
s a jk wdldrj,
fjki fmkaug ir, ls%hdldrl lsug isiqkg mjrkak'
wdrNl WIaK;ajh fjkia lsfuka ;dm ydksh i|yd fYdaOkhla ,nd .kak'
ksgkaf.a isis,k kshuh m%ldY lr ia;r lrkak' tys iSudjka meye,s
lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK Y%K l%ufhka >kj, iy jj, YsIag ;dm Od;d ksKh lsu
isis,k l%ufhka jj, YsIag ;dm Od;d ieieu'
72
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'6
( mod:fha wjia:d mhdij, yqjudre jk ;dmh m,odhS

f,i fhdod .kakd wjia:d uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
jHj, .=ma; ;dmh wdYs%; .Kkh ls kq is lrhs'
mudj iy yevh ie,elSfuka" >k" j iy jdhq w;r we;s fjki
ishu wdldrfha mod:j, wKq $ wxY+ka" nkaOk u.ska tlg r|jd ;nd f.k
we;'
jHhl wvx.= uQ,sl wxY+kaj,g pd,l Yla;sh yd Nj Yla;sh we;'
wjia:d mhdihla is jk g Yla;s wjfYdaIKhla fyda fudapkhla is
f'
>k jHhla Yla;sh wjfYdaIKh l< g wKq w;r nkaOkj, m%n,;dj wvq
jk w;r >kh" jh njg mj;kh f'
wKql yeisu weiqfrka jdIamSlrKh meye,s lsu'
mod:hg ;dmh iemhQ g " wjia:d mhdihla is jkafka k WIaK;ajh
ksh;j mj;S'
,hkfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh
jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh
>k" j iy jdhq u.ska ,nd .kakd yevh iy mudj fmkaug ir, lsh
% dldrl
lrkak'
wka; wKql$wxY+kaj, wdlIK n, ia;r lsu u.ska mod:j, jHqyh
meye,s lrkak'
wjia:d mhdihl WIaK;ajh ksh; j mj;sk nj fmkaug iqiq mlaIK
Nd; lsu iy ,hkh iy jdIamSlrKh i|yd wjia:d fjkia jl% wkak'
WIaK;ajh ksh;j mj;sk g ;dm wjfYdaIKh iy fudapkh isjk neka
z.=ma; ;dmhZ hk moh jHjydr lrk nj idlPd lrkak'
73
w: olajkak
1' ,hkfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh

2' jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh
;dmdxlh iy jdxlh flfrys msvkfha n,mEu fmkaug WodyrK lSmhla
idlPd lsu iy ls%hdldrl is lrkak'
mSvkh iu. ;dmdxlh iy jdxlh fjkiajk nj m%ldY lrkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK ,hkfha iy jdIamSlrKfha YsIag .=ma; ;dmh ksKh lsug mlaIK
yiqrejkak'
74
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'7
( ld,.=Kh flfrys c, jdIamj, n,mEu ms<sn| uid n,hs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
wika;Dma; iy ix;Dma; c, jdIamj, yeisu meye,s lsu'
WIaK;ajh iu. iy mudj iu. ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh iy wix;Dma; jdIam
mSvkh p,kh m%ia;dlj ksrEmKh lrhs'
jdhqf.da,h ;=< f;;ukh ^mj;akd c, jdIam m%udKh& ms<sn| ie,lSfuka
wd;dj meye,s lrhs'
idfmalaI wd;dj" ksrfmalaI wd;dj iy ;=Idr wxlh wdYs%; .Kkh ls is
lrhs'
fldgila jhlska mqrjd we;s jik ,o nkl j wKq iy jdIam wKq wvx.=j
we;' tuksid jdIam wKq u.ska mSvkhla we;s l< yels h'
ksrfmalaI wd;dj
idfmalaI wd;dj
idfmalaI wd;dj p,kh lsug n,mdk idOl
;+Idr wxlh
kef ls%hdj,sh
keu ^jdIamSlrKh& iy jdIamsNjkh ikaikaokh
mSvkh iu. ;dmdxlh fjkia jk wkaou
jdIamj, ialkaOh" jdIamj, wdxYsl mSvkh iy ;=Idr wxlh Nd; lr idfmalI
a
wd;dj i|yd m%ldYk
idfmalaI wd;dj }
idfmalaI wd;dj }
idfmalaI wd;dj }
h mudjl we;s c, jdIamj, ialkaOh ^m&

tu mudj tu WIaK;ajfha ix;Dma; lsug
wjYH c, jIamj, ialkaOh (M)
c, jdIamj, wdxYsl mSvkh
ldur WIaK;ajfha c,fha ix;Dma;
jdIam mSvkh
x 100 %
ldur WIaK;ajfha c,fha ix;Dma;

jdIam mSvkh
;=Idr wxlfha c,fha ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh
75
x 100 %
x 100 %

jdIamsNjkh isjk wjia:d idlPd lrkak'
jdmaIsNjkh isjk wjia:df WIaK;ajh wvq jk nj fmkaug ls%hdldrl
lrkak'
jdIamsNjkh meye,s lsug wKql pd,l jdoh Nd; lrkak'
jdIamj, wKq u.ska mSvkhla we;s lrk nj wdoYkh lsug ls%hdldrl
lrkak'
ir, jdhq mSvk udk k,hl ysia wjldYh ;=<g B; x lsysmhla we;=
lsfuka fuh wdoYkh l< yels h'
wix;Dma; jdIam iy ix;Dma; jdIamj, fjki fmkaug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
j iy jdIam w;r yev .efik .;sl iu;=,s;;d wjia:d meye,s lrkak'
jdIam ix;Dma; wjia:djg m;a jQ g jdIam mSvkh Wmu w.hg t<efUk nj
meye,s lrkak'
wix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh" mudj iu. p,kh jk nj iy ix;Dma; jdIam
mSvkh" mudj iu. p,kh fkdjk nj fmkaug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
tajd m%ia;dlj ksrEmKh lrkak' fuu l%shdldrlu i|yd ir, jdhq mSvk
udkh Nd; l< yels h'
jdIam mSvkh iy WIaK;ajh w;r inkaO;dj fmkaug ls%hdldrl lrkak'
jdIam O WIaK;aj j,g r;a lr mSvkh uekSfuka fuh l< yels h'
wix;Dma; iy ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh iy WIaK;ajh w;r inkaOh m%ia;dl
j fmkajkak'
;dmdxlh iy ix;Dma; jdIam mSvkh w;r inkaOh idlPd lrkak'
jdhqf.da,fha wvx.= c, jdIam m%udKh wd;dj f,i fmkakq lrk nj
meye,s lrkak'
ksrfmalaI wd;dj iy idfmalaI wd;dj w: olajkak'
;=Idr wxlh meye,s lrkak'
jdIamj, ialkaOh" jdIamj, wdxYsl mSvkh iy ;=Idr wxlh Nd; lr idfmalI
a
wd;dj i|yd m%ldYk fokak'
Tm oeuQ le,grhla Nd; lr ;=Idr wxlh ksKh lrkak'
f;;a iy h,s n,an wd;dudkh Nd; lr jd;fha idfmalaI wd;dj
ksKh lrkak'
mSvkfha fjkiau ;dmdxlh flfrys n,mdk whqre ir, mlaIK u.ska
fmkajkak'
jdIamsNjkh iy >kSNjkh yd inkaO ;dm yqjudrej meye,s lrkak'
jhka jdIamf wjfYdaIKh lr .kakd ;dmh Ys;lrKfha iy jdhq
iukfha Nd; lrk wdldrh meye,s lrkak'
jdIamsNjkh iy keu ikaikaokh lsug idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
oHd.dr mlaIK Tm oeuQ le,grhla Nd; lr idfmalaI wd;dj ksKh lrkak'
76
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'8
( O ;dmc ls%hdj,s Yaf,aIKh lsug ;dm .;s oHdf

kshu fhdod .kshs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
;dm .;s oHdf m<uqjeks kshuh wdoYkh lr meye,s lrhs'
jdhqjl fjkia meye,s lsu i|yd ;dm .;s oHdf m<uqjeks kshuh
Nd; lrhs'
;dm .;s oHdf m<uqjeks kshuh Nd; lr .Kkh ls is lrhs'
zwNHka;r Yla;shZ hk moh
;dm .;s oHdf m<uqjeks kshuh
jdhqjl ksh; mudf YsIag ;dm Od;dj iy ksh; mSvkfha YsIag ;dm
Od;dj w;r inkaO;dj

iar;dmS iy ifudaIaK mhdi
ksh; mSvk iy ksh; mud mhdi
jia;=j, wvx.= jkafka ;dmh fkdj wNHka;r YlA;shhs' ;dmh hkq WIaK;aj
fjki ksid .,d hk Yla;sh hs' tuksid wm ldhh ms<sn| i,lk wdldrhgu
;dmh ms<sn| o ie,lsh hq;= hs'
ldh hkq n,hla u.ska p,kh is lrk g" Yla;sh ixl%uKh uhs'
;dmh hkq " WIaK;aj fjki fya;=fjka Yla;sh ixl%uKh u hs'
wNHka;r Yla;sh hkq wKqj, pd,l Yla;sh iy Nj Yla;sh ksid jia;=jl
wvx.= Yla;shhs'
- moaO;shg iemhQ ;dmh

- moaO;sfha wNHka;r Yla;sfha fjki
- moaO;sh u.ska lrk ,o ndysr ldhh
iqug msiagkhla u.ska is,skavrhla ;=< wka;.; lr we;s jdhqjla ie,lSfuka
ksh; mSvkfha lrkq ,nk ldhh
nj fmkajkak'
ifudaIaK ls%hdj,shl
} 0 " tuksid
iar;dmS mhdihla i|yd
" tuksid
wjia:d folu idlPd lrkak'

ksh; mud ls%hdj,shl
" tuksid
77
iy

by< WIaK;ajhl we;s jia;=jl isg my;a WIaK;ajhl we;s jia;=jlg Yla;sh
ixl%uKh jk nj iy ;dmh Yla;f
s ha ixl%uKsl wjia:dj f,i ia;r lrkak'
;dm .;s oHdf m<uejeks kshuh f.dv ke`.Sug my; i|yka ls%hdldrl
lrkak'
rn mhla wefuka ;dm .;s oHdf Nd;h i|yd ir, WodyrKhla iemhsh
yels h'
1 rn mhla blaukska weo" we we;s m u Tf hf;d< u; ;enQ g
WKqiqula oefka' wef Tn rn mh u; ldhhla is lr we;s
neka rn j, wNHka;r Yla;sh je f' weu b;d iS>% neka ;dm
ixl%uKh fkd .sksh hq;= ;r f' ;dmh yqjudre fkdjk m Yla;sh
ixl%uKh u ia:dr;dmS mhdihls'
2 f;d, u; rn mh we mj;sk fia ;nd .ekSfuka th f;df,ys
WIaK;ajh olajd isis,a jk nj fmfka mirhg ;dmh yqjudre jk
neka tys wNHka;r Yla;sh my; jef' fuys p,khla is fkdjk
neka ldhhla is fkd flf'
3 rn mh blaukska ksoyia lr fkd wekq ;;a;ajfhka kej; f;d,
u; ;nkak' yels,Sf m%;sM,hla f,i th f;df,a WIaK;ajhg jvd
isi,
s a jk nj Tng fidhd .; yels h' th yels,f
S rnj, wNHka;r
n, u.ska ldhhla is flfrk neka tys wNHka;r Yla;sh my;
jef' mhdih is>% neka ;dm ixl%uKhla is fkdf'
4 wjidkfha yelskq rn mh f;df,a WIaK;ajh olajd WKqi
q jkafka
ldurfha isg ixl%uKh jk ;dmh tys wNHka;r Yla;sh je lrk
neks'
jdhqjla imSvkh lsu ;j;a WodyrKhla imhhs' msgu wiqrk ,o nhsisl,a
fmdmhl ir, wegjqula rEmh 4'1 fmkakq lrhs' wiqrk ,o msgu ;=<ska
we;= lrk ,o ;dm oHq;a hq.auh fmdmh ;=< we;s jd;fha WIaK;ajh
uekSug wjia:dj i,ihs'
78
;dm oHq;a hq.uh
isr lrk ,o jdhqj

msiagkh
,s fjda,a grh
rEmh 4'1 jdhqjla imSvkh lsu
1 msiagkh f.fhka f;rmd tu msysf r|jd ;nd .kak' jd;fha

wNHka;r Yla;f
s ha jeu ksid oHq;a hq.u
a WIaK;ajudkh WIaK;ajfha
jeula fmkajhs' f;rmk n,h jdhqj u; lrk ldhh iS>% neka"
jd;fhka ;dm ixl%uKhla is jkafka ke;' tkhska lrk ,o ldhh
wNHka;r Yla;sh je lrhs'
2' msiagkh wdrNl msysug wdmiq muKqjd" WIaK;ajh wdrNl w.hg
wdmiq meKSug bv i,iajkak' Bg miq msig
a kh b;d fika f;rmkak'
fuu wjia:df WIaK;ajfha jeula is fkdf' fya;=j l=ula o@
Tn msiagkh f;rmk g ;jrg;a ldhhla is lrhs' flfia fj;;a
kEu l=vd WIaK;aj jeula jd;fha isg ;dmh ixl%uKh ug bv
i,ik neka WIaK;ajh wdrNl ;ekg kej; mefKa' fjk;a
wkaoka lsjfyd;a jd;fhka ;dmh ixl%uKh jk is>%;dj" th u;
ldhh lrk is>%;djg iudkjk whqka isf' tneka wNHka;r
Yla;sfha jeula is fkdf'
ls%hdj,shla fika is lrk g" moaO;shg mirh iu. ;dm yqjudrejg
ld,h we;s nj iy tuksid WIaK;ajh ksh;j mj;sk nj meye,s lrkak'

iqiq ls%hdldrl Nd; lr" iar;dmS ls%hdj,shl jdhquh moaO;shl mSvkh
iu. WIaK;ajfha fjkiau ia;r lrkak'
'laIKsl ls%hdj,shl jgmsgdj iu. ;dm yqjudrejla is fkdjk neka
WIaK;ajh fjkia f' hk woyi idlPd u.ska f.dv k.kak'
79
ksmqK;dj 4'0

ksmqK;dj ugu 4'9
( ;dm ixl%duk l%u iy m%udKh ms<sn| ie,els,su;a fjka

ffoksl iy oHd;aul lghq;= ie,iq lrhs'
ld,fo
( 06 hs'
bf.kq M,
(
ikakhkh" ixjykh iy lsrKh olajka ;dm ixl%uK hdka;%kh ia;r
lrhs'
;dm ikakhkh uekSu iy .Kkh lsu is lrhs'
;dm ixl%uK ls%hdj,s
fuu ls%hdj,sj, hdka;%kh WodyrK iys;j
oKavla ;=<ska ikakhkh jk ;dm m%udKh ksKh flfrk idOl
;dm ikakdhl;dj
mjrKh lrk ,o taldldr oKavla f.a ;dmh .,d hdf iS>%;dj i|yd
ilrKh
iajNdl ixjykh iy lD; ixjykh w;r we;s fjki

b wdf,am;
s f,day oKavla" fmdgEish mueka.fka (KMnO4) iaMl lsym
s hla
wvx.= c, ma,dia;=jla r;a lsu jeks ls%hdldrl lrkak'
O . iys; iy O yrialvhka f.ka hq;a o`vq Nd; lr ls%hdldrlu is
lr ;dm ikakhkfha iajNdjh meye,s lsug tu m%;sM, fhdod .kak'
oKavla ;=<ska ikakhkh jk ;dm m%udKh ksKh flfrk idOl idlPd
lrkak'
;dm ikakhl;dj w: olajkak'
WodyrK fuka iajNdl ixjykh ia;r lrkak'
ixjykh idlPd lrkak'
lsrKh idlPd lrkak
oHd.dr mlaIK
iZ,a WmlrKh Nd; lr ;dm ikakdhl;dj ksKh lsu'
80
;lafiarelrKh yd we.hSu
mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau

bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekafuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= iska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS
uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk kEu wjia:djl
oS ish yels nj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<sfj, yq Nd. l%uhla fyda mlaIK meje;aula fyda
fkdf' th ykajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekau;a je oshqKq
lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag mm j iska Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy n,;d ykdf.k tajdg ms<sh fhdoka isiqkaf.a Wmu jOkh <d lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"
.=rejrhd isik
q a w;r .ejfika Tjqka bgqlrk ldh kslaIKh lrka udf.damfoaYl;ajh
imhka lghq;= lsu mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<f
s j, l%h
s d;aul lsf oS wfmalI
a d
flf' fuys oS YsIHhd ksr;=re j we.hSug ,lah hq;= w;r" YsIH yelshd ixjOkh
wfmalaIs; wkaoka isjkafka oehs .=rejrhd iska ;yjqre lrkq ,eh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekau u.ska ish hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelS ,nd foka tajd isiqka
iska ksis mos w;am;a lr f.k ;sf oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis udf.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSf ^;lafiare lsf& fhoS isk .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
udf.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu udf.damfoaY fmdf ykajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
^Feedback& yd bos fmdaIKh ^Feed Forward& hkqfjks' isiqkaf.a n,;d yd fkdyelshd
wkdjrKh lr.;a g Tjqkaf.a bf.kq .eg u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
yelshd iy m%n,;d ykd .;a g tu olaI;d je oshqKq lsug bos fmdaIKh;a ,nd oSu
.=re ldhh fjhs'
bf.kq-b.ekak
q l%h
s dj,sfhaa id:l;ajh i|yd mdGud,df wruqKq w;frka ljr wruqKq
ljr ugka idlaid;a l< yels jQfha oehs ykd .ekSu isiqkag wjYH fjhs' we.hS
jevms<f
s j, Tiafia isik
q a <.d lr .;a m%K;d ug ksYp
a h lsu f wkqj .=rejrekaf.ka
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk w;r isiqka yd foumshka we;= fjk;a wod< mdYjj,g isiq m%.;sh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re ikaksfokh lsug .=rejreka fhduqh hq;= h' f i|yd fhdod.; yels
fyd| u l%uh jkafka ika;;sl j isiqka we.hSug md;% lsug bv m%ia:d i,ik mdi,
mok lr.;a we.hS l%uhhs'
hf:dala; wruqK iys; j l%shd lrk .=rejreka iska ;u b.ekakq l%shdj,sh;a isiqkaf.a
bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;
83
bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhka isiqkag iy

.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fjd fndfyda
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; Nd. fomd;fka;=j iska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska
o f;dr;=re imdokh lrk ,o l%ufo fjhs' tfyhska tajd inkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a we;ehs wfmalaId flf' tu m%fNao fufiah(
01' mejre
02' jHdmD;s
03' ilaIK
04' .fIK
05' kslaIK
06' m%oYk$ bosm;a lsu
07' lafIa;% pdld
08' fl ,s; mlaIK
09' jHQy.; rpkd
10' jD; .%ka: mlaIK
11' ksudKd;aul l%shdldrl
12' Y%jK mlaIK
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl
14' l:kh
15' iaj ksudK
16' lKavdh l%shdldr
17' ixl,am is;shu
18' oa;aj ck,
19' ;a;s mqj;am;a
20' m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyka
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a
22' jdo
23' idlPd uKav,
24' iuka;K
%
25' laIKsl l:d
26' N+ld rx.k
ykajd oS we;s fuu bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u iEu tllau iEu Ihhla
inkaOfhka ieu Ihh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u
Ihhg" Ih tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a h hq;=h; j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kq-b.ekakq yd we.hS m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sf' tajd
.=rejreka iska iqiq mos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu msKsi fhdod .;
hq;= fjhs' tajd Nd; fkdfldg u. yeu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfoksl
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| jOkhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%oYkh lsu;a
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'
84
bf.kq b.eka ls%hdj,sh > lsu

m<uq jdrh
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 1 WmlrKh 01
2'0 wdjrKh lrk ksmqK;d ug (
1'1" 1'2 iy 1'3
3'0 wdjrKh lrk ikaOdrh
ksmqK;d ugj,g wod< ikaOdrh
4'0 WmlrKfha iajNdjh
idys;H uYk (literature review) bm;a

lsula
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( .fIK l=i,;d hqKq lsug

fN!;sl oHdj bf.kSu i|yd Yla;su;a
mokula isiqka ;=< ieliSug
fN!;sl oHdf .Ks;uh iy mlaIKd;aul
miqu ykd .ekSug
bm;a lsf l=i,;d (presentation skills)
hqKq lsug
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 1 WmlrKh 02
1'4
ksmqK;d ugug wod< ikaOdrh
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( WmlrK yeisrf l=i,;d hqKq lsug

kqul jeo.;alu ms<sn| wjfndaO lrug
iudchSh l=i,;d jOkh lsug
jdrh 1 WmlrKh 03
1'6
ldh idOk f.dkqj
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( o;a; ksudKh lsu i|yd m%ia;dr Nd;hg

m%ia;dr Nd;h iy mlaIKhl p,Hj,
iajNdjh Yaf,aIKh ms<sn| l=i,;d je
hqKq lsug
bm;a lsf l=i,;d je hqKq lsaug
85
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 1 WmlrKh 04
2'1
m%Yafkda;a;r fmd;
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 1 WmlrKh 05
p,s;h ms<sn| m%Yak ieliSug

p,s; m%ia;dr Nd;hg
.Ks;uh l=i,;d hqKq lsug
2'2" 2'3" 2'4" iy 2'5
m%Yafkda;a;r fmd;
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( p,s;hg inkaO kS;s iy kshuhka ykd

.ekSug
;d;aal f,dalfha tu kS;s iy kshuhka
fhfok wjia:d ykd .ekSug
.Ks;uh l=i,;d hqKq lsug
fojk jdrh
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 2 WmlrKh 01
2'6" 2'7 iy 2'8
idys;H uYkh ( literature review) bm;a

lsu
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( jvd;a u m%fhdackj;a l,am n, Yla;s m%Nj

wdldr ms<sn| wjfndaOhla ,nd .ekSug
jia;s oHdf iy ;r, .;s oHdf
uQ,Ou iy kS;s ykd .ekSug
bm;a lsf l=i,;d je hqKq lsug
86
olajd
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( jdrh 2 WmlrKh 02
3'1
ixl,am is;shu (concept map)
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( foda,kh iy inkaO mo ykd .ekSug

ir, wkqj;S p,s;h yd inkaO fN!;sl rdYS
w;r inkaO;d fiug
foda,kh ms<sn| ixl,amuh wjfndaOh
(conceptual understanding) je hqKq lsug
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( jdrh 2 WmlrKh 03
3'2 iy 3'3
m%Yafkd;a;r fmd;
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( wod< ilrKj,g yqre lrug

;rx.j, iajNdjh ms<sn| wjfndaOhla ,nd
ug
;rx. ms<sn| oekqu ;d;al f,dalfha
fhfok wjia:d ia;r lsug
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( jdrh 2 WmlrKh 04
3'4
m%dfhda.sl mCIKh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( kq .ekS l=i,;d je hqKq lsug

mlaIK ie,iq lsf l=i,;d je hqKq
lsug
87
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 2 WmlrKh 05
3'5
m%dfhda.sl mCIKh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( wkqkdo we;su wdoYkh lsug

WmlrK yeisrf l=i,;d je hqKq lsug
m%ia;dl ksremKh ms<sn| l=i,;d je hqKq
lsug
f;jk jdrh
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 3
WmlrKh 01
3'6" 3'7 iy 3'8
idlPd uKav,h
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( fvdma, wdprKfha fh ms<sn|j lreKq

fiug YsIHhka u;a lsug
jksh ms<sn| wjfndaOh hqKq lsug
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,
,laIK k lsug
iudchSh l=i,;d je hqKq lsug
jdrh 3 WmlrKh 02
4'1 iy 4'2
ksmqK;d uuj,g wod< ikaOdrh
idlPd uKav,hla
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( WIaK;aj iy WIaK;ajh uekSu ms<sn|j

uYkh lsug
;dm m%idrKfha fh ms<sn|j uYkh
lsug
88
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
jdrh 3 WmlrKh 03
4'3 iy 4'4
ixl,am is;shu (concept map)
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( jdhqj, yeisu ms<sn|j ykd .ekSug

jdhqj, fN!;sl rdYs inkaO lsug
jdrh 3 WmlrKh 04
3'9
4'0 WmlrK iajNdjh
m%dfhda.sl mlaIKh
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
1'0 we.hS wjia:dj
( m%dfhda.sl l=i,;d je hqKq lsug

wdf,dalh ms<sn| wjfndaOh hqKq lsu
iudchSh l=i,;d je hqKq lsu'
jdrh 3 WmlrKh 05
3'10" 3'11" 4'5 iy 4'6
4'0 WmlrK iajNdjh
m%Yafkda;a;r fmd;
5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq
( .Ks;uh l=i,;d je hqKq lsug

;dmh fya;=fjka mod:fha yeisu ms<sn|
wjfndaOh ,nd .ekSug
j;kh ms<sn| oekqu ksia wefiys iy oDIa
WmlrKj, ls%hdld;ajh uYkh i|yd
fhdod .ekSug
89
uq,dY%
G.C.E. (A/L) Physics Teachers Guide, National Institute of Education, Maharagama, Sri
Lanka, 1996.
Gibbs, K., Advanced Physics (Second Edition), Cambridge University Press, 1996
Breithaupt, J., New Understanding Physics for Advanced Level (Fourth Edition), Nelson
Thrones Ltd. , 2000.
Hutching, R., Bath Advanced Science Physics (Second Edition), Nelson Thrones Ltd.,
2000.
Nolan, P.J., Fundamentals of College Physics, Wm. C. Brown Publishers, 1993.
Duncan, T., Physics (Second Edition), John Murray (Publishers) Ltd., 1987.
Halliday,D., Resnick, R., Walker, J., Fundamentals of Physics ( Sixth Edition),John Wiley &
Sons, Inc., 2001.
Adams, S., Allday, J., Advanaced Physics, Oxford University Press, 2000.
Muncaster, R., A Level Physics, Stanley Thrones (pvt) Ltd., 2000.
90

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fN!

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

.=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yh

cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh

m%:u uqo%Kh - 2009

ISBN 978 - 955 - 654 - 434 - 3

oHd" fi!LH yd Ydl wOHdmk fomd;fka;=j

uqKh ( rcfha uqK kS;s.; ixia:dj

wOHCI ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsvh

kslaIKh lsug n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk phd lsysmhls' .=re isiq fomdYjhg u nrla

wOHdmk m%ldYk flduidia ckrd,a;=udf.a mKsjqvh

uydpdh ,d,a fmfrd uhd -

wdpdh whs' t,a' .sksf.a h -

iyldr wOHlaI ckrd,a

iS' t' wd' weka;ks uhd

jHdmD;s kdhl - ^fN!;sl oHdj&

t' t,a' tia' msh;siai uhd -

iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od

tka' uqyqkaoka uy;d

iyldr jHdmD;s ks,Od

im;a mqoa., odhl;ajh

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