NUCLEIC ACIDS

Nucleic acids are molecules that store information for cellular growth and reproduction A nucleotide consists of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar and a phosphate group:

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

The pyrimidines and purines found in DNA and RNA

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

Structures of the four deoxyribonucleotides

Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids

Structures of the four ribonucleotides

Pentose Sugars
There are two related pentose sugars: - RNA contains ribose - DNA contains deoxyribose The sugars have their carbon atoms numbered with primes to distinguish them from the nitrogen bases

Ikatan nukleotida DNA dan RNA

Ikatan Hidrogen pada pasangan basa Watson dan Crick

Base Pairing in the DNA Double Helix

Avery-Macleod-McCarty

Difraksi Sinar X DNA

Watson-Crick model for the structure of DNA

 Hydrogen bonds between bases hold the strands together: A and T, C and G
Hydrogen bond

Ribbon model

Partial chemical structure

Computer model
Figure 10.3D

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Base Pairing in DNA: The Watson-Crick Model

Central dogma of molecular genetics The function of DNA is to store information and pass it to RNA The function of RNA is to read, decode, and use the information received from DNA to make proteins Three fundamental processes take place: Replication process by which identical copies of DNA are made so the information can be preserved and handed down to offspring Transcription the process by which the genetic messages are read and carried out of the cell nucleus to ribosomes, where protein synthesis occurs Translation the process by which the genetic messages are decoded and used to synthesize proteins

Replication of DNA
A representation of semiconservative DNA replication

How can entire chromosomes be replicated during S phase?

DNA replication begins at many specific sites

Origin of replication Parental strand Daughter strand

Bubble

Two daughter DNA molecules Figure 10.5A

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Direction of Replication
The enzyme helicase unwinds several sections of parent DNA At each open DNA section, called a replication fork, DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of 5-3ester bonds of the leading strand The lagging strand, which grows in the 3-5 direction, is synthesized in short sections called Okazaki fragments The Okazaki fragments are joined by DNA ligase to give a single 3-5 DNA strand

Worked Example 24.1

Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA
What sequence of bases on one strand of DNA is complementary to the sequence TATGCAT on another strand?

Worked Example 24.1

Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA
Strategy Remember that A and G form complementary pairs with T and C Go through the sequence replacing A by T, G by C, T by A, and C by G Remember that the 5 end is on the left and the 3 end is on the right in the original strand

Worked Example 24.1

Predicting the Complementary Base Sequence in Double-Stranded DNA
Solution Original: Compliment: (5) TATGCAT (3) (3) ATACGTA (5) or (5) ATGCATA (3)

 The information constituting an organisms genotype is carried in its sequence of bases

The DNA is transcribed into RNA, which is translated into the polypeptide
DNA

TRANSCRIPTION

RNA

TRANSLATION
Protein Figure 10.6A
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

DNA TRANSCRIPTION

 An exercise in translating the genetic code

Transcribed strand

DNA

Transcription

RNA

Start codon

Translation

Stop codon

Polypeptide
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Figure 10.8B

Virtually all organisms share the same genetic code unity of life Second Base
U C phe leu UCU UCC UCA UCG ser UAU UAC UAA UAG A tyr stop stop his gln asn lys asp glu UGU UGC UGA UGG G cys stop trp arg U C A G

UUU UUC UUA UUG

First Base

CUU CUC CUA CUG

leu

CCU CCC CCA CCG

ACU ACC ACA ACG GCU GCC GCA GCG

pro

CAU CAC CAA CAG

AAU AAC AAA AAG GAU GAC GAA GAG

CGU CGC CGA CGG

AGU AGC AGA AGG GGU GGC GGA GGG

U C A G
U C A G U C A G

Third Base

AUU AUC ile AUA AUG met (start) GUU GUC GUA GUG val

thr

ser arg

ala

gly

 Each tRNA molecule has a triplet anticodon on one end and an amino acid attachment site on the other
Amino acid attachment site

Anticodon
Figure 10.11B, C
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Ribosomes build polypeptides

Growing polypeptide tRNA molecules Large subunit P site A site Growing polypeptide

Next amino acid to be added to polypeptide

tRNA

P
mRNA binding site

A
mRNA

Codons

mRNA

Small subunit

Figure 10.12A-C
Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Worked Example 24.2

Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA
What amino acid sequence is coded by the following segment of a DNA coding strand?

(5) CTA-ACT-AGC-GGG-TCG-CCG (3)

Worked Example 24.2

Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA
Strategy The mRNA produced during translation is a copy of the DNA coding strand Each T replaced by U The mRNA has the sequence (5) CUA-ACU-AGC-GGG-UCG-CCG (3)

Worked Example 24.2

Predicting the Amino Acid Sequence Transcribed from DNA
Solution Leu-Thr-Ser-Gly-Ser-Pro

DNA Sequencing

Polymerase Chain Reaction

 Types of mutations
NORMAL GENE

mRNA
Protein Met Lys Phe Gly Ala

BASE SUBSTITUTION

Met

Lys

Phe

Ser

Ala

BASE DELETION

Missing

Met

Lys

Leu

Ala

His

Figure 10.16B

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Copyright 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued

11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued

Therapeutic Proteins The human insulin gene was the first application of recombinant DNA technology. It was incorporated into a bacteria called Escherichia coli. Insulin produced in this manner eliminated many of the side effects that occurred from the use of pig and cow insulin.
Recombinant technology is used to insert genes into crop and food plants offering many growth advantages.

11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued

Nuclear TransplantationCloning an Organism Clone means to make an exact copy. Cloning an organism creates a genetic copy of the original organism. Cloning involves taking nuclear DNA from an adult cell and transplanting it into an egg whose DNA has been removed.

11.8 Recombinant DNA Technology, Continued