Spanish Civil War

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The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted coup d'tat committed by parts of the army against the government of the Second Spanish Republic. The Civil War devastated Spain from 17 uly 1!"# to 1 $pril 1!"!% ending with the victory of the rebels and the founding of a dictatorship led by the &ascist 'eneral &rancisco &ranco and the defeat of the supporters of the Republic. Republicans (republicanos)% gained the support of the Soviet *nion and +e,ico% while the followers of the rebellion% nacionales (-ationalists)% received the support of the major .uropean $,is powers% namely /taly% 'ermany% as well as neighbouring 0ortugal. The war increased tensions in the lead1up to World War // and was largely seen as a possible war by pro,y between the Communist Soviet *nion and the &ascist $,is of &ascist /taly and -a2i 'ermany. /n particular% tan3s and bombing of cities from the air were features of the later war in .urope. The advent of the mass media allowed an unprecedented level of attention (.rnest 4emingway% +artha 'ellhorn% 'eorge 5rwell and Robert Capa all covered it) and so the war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired% and for atrocities committed on both sides of the conflict. 6i3e other Civil Wars% the Spanish Civil War often pitched family members and trusted neighbours and friends against each other. $part from the combatants% many civilians were 3illed for their political or religious views by both sides% and after the war ended in 1!"!% Republicans were at times persecuted by the victorious -ationalists.

Prelude to the war

&oreshadowing the conflict7 Salvador 8al9:s Soft Construction with Boiled Beans (Premonition of Civil War)

Historical context
There were several reasons for the war% many of them long1term tensions that had escalated over the years. Spain had undergone several civil wars and revolts% carried out by both the reformists and the conservatives% who tried to displace each other from power. $ liberal tradition that first ascended to power with the Spanish Constitution of 1;1< sought to abolish the absolutist monarchy of the old regime and to establish a liberal state. The most traditionalist sectors of the political sphere systematically tried to avert these reforms and to sustain the monarchy. The Carlists=supporters of /nfante Carlos and his descendants=rallied to the cry of >'od% Country and ?ing> and fought for the cause of Spanish tradition (absolutism and Catholicism) against the liberalism and later the republicanism of the Spanish

governments of the day. The Carlists% at times (including the Carlist Wars)% allied with nationalists (not to be confused with the nationalists of the Civil War) attempting to restore the historic liberties (and broad regional autonomy) granted by the fueros of the @asAue Country and Catalonia. &urther% from the mid11!th century onwards% the liberals were outflan3ed on their left by socialists of various types and especially by anarchists% who were far stronger and more numerous in Spain than anywhere else in .urope aside from (possibly) Russia. Spain e,perienced a number of different systems of rule in the period between the -apoleonic wars of the early 1!th century and the outbrea3 of the Civil War. 8uring most of the 1!th century% Spain was a constitutional monarchy% but under attac3 from these various directions. The &irst Spanish Republic% founded in 1;7"% was shortlived. $ monarchy under $lfonso B/// lasted from 1;;7 to 1!"1% but from 1!<" was held in place by the military dictatorship of +iguel 0rimo de Rivera. &ollowing 0rimo de Rivera:s overthrow in 1!"C% the monarchy was unable to maintain power and the Second Republic was declared in 1!"1. This Republic soon came to be led by a coalition of the left and center. $ number of controversial reforms were passed% such as the $grarian 6aw of 1!"<% distributing land among poor peasants. +illions of Spaniards had been living in more or less absolute poverty under the firm control of the aristocratic landowners in a Auasi1feudal system. These reforms% along with anticlericalist acts% as well as military cut1bac3s and reforms% created strong opposition.

Constitution of 19 1
Main article: Spanish Constitution of !" !he neutrality of this article is disputed"
0lease see the discussion on the tal3 page. (Ma# $%%&) 0lease do not remove this message until the dispute is resolved.

$ new constitution was adopted on ! 8ecember 1!"1. The document generally accorded thorough civil liberties and representation% the notable e,clusion being the rights of Catholics% a flaw which prevented the forming of an e,pansive democratic majority. DEFDGF The document provided for universal suffrage and proclaimed a purported complete separation of Church and State% but in actuality it provided for significant governmental interference in church matters% including the prohibition of teaching by religious even in private schools% confiscation of and prohibitions on ownership of church property% and the banning of the Society of esus.D#FD7F The revolution of 1!"1 essentially established an anticlerical government.D;F -ot only advocates of establishment of religion but also advocates of churchHstate separation saw the constitution as hostileI one such advocate of separation% ose 5rtega y 'asset% stated >the article in which the Constitution legislates the actions of the Church seems highly improper to me.>D!F 5n une "% 1!""% 0ope 0ius B/ condemned the Spanish 'overnment:s deprivation of the civil liberties on which the Republic was supposedly based in the encyclical 8ilectissima -obis (5n 5ppression 5f The Church 5f Spain )% noting in particular the e,propriation of Church property and schools and the persecution of religious communities and orders.D1CF Since the far left considered moderation of the anticlericalist aspects of the constitution as totally unacceptable% commentators have argued that >the Republic as a democratic constitutional regime was doomed from the outset>.D11F Commentators have posited that such a >hostile> approach to the issues of church and state were a substantial cause of the brea3down of democracy and the onset of civil war.D1<F

19

election and aftermath

6eading up to the Civil War% the state of the political establishment had been brutal and violent for some time. /n the 1!"" elections to the Cortes 'enerales% the Spanish Confederation of the $utonomous Right (ConfederaciJn .spaKola de 8erechas $utJnomas or C.8$) won a plurality of seats. /t was however not enough to form a majority. 8espite the results% then 0resident -iceto $lcalL1Mamora declined to invite the leader of the C.8$ to form a government and instead invited the Radical Republican 0arty and its leader $lejandro 6errou, to do so. C.8$ supported the 6errou, governmentI it later demanded and% on 1 5ctober 1!"E% received three ministerial positions. 4ostility between both the left and the right increased after the formation of the 'overnment. Spain e,perienced general stri3es and street conflicts. -oted among the stri3es was the miners: revolt in northern Spain and riots in +adrid. -early all rebellions were crushed by the 'overnment and political arrests followed. 6errou,:s alliance with the right% his harsh suppression of the revolt in 1!"E% and the Stra10erlo scandal combined to leave him and his party with little support going into the 1!"# election. (6errou, himself lost his seat in parliament.)

19 # Popular Front victory and aftermath

/n the 1!"# .lections a new coalition of Socialists (Socialist Wor3ers 0arty of Spain% 0S5.)% liberals (Republican 6eft and the Republican *nion 0arty)% Communists% and various regional nationalist groups won the e,tremely tight election. The results gave "E percent of the popular vote to the 0opular &ront and "" percent to the incumbent government of the C.8$. This result% when coupled with the Socialists: refusal to participate in the new government% led to a general fear of revolution. This was made only more apparent when 6argo Caballero% hailed as >the Spanish 6enin> by 0ravda% announced that the country was on the cusp of revolution. 4owever these statements were meant only to remove any moderates from his coalition. +oderate Socialist /ndalecio 0rieto condemned the rhetoric and marches as provocative.

$ims of the Popular Front

&rom the Comintern:s point of view the increasingly powerful% if fragmented% left and the wea3 right were an optimum situation.D1"F Their goal was to use a veil of legitimate democratic institutions to outlaw the right and to convert the state into the Soviet vision of a >people:s republic> with total leftist domination% a goal which was repeatedly voiced not only in Comintern instructions but also in the public statements of the 0C. (Communist 0arty of Spain).D1EF

$%a&a 'ecomes president

Without the Socialists% 0rime +inister +anuel $2aKa% a liberal who favored gradual reform while respecting the democratic process% led a minority government. /n $pril% parliament replaced 0resident -iceto $lcalL1Mamora% a moderate who had alienated virtually all the partiesDcitation neededF% with $2aKa. The removal of Mamora was made on specious grounds and in violation of the constitution.D1GF $lthough the right also voted for Mamora:s removal% this was a watershed event which inspired many conservatives to give up on parliamentary politics. $2aKa was the object of intense hatred by Spanish rightists% who remembered how he had pushed a reform agenda through a recalcitrant parliament in 1!"1N"". oaAu9n $rrarLs% a friend of &rancisco &ranco% called him >a repulsive caterpillar of red Spain.>D1#F The Spanish generals particularly disli3ed $2aKa because he had cut the army:s budget and closed the military academy while war minister (1!"1). C.8$ turned its campaign chest over to army plotter .milio +ola. +onarchist osO Calvo Sotelo replaced C.8$:s 'il Robles as the right:s leading spo3esman in parliament.D1#F

(isin) tensions and political violence

This was a period of rising tensions. Radicals became more aggressive% while conservatives turned to paramilitary and vigilante actions. $ccording to official sources% ""C people were assassinated and 1%G11 were wounded in politically1related violenceI records show <1" failed assassination attempts% 11" general stri3es% and the destruction (typically by arson) of 1#C religious buildings.D17F

*eaths of Castillo and Calvo Sotelo

5n 1< uly 1!"#% in +adrid% a far right group murdered 6ieutenant osO Castillo of the $ssault 'uards% a special police corps created to deal with urban violence% and a Socialist. The ne,t day% leftist gunman 6uis Cuenca 3illed osO Calvo Sotelo% a leader of the conservative opposition in the Cortes (Spanish parliament)% in revenge. Cuenca was operating in a commando unit of the $ssault 'uard led by Captain &ernando CondOs Romero. CondOs was close to the Socialist leader /ndalecio 0rieto% but there is no indication that 0rieto was complicit in Cuenca:s assassination of Calvo Sotelo. 4owever% the murder of such a prominent member of parliament% with involvement of the police% aroused suspicions and strong reactions amongst the Center and the Right.D1;F Calvo Sotelo was the leading Spanish monarchist. 4e protested against what he viewed as escalating anti1religious terror% e,propriations% and hasty agricultural reforms% which he considered @olshevist and anarchist. 4e instead advocated the creation of a corporative state and declared that if such a state was fascist% he was also a fascist.D1!F 4e also declared that Spanish soldiers would be mad to not rise for Spain against $narchy. /n turn% the leader of the communists% 8olores /barruri% 3nown as 'a Pasionaria% allegedly vowed that Calvo Sotelo:s speech would be his last speech in the Cortes.D<CFD<1F $lthough the -ationalist generals were already at advanced stages of planning an uprising% the event is seen by some as a catalyst for what followed.

+ut'reak of the war

,ationalist military revolt
5n 17 uly 1!"#% the nationalist1traditionalist rebellion long feared by some in the 0opular &ront government began. /ts beginning was signaled by the phrase >5ver all of Spain% the s3y is clear> that was broadcast on the radio. Casares Puiroga% who had succeeded $2aKa as prime minister% had in the previous wee3s e,iled the military officers suspected of conspiracy against the Republic% including 0uerto Rico1born 'eneral +anuel 'oded 6lopis and 'eneral &rancisco &ranco% sent to the @alearic /slands and to the Canary /slands% respectively. @oth generals immediately too3 control of these islands. $ @ritish +/# intelligence agent% +ajor 4ugh 0ollard% then flew &ranco to Spanish +oroccoD<<F in a de 4avilland 84.;! 8ragon Rapide to see uan +arch 5rdinas% where the Spanish $rmy of $frica% led by -ationalist ran3s% were almost unopposed in assuming control.

-overnment reaction
The rising was intended to be a swift coup d:Otat% but was botched in certain areas allowing the government to retain control of parts of the country. $t this first stage% the rebels failed to ta3e any major cities = in +adrid they were hemmed into the +ontaKa barrac3s. The barrac3s fell the ne,t day with much bloodshed. /n @arcelona% anarchists armed themselves and defeated the rebels. 'eneral 'oded% who arrived from the @alearic islands% was captured and later e,ecuted. 4owever% the turmoil facilitated anarchist control over @arcelona and much of the surrounding $ragonese and Catalan

countryside% effectively brea3ing away from the Republican government. The Republicans held on to Qalencia and controlled almost all of the .astern Spanish coast and central area around +adrid. .,cept for $sturias% Cantabria and part of the @asAue Country% the -ationals too3 most of northern and northwestern Spain and also a southern area in central and western $ndalusia including Seville.

!he com'atants
!he (epu'licans

0olish volunteers of the /nternational @rigades. Republicans (also 3nown as Spanish loyalists) received weapons and volunteers from the Soviet *nion% +e,ico% the international Socialist movement and the /nternational @rigades. The Republicans ranged from centrists who supported a moderately capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists and communistsI their power base was primarily secular and urban% but also included landless peasants% and it was particularly strong in industrial regions li3e $sturias and Catalonia.D<"F This faction was called variously the >loyalists> by its supporters% the >Republicans>% >the 0opular &ront> or >the 'overnment> by all parties% and >the reds> by its enemies. The conservative% strongly Catholic @asAue country% along with 'alicia and the more left1leaning Catalonia% sought autonomy or even independence from the central government of +adrid. This option was left open by the Republican government.D<EF $ll these forces were gathered under the >.jOrcito 0opular Republicano> (.0R) or Republican 0opular $rmy. Scholar Stanley '. 0ayne claimed that by the time of the outbrea3 of war Republicans had abandoned constitutional republicanism for leftist revolution7
The leftist 2one has been variously designated >Republican%> >loyalist%> and >0opular &ront.> 5f those terms% the adjective >loyalist> is somewhat misleading% for there was no attempt to remain loyal to the constitutional Republican regime. /f that had been the scrupulous policy of the left% there would have been no revolt and civil war in the first place. Thus after uly 1!"# what remained of the constitutional Republic gave way to the >revolutionary Republican confederation> of 1!"#N1!"7. D<GFD<#F

!he ,ationalists
The -ationalists on the contrary opposed the separatist movements% but were chiefly defined by their anti1communism and their fear of Spain brea3ing up% which served as the galvani2ing agent of diverse or even opposed movements li3e falangists or monarchists. This side was called the >-ationalists>% the >rebels>% or the >insurgents>. Their opponents referred to them as the &ascists or &rancoists. Their leaders had a generally wealthier% more conservative% monarchist% landowning bac3ground% and they favoured the centrali2ation of state power. /n turn% their support for the Catholic Church% provided them with popular support.Dcitation neededF -a2i 'ermany and &ascist /taly% as well as most Roman Catholic

clergy% supported the -ationalists% while 0ortugal:s .stado -ovo provided logistical support. Their forces were gathered into the >.jOrcito -acional> or -ational $rmy.

+ther factions in the war

The active participants in the war covered the entire gamut of the political positions and ideologies of the time. The -ationalist (nacionales) side included the Carlists and 6egitimist monarchists% Spanish nationalists% the &alange% Catholics% and most conservatives and monarchist liberals. 5n the Republican side were socialists% communists% liberals and anarchists. Catalan and @asAue nationalists were not univocal. 6eft1wing Catalan nationalists were on the Republican side. Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal supporting the Republican government due to the anti1clericalism and confiscations occurring in some areas controlled by the latter (some conservative Catalan nationalists li3e &rancesc CambJ actually funded the rebel side). @asAue nationalists% heralded by the conservative @asAue nationalist party% were mildly supportive of the Republican government% even though @asAue nationalists in Rlava and -avarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing Catalan conservative nationalists. To view the political alignments from another perspective% the -ationals included the majority of the Catholic clergy and of practicing Catholics (outside of the @asAue region)% important elements of the army% most of the large landowners% and many businessmen. The Republicans included most urban wor3ers% most peasants% and much of the educated middle class% especially those who were not entrepreneurs. The genial monarchist 'eneral osO Sanjurjo was the figurehead of the rebellion% while .milio +ola was chief planner and second in command. +ola began serious planning in the spring% but 'eneral &rancisco &ranco hesitated until early uly% inspiring other plotters to refer to him as >+iss Canary /slands 1!"#.> &ranco was a 3ey player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1!"E. Warned that a military coup was imminent% leftists put barricades up on the roads on uly 17. &ranco avoided capture by ta3ing a tugboat to the airport. &rom there he was flown to +orocco by @ritish intelligence% where he too3 command of the battle1 hardened colonial army in Spanish +orocco.D<7FD<;F Sanjurjo was 3illed in a plane crash on uly <C% leaving effective command split between +ola in the north and &ranco in the South. &ranco was chosen overall commander at a meeting of ran3ing generals at Salamanca on September <1. 4e outran3ed +ola and by this point his $rmy of $frica had demonstrated its military superiority. 5ne of the -ationalist:s principal claimed motives was to confront the anti1clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Roman Catholic Church% which had been the target of attac3s% and which many on the Republican side blamed for the ills of the country. .ven before the war religious buildings were burnt and clergy 3illed without action on the part of the Republican authorities to prevent it. $s part of the social revolution ta3ing place% others were turned into (ouses of the People.D<!F Similarly% many of the massacres perpetrated by the Republican side targeted the Catholic clergy. &ranco:s +oroccan +uslim troops found this repulsive as well% and for the most part fought loyally and often ferociously for the -ationalists. $rticles <E and <# of the Constitution of the Republic had banned the esuits% which deeply offended many within the conservatives. The revolution in the republican 2one at the outset of the war% 3illing 7%CCC clergy and thousands of lay people% constituted what Stanley 0ayne called the >most e,tensive and violent persecution of Catholicism in Western 4istory% in some way even more intense than that of the &rench Revolution>% driving Catholics% left then with little alternative% to the -ationalists even more than would have been e,pected.D"CF $fter the beginning of the -ationalist coup% anger flared anew at the Church and its role in Spanish politics. -otwithstanding these religious matters%

the @asAue nationalists% who nearly all sided with the Republic% were% for the most part% practicing Catholics. Republican sympathi2ers proclaimed it as a struggle between >tyranny and democracy>% or >fascism and liberty>% and many non1Spanish youth% committed reformers and revolutionaries joined the /nternational @rigades% believing that the Spanish Republic was the front line of the war against fascism. &ranco:s supporters% however% portrayed it as a battle between the >red hordes> of communism and anarchism on the one hand and >Christian civili2ation> on the other. They also stated that they were protecting the .stablishment and bringing security and direction to what they felt was an ungoverned and lawless society.D"1F The Republicans were also split among themselves. The left and @asAue or Catalan nationalist conservatives had many conflicting ideas. The Cortes (Spanish 0arliament) consisted of 1# parties in 1!"1. When autonomy was granted to Catalonia and the @asAue 0rovinces in 1!"<% a nationalist coup was attempted but failed. $n attempt by the communists to sei2e control resisted by anarchists resulted in the massacre of hundreds of rebels and intra civil war between anarchists and communists in Catalonia.

Forei)n involvement
Main article: )orei*n involvement in the Spanish Civil War

&lag of the /rish @lueshirts% an /rish fascist movement led by .oin 5:8uffy which participated in fighting alongside &ranco:s nationalists against republican and socialist forces. The Spanish Civil War had large numbers of non1Spanish citi2ens participating in combat and advisory positions. &oreign governments contributed large amounts of financial assistance and military aid to forces led by 'eneral9simo &rancisco &ranco. &orces fighting on behalf of the Second Spanish Republic also received limited aid but support was seriously hampered by the arms embargo declared by &rance and the *?. These embargoes were never e,tremely effective however% and &rance especially was accused of allowing large shipments through to the Republicans 1 though the accusations often came from /taly% itself heavily involved for the -ationalists. The clandestine actions of the various .uropean powers were at the time considered to be ris3ing another :'reat War: D"<F.

.taly and -ermany

@oth &ascist /taly% under dictator @enito +ussolini% and -a2i 'ermany% under dictator $dolf 4itler% sent troops% aircraft% tan3s% and other weapons to support &ranco. The /talian government provided the >Corps of Qolunteer Troops> (Corpo +ruppe ,olontarie) and 'ermany sent the >Condor 6egion> ('e*ion Condor). The CTQ reached a high of about GC%CCC men and as many as 7G%CCC /talians fought in Spain. The 'erman force numbered about 1<%CCC men at its 2enith and as many as 1!%CCC 'ermans fought in Spain.

Soviet /nion

The Soviet *nion primarily provided material assistance to the Republican forces. While Soviet troops amounted to no more than 7CC men% Soviet >volunteers> often piloted aircraft or operated tan3s purchased by the Spanish Republican forces. The Republic had to purchase Soviet assistance with the official gold reserves of the @an3 of Spain (see +oscow 'old)% obtaining armament of marginal Auality that% in addition% was sold at deliberately inflated prices. The cost for the Republic of the Soviet support raised more than *SSGCC million% which made up two1thirds of the gold reserves that Spain had at the beginning of the war.

.nternational 'ri)ade volunteers

The troops of the /nternational @rigades represented the largest foreign contingent of troops fighting for the Republicans. Roughly "C%CCC foreign nationals from possibly up to G" nations fought in the various brigades. +ost of them were communists or trade unionists% and while organised by communists guided or controlled by +oscow% they were almost all individual volunteers.

0exico
The +e,ican Republic supported fully and publicly the claim of the +adrid government. +e,ico refused to follow the &rench1@ritish -on1/ntervention proposals% recogni2ing immediately the great advantage they offered the /nsurgents. Contrary to the *nited States% +e,ico did not feel that neutrality between an elected government and a military junta was a proper policy. +e,ico:s attitude gave immense moral comfort to the Republic% especially since the major 6atin $merican governments 1 those of $rgentina% @ra2il% Chile% and 0eru 1 sympathi2ed more or less openly with the /nsurgents. @ut +e,ican aid could mean relatively little in practical terms if the &rench border were closed and if the dictators remained free to supply the /nsurgents with a Auality and Auantity of weapons far beyond the power of +e,ico. 4owever% +e,ico provided some material assistance% which included a small amount of $merican made aircraft such as the @ellanca C41"CC and Spartan Meus that served in the +e,ican $ir &orce.

.rish volunteers
/reland was the only country where pro1&ranco volunteers outnumbered the anti1&ranco volunteers.Dcitation neededF 8espite the declaration by the /rish government that participation in the war was illegal% around <GC /rishmen went to fight for the Republicans and around 7CC of .oin 5:8uffy:s followers (>The @lueshirts>) went to Spain to fight on &ranco:s side. 5n arrival% however% 5:8uffy:s /rish contingent refused to fight the @asAues for &ranco% seeing parallels between their recent struggle and @asAue aspirations. They saw their primary role in Spain as fighting communism% rather than defending Spain:s territorial integrity. .oin 5:8uffy:s men saw little fighting in Spain and were sent home by &ranco after being accidentally fired on by Spanish -ationalist troops.

1vacuation of children
$s war proceeded in the -orthern front% the Republican authorities arranged the evacuation of children. These Spanish War children were shipped to @ritain% @elgium% the Soviet *nion% other .uropean countries and +e,ico. Those in Western .uropean countries returned to their families after the war% but many of those in the Soviet *nion% from Communist families% remained and e,perienced the Second World War and its effects on the Soviet *nion.

6i3e the Republican side% the -ationalist side of &ranco also arranged evacuations of children% women and elderly from war 2ones. Refugee camps for those civilians evacuated by the -ationalists were set up in 0ortugal% /taly% 'ermany% the -etherlands and @elgium.

Pacifism in Spain
/n the 1!"Cs Spain also became a focus for pacifist organi2ations including the &ellowship of Reconciliation% the War Resisters 6eague and the War Resisters: /nternational (whose president was the @ritish +0 and 6abour 0arty leader 'eorge 6ansbury). +any people including% as they are now called% the :insumisos: (:defiant ones:% i.e.% conscientious objectors) argued and wor3ed for non1violent strategies. 0rominent Spanish pacifists such as $mparo 0och y 'ascJn and osO @rocca supported the Republicans. $s $merican author Scott 4. @ennett has demonstrated% :pacifism: in Spain certainly did not eAuate with :passivism:% and the dangerous wor3 underta3en and sacrifices made by pacifist leaders and activists such as 0och and @rocca show that :pacifist courage is no less heroic than the military 3ind: (@ennett% <CC"7 #7N#;). @rocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative but to ma3e a stand against fascism. 4e put this stand into practice by various means including organising agricultural wor3ers to maintain food supplies and through humanitarian wor3 with war refugees.D""F

$trocities durin) the war

-ationalist aircraft bomb +adrid in late -ovember 1!"#. $t least GC%CCC people were e,ecuted during the civil war.D"EFD"GF /n his recent% updated history of the Spanish Civil War% $ntony @eevor >rec3ons &ranco:s ensuing :white terror: claimed <CC%CCC lives. The :red terror: had already 3illed ";%CCC.>D"#F ulius Rui2 concludes that >although the figures remain disputed% a minimum of "7%;E" e,ecutions were carried out in the Republican 2one with a ma,imum of 1GC%CCC e,ecutions (including GC%CCC after the war) in -ationalist Spain.>D"7F The atrocities of the Bando -acional were common and were freAuently ordered by authorities in order to eradicate any trace of leftism in SpainI many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first wee3s of the war. This included the e,ecution of school teachersD";F (because the efforts of the Republic to promote laicism and to displace the Church from the education system by closing religious schools were considered by the Bando -acional side as an attac3 on the Church)I the e,ecution of individuals because of accusations of anti1clericalismDcitation neededFI the massive 3illings of civilians in the cities they capturedID"!F the e,ecution of unwanted individuals (including non1combatantsDECF such as trade1unionists and 3nown Republican sympathisers etc)DE1F $n e,ample of this 3ind of tactics on the -ationalist side was the +assacre of @adajo2 in 1!"#. DE<F. The -ationalist side also conducted aerial bombing of cities in the Republican territory% carried out mainly by the 'uftwaffe volunteers of the Condor 'e*ion and the .talian air force volunteers of the

Corpo +ruppe ,olontarie (+adrid% @arcelona% Qalencia% 'uernica% and other cities). The most notorious e,ample of this tactic of terror bombings was the @ombing of 'uernica.

Spanish 6eftists shoot at a statue of esus Christ $trocities by the Republicans have been termed Spain:s red terror by those on the -ationalist side. Republican attac3s on the Catholic Church% associated strongly with support for the old monarchist and hierarchical establishment% were particularly controversial. -early 7%CCC clerics were 3illed and churches% convents and monasteries were attac3ed (see +artyrs of the Spanish Civil War). Some 1" bishops% E1;E diocesan priests% <"#G male religious (among them 11E esuits) and <;" nuns were 3illed. There are unverified accounts of Catholics being forced to swallow rosary beads andHor being thrown down mine shafts% as well as priests being forced to dig their own graves before being buried alive.DE"F 0ope ohn 0aul // beatified several hundred people murdered for being priests or nuns% and 0ope @enedict BQ/ beatified almost GCC more on 5ctober <;% <CC7.DEEF.DEGFDE#F 5ther repressive actions in the Republican side were committed by specific factions such as the Stalinist -?Q8 (the Soviet secret police).DE7F /n addition% many Republican politicians% such as 6lu9s Companys the Catalan nationalist president of the /eneralitat de Catalun#a% the autonomous government of Catalonia Nwhich remained initially loyal to the Republic before proclaiming independence from itN carried out numerous actions to mediate in cases of deliberate e,ecutions of the clergy. DE;F

!he War
19 #

Situation of the fronts in $ugust1September 1!"#. Main article: Spanish Civil War chronolo*# !"0 /n the early days of the war% over GC%CCC people who were caught on the >wrong> side of the lines were assassinated or e,ecuted. /n these paseos (>strolls>)% as the e,ecutions were called% the victims were ta3en from their refuges or jails by armed people to be shot outside of town. The corpses were abandoned or interred in graves dug by the victims themselves. 6ocal police just noted the appearance of

the corpses. 0robably the most famous such victim was the poet and dramatist &ederico 'arc9a 6orca. The outbrea3 of the war provided an e,cuse for settling accounts and resolving long1standing feuds. Thus% this practice became widespread during the war in conAuered areas. $ny hope of a Auic3 ending to the war was dashed on <1 uly% the fifth day of the rebellion% when the -ationalists captured the main Spanish naval base at &errol in northwestern Spain. This encouraged the &ascist nations of .urope to help &ranco% who had already contacted the governments of -a2i 'ermany and &ascist /taly the day before. 5n uly <#% the future $,is 0owers cast their lot with the -ationalists. $ rebel force under Colonel @eorlegui Canet% sent by 'eneral .milio +ola% advanced on 'uipT2coa. 5n September Gth% after heavy fighting it too3 /rTn closing the &rench border to the Republicans. 5n September 1"th the @asAues surrendered San SebastiLn to the -ationalists who then advanced toward their capital% @ilbao but were halted by the Republican militias on the border of Qiscaya at the end of September. The capture of 'uipT2coa had isolated the Republican provinces in the north. To the south% -ationalist forces under &ranco won another victory on <7 September when they relieved the $lcL2ar at Toledo. $ -ationalist garrison under Colonel +oscardo had held the $lcL2ar in the center of the city since the beginning of the rebellion% resisting for months against thousands of Republican troops who completely surrounded the isolated building. The inability to ta3e the $lcL2ar was a serious blow to the prestige of the Republic% as it was considered ine,plicable in view of their overwhelming numerical superiority in the area. Two days after relieving the siege% &ranco proclaimed himself /eneral1simo and Caudillo (>chieftain>) while forcibly unifying the various and diverse &alangist% Royalist and other elements within the -ationalist cause. /n 5ctober% the &rancoist troops launched a major offensive toward +adrid% reaching it in early -ovember and launching a major assault on the city on ; -ovember. The Republican government was forced to shift from +adrid to Qalencia% out of the combat 2one% on # -ovember. 4owever% the -ationalists: attac3 on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between -ovember ; and <". $ contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the arrival of the /nternational @rigades% though only around "CCC of them participated in the battle. 4aving failed to ta3e the capital% &ranco bombarded it from the air and% in the following two years% mounted several offensives to try to encircle +adrid. (See also Siege of +adrid (1!"#1"!)) 5n 1; -ovember% 'ermany and /taly officially recogni2ed the &ranco regime% and on <" 8ecember% /taly sent >volunteers> of its own to fight for the -ationalists.

19 2

0icasso:s /uernica was painted as a representation of the bombing of 'uernica. Main article: Spanish Civil War chronolo*# !"2 With his ran3s being swelled by /talian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from +orocco% &ranco made another attempt to capture +adrid in anuary and &ebruary 1!"7% but failed again. 5n <1 &ebruary the 6eague of -ations -on1/ntervention Committee ban on foreign national >volunteers> went into effect. The large city of +Llaga was ta3en on ; &ebruary. 5n 7 +arch 'erman Condor 6egion eAuipped with 4ein3el 4e G1 biplanes arrived in SpainI on <# $pril the 6egion was

responsible for the infamous massacre of hundreds% including numerous women and children% at 'uernica in the @asAue CountryI the event was committed to notoriety by 0icasso. Two days later% &ranco:s army overran the town. $fter the fall of 'uernica% the Republican government began to fight bac3 with increasing effectiveness. /n uly% they made a move to recapture Segovia% forcing &ranco to pull troops away from the +adrid front to halt their advance. +ola% &ranco:s second1in1command% was 3illed on une "% and in early uly% despite the fall of @ilbao in une% the government actually launched a strong counter1offensive in the +adrid area% which the -ationalists repulsed with some difficulty. The clash was called >@attle of @runete> (@runete is a town in the province of +adrid). $fter that% &ranco regained the initiative% invading $ragJn in $ugust and then ta3ing the city of Santander. With the surrender of the Republican army in the @asAue territory and after two months of bitter fighting in $sturias ('ijJn finally fell in late 5ctober) the war was effectively ended in the north front with a &rancoist victory. +eanwhile% on $ugust <;% the Qatican recogni2ed &ranco% and at the end of -ovember% with &ranco:s troops closing in on Qalencia% the government had to move again% this time to @arcelona.

19 3

Situation of the fronts in -ovember 1!";. Main article: Spanish Civil War chronolo*# !"&3 !"! The @attle of Teruel was an important confrontation between -ationalist and Republican troops. The city belonged to the -ationalists at the beginning of the battle% but remar3ably% the Republicans conAuered it in anuary. The &rancoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by << &ebruary. 4owever% in order to do so% &ranco had to rely heavily on 'erman and /talian air support and subseAuently repaid them with e,tensive mining rights. 5n +arch 7% the -ationalists launched the $ragon 5ffensive. @y $pril 1E% they had pushed through to the +editerranean Sea% cutting the Republican government1held portion of Spain in two. The Republican government tried to sue for peace in +ayDE!F but &ranco demanded unconditional surrender% and the war raged on. The -ationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Qalencia but was halted in heavy fighting along the fortified BUM 6ine. The Republican government then launched an all1out campaign to reconnect their territory in the @attle of the .bro% beginning on uly <E and lasting until -ovember <#. The campaign was militarily unsuccessful% and was undermined by the &ranco1@ritish appeasement of 4itler in +unich with the concession of C2echoslova3ia. This effectively destroyed the last vestiges of Republican morale by ending all hope of an anti1fascist alliance with the Western powers. The retreat from the .bro all but determined the final outcome of the war. .ight days before the new year% &ranco struc3 bac3 by throwing massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia.

19 9
Main article: Spanish Civil War chronolo*# !"&3 !"!

&ranco declares the end of the war. 4owever% small poc3ets of insurgents still fought. &ranco:s troops conAuered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1!"!. Tarragona fell on 1E anuary% followed by @arcelona on <# anuary and 'irona on G &ebruary. &ive days after the fall of 'irona% the last resistance in Catalonia was bro3en. 5n <7 &ebruary% the governments of the *nited ?ingdom and &rance recogni2ed the &ranco regime. 5nly +adrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican government forces. Then% on <; +arch% with the help of pro1&ranco forces inside the city (not as effective as described by 'eneral +ola in his propagandistic broadcasts of 1!"# referring to the so1called >fifth column>)% +adrid fell to the -ationalists. The ne,t day% Qalencia% which had held out under their guns for close to two years% also surrendered. &ranco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 $pril% when the last of the Republican forces surrendered. $fter the end of the War% there were harsh reprisals against &ranco:s former enemies%DGCF when thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least "C%CCC e,ecuted.DG1F 5thers have calculated these deaths at from GC%CCC to <CC%CCC. +any others were put to forced labour% building railways% drying out swamps% digging canals ('a Corchuela% the Canal of the @ajo 'uadalAuivir)% construction of the Qalle de los Ca9dos monument% etc. 4undreds of thousands of other Republicans fled abroad% especially to &rance and +e,ico. Some GCC%CCC of them fled to &rance.DG<F 5n the other side of the 0yrenees% refugees were confined in internment camps of the &rench Third Republic% such as Camp 'urs or Camp Qernet% where 1<%CCC Republicans were housed in sAualid conditions (mostly soldiers from the 8urruti 8ivisionDG"F). The 17%CCC refugees housed in 'urs were divided into four categories (@rigadists% pilots% /udaris and ordinary Spaniards). The /udaris (@asAues) and the pilots easily found local bac3ers and jobs% and were allowed to Auit the camp% but the farmers and ordinary people% who could not find relations in &rance% were encouraged by the Third Republic% in agreement with the &rancoist government% to return to Spain. The great majority did so and were turned over to the &rancoist authorities in /rTn. &rom there they were transferred to the +iranda de .bro camp for >purification> according to the 6aw of 0olitical Responsibilities. $fter the proclamation by +arshall 0Otain of the Qichy regime% the refugees became political prisoners% and the &rench police attempted to round1up those who had been liberated from the camp. $long with other >undesirables>% they were sent to the 8rancy internment camp before being deported to -a2i

'ermany. $bout G%CCC Spaniards thus died in +authausen concentration camp.DGEF The Chilean poet 0ablo -eruda% who had been named by the Chilean 0resident 0edro $guirre Cerda special consul for immigration in 0aris% was given responsibility for what he called >the noblest mission / have ever underta3en>7 shipping more than <%CCC Spanish refugees% who had been housed by the &rench in sAualid camps% to Chile on an old cargo ship% the Winnipe*DGGF. $fter the official end of the war% guerrilla war was waged on an irregular basis% well into the 1!GCs% being gradually reduced by the scant support from an e,hausted population and military defeats. /n 1!EE% a group of republican veterans% who also fought in the &rench resistance against the -a2is% invaded the Qal d:$ran in northwest Catalonia% but they were defeated after 1C days.

Social revolution
Main article: Spanish 4evolution /n the anarchist1controlled areas% $ragJn and Catalonia% in addition to the temporary military success% there was a vast social revolution in which the wor3ers and peasants collectivised land and industry% and set up councils parallel to the paraly2ed Republican government. This revolution was opposed by both the Soviet1supported communists% who ultimately too3 their orders from Stalin:s politburo (which feared a loss of control)% and the Social 8emocratic Republicans (who worried about the loss of civil property rights). The agrarian collectives had considerable success despite opposition and lac3 of resources% as &ranco had already captured lands with some of the richest natural resources.DG#F $s the war progressed% the government and the communists were able to leverage their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort% through both diplomacy and force. $narchists and the Wor3ers: 0arty of +ar,ist *nification (Partido 5brero de 6nificaci7n Mar8ista% or 05*+) were integrated with the regular army% albeit with resistanceI the 05*+ was outlawed and falsely denounced as an instrument of the fascists. /n the Ma# 9a#s of 1!"7% many hundreds or thousands of anti1fascist soldiers fought one another for control of strategic points in @arcelona% recounted by 'eorge 5rwell in (oma*e to Catalonia.

Political parties and or)ani%ations

Political parties and or)ani%ations in the Spanish Civil WarDhideF !he Popular Front 4(epu'lican5 Supporters of the Popular Front 4(epu'lican5 The 0opular &ront was an electoral alliance formed between various left1wing and centrist parties for elections to the Cortesin 1!"#% in which the alliance won a majority of seats. /( 4/ni6n (epu'licana 7 (epu'lican /nion58 6ed by 8iego +art9ne2 @arrio% formed in 1!"E by members of the 0RR who had resigned in objection to $lejandro 6errou,:s coalition with the C.8$. /t drew its main support from s3illed wor3ers and progressive businessmen. .( 4.%9uierda (epu'licana 7 (epu'lican :eft58 6ed by former 0rime +inister +anuel $2aKa after his $cciJn Republicana party merged with Santiago Casares Puiroga:s 'alician independence party and the 0RRS (Socialist Radical Republican 0arty). /t drew its support from s3illed wor3ers% small businessmen and civil servants. $2aKa led the 0opular &ront and became 0resident of Spain. The /R formed the bul3 of the first government after the 0opular &ront victory% with members of the *R and the .RC. 1(C 41s9uerra (epu'licana de Catalunya 7 (epu'lican :eft of Catalonia58 The Catalan faction of $2aKa:s Republicans% led by 6lu9s Companys. PS+1 4Partido Socialista +'rero 1spa&ol 7 Spanish Socialist Workers; Party58

,ationalists 4Francoist5

/ni6n 0ilitar (epu'licana $ntifascista 4(epu'lican $nti7fascist 0ilitary /nion58 Qirtually all -ationalist groups had very strong &ormed by military officers in opposition to Roman Catholic convictions and supported the the *niJn +ilitar .spaKola. native Spanish clergy. Anarchist groups. The anarchists boycotted the 1!"# Cortes election and initially /ni6n 0ilitar 1spa&ola 4Spanish 0ilitary opposed the 0opular &ront government% but /nion5 1 a conservative political joined during the Civil War% when 6argo organisation of officers in the armed forces% Caballero became 0rime +inister. including outspo3en critics of the Republic C,! 4Confederaci6n ,acional del li3e &rancisco &ranco. &ormed in 1!"E% !ra'a<o 7 ,ational Confederation from its inception the *+. secretly courted of :a'our58 The confederation of fascist /taly. $fter the electoral victory of anarcho1syndicalist trade unions. the 0opular &ront% it began plotting a coup F$. 4Federaci6n $nar9uista with monarchist and fascist groups in Spain. .'=rica 7 .'erian $narchist /n the run1up to the Civil War it was led by Federation58 The federation of .milio +ola and osO Sanjurjo% and latterly anarchist groups% very active in the &ranco. Republican militias. Alfonsist Monarchist 1 supported the 0u<eres :i'res 4Free Women58 restoration of $lfonso B///. +any army The anarchist feminist organisation. officers% aristocrats and landowners were F.>: 4Federaci6n .'=rica de $lfonsine% but there was little popular >uventudes :i'ertarias 7 .'erian support. Federation of $narchist ?outh5 (enovaci6n 1spa&ola 4Spanish Basque separatists. (estoration5 1 the main $lfonsine P,@ 4Partido ,acionalista @asco political party. 7 Aas9ue ,ationalist Party58 $ $cci6n 1spa&ola 4Spanish $ction5 Catholic Christian 8emocrat party 1 a fascist party led by ose Calvo under osO $ntonio $guirre% which Sotelo% formed in 1!"" around a campaigned for greater autonomy or journal of the same name edited by independence for the @asAue region. Ramiro de +ae2tu. 4eld seats in the Cortes and Alo9ue ,acional 4,ational

&ormed in 1;7!% its alliance with $cciJn Republicana in municipal elections in 1!"1 saw a landslide victory that led to the ?ing:s abdication and the creation of the Second Republic. The two parties won the subseAuent general election% but the 0S5. left the coalition in 1!"". $t the time of the Civil War the 0S5. was split between a right wing under /ndalecio 0rieto and uan -egr9n% and a left wing under 6argo Caballero. &ollowing the 0opular &ront victory it was the second largest party in the Cortes% after the C.8$I it supported the ministries of $2aKa and Puiroga but did not actively participate until the Civil War began. /t had majority support amongst urban manual wor3ers. /-! 4/ni6n -eneral de !ra'a<adores 7 -eneral /nion of Workers58 The socialist trade union. The *'T was formally lin3ed to the 0S5. and the bul3 of the union followed Caballero. Federacion de >uventudes Socialistas 4Federation of Socialist ?outh5 PS/C 4Partit Socialista /nificat de Catalunya 7 /nified Socialist Party of Catalonia58 $n alliance of various socialist parties in Catalonia% formed in the summer of 1!"#% controlled by the 0C.. >S/ 4>uventudes Socialistas /nificadas 7 /nified Socialist ?ouths58 +ilitant youth group formed by the merger of the Socialist and the Communist youth groups. /ts leader% Santiago Carrillo% came from the Socialist Uouth but had secretly joined the

supported the 0opular &ront government before and during the Civil War. 0ut its religious disagreement with the 0opular &ront aside for a promised @asAue autonomy. $,@ 4$cci6n ,acionalista @asca 7 Aas9ue ,ationalist $ction58 $ leftist socialist party which at the same time campaigned for independence of the @asAue region. S!@ 4Solidaridad de !ra'a<adores @ascos 7 Aas9ue Workers; Solidarity58 $ trade union in the @asAue region% with a Catholic clerical tradition combined with moderate socialist tendencies.

S(. 4Socorro (o<o .nternacional 7 .nternational (ed $id58 Communist organi2ation allied with the Comintern that provided considerable aid to Republican civilians and soldiers.

Alock5 1 the militia movement founded by Calvo Sotelo. Carlist Monarchist 1 supported $lfonso Carlos / de @orbJn y $ustria1.ste:s claim to the Spanish throne and saw the $lfonsine line as having been wea3ened by 6iberalism. $fter $lfonso Carlos died without issue% the Carlists split 1 some supporting Carlos: appointed regent% &rancisco1Bavier de @orbJn10arma% others supporting $lfonso B/// or the &alange. The Carlists were clerical hard1liners led by the aristocracy% with a populist base amongst the farmers and rural wor3ers of -avarre providing the militia. Comuni6n !radicionalista 4!raditionalist Communion5 1 the Carlist political party (e9uet=s 4@olunteers5 1 militia movement. Pelayos 1 militant youth movement% named after 0elayo of $sturias. 0ar)aritas 1 women:s movement% named after +argarita de @orbJn10arma% wife of Carlist pretender Charles Q// (1;#;11!C!). Falan)e 4Phalanx57 F1 4Falan)e 1spa&ola de las >+,S5 1 created by a merger in 1!"E of two fascist organisations% 0rimo de Rivera:s &alange (0halan,)% founded in 1!""% and Ramiro 6edesma:s untas de 5fensiva -acional1

Communist Uouth prior to merger% and the group was soon dominated by the 0C.. PC1 4Partido Comunista de 1spa&a 7 Communist Party of Spain58 6ed by osO 89a2 in the Civil War% it had been a minor party during the early years of the Republic but came to dominate the 0opular &ront after -egr9n became 0rime +inister. P+/0 4Partido +'rero de /nificaci6n 0arxista 7 Worker;s Party of 0arxist /nification58 $n anti1Stalinist revolutionary communist party of former Trots3yists formed in 1!"G by $ndreu -in. >C. 4>uventud Comunista .'=rica 7 .'erian Communist ?outh58 the 05*+:s youth movement. PS 4Partido Sindicalista 7 Syndicalist Party58 a moderate splinter group of C-T.

Sindicalista($ssemblies of -ational1 Syndicalist 5ffensive)% founded in 1!"1. /t became a mass movement after the defeat of the 0RR and the collapse of the C.8$ in the 1!"# 'eneral .lection% when it was joined by osO +ar9a 'il1Robles y PuiKones:s $cciJn 0opular% and $cciJn CatJlica% led by RamJn Serrano STKer. +>1 4+r)ani%aci6n >uvenil 1spa&ola5 1 militant youth movement. Secci6n Femenina 4Feminine Section5 1 women:s movement in labour of Social $id. Falan)e 1spa&ola !radicionalista y de las >+,S 1 created by a merger in 1!"7 of the &. and the Carlist party% bringing the remaining political and militia components of the -ationalist side under &ranco:s ultimate authority.