The American Journal of Sociology

The Social Psychology of Morality and Its Bearing on Moral Education Author(s): Joseph K.
Folsom Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 23, No. 4 (Jan., 1918), pp. 433-490 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2763509 . Accessed: 06/04/2014 12:40
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THE AMERICAN
JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
VOLUME
XXIII
JANUARY
I9I8
NUMBER 4
THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF MORALITY AND ITS BEARING ON MORAL EDUCATION

JOSEPH K. FOLSOM
ofsociology and psychology has beenmarked The development betweenthe two sciences. Social psyby a lack of co-operation seldom theone or theother, has tendedtoward doingjuschology the two. ThoughI am keenlyaware tice to the bridgebetween of experimental evidenceand inductive study, of the desirability it seemsto me thatthere ofgeneral theorizing, and ofthedangers baseduponthenewer objective a socialpsychology is a realneedfor forthisis alreadyextant psychology.I believethatthematerial in widely and theory evidence fields of both varying in the recent in proper but thishas neverbeen put together relation. sciences, to bringtogether this In the presentarticleI have attempted some fundamental concepts withthe aim of suggesting material, of moralsand moral education. Many fora social psychology be madein dogmatic for thesake ofbrevity, form, statements will, An objective are onlyhypotheses. psychology ofcourse, they when, terms are is assumedas the basis, but in manycases subjective ifnecessary, and intelligibility, theycould usedfor though, brevity all be put intoobjective terminology.
433
434
OF SOCIOLOGY THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL PART I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIGINS OF MORALITY

THE SOCIAL INSTINCTS AND MORALITY
seems and there has beenattributed to manysources Morality as to its or at leasta greatindefi-niteness ofopinion to be a conflict, out in the recent factbrought trueorigin. The mostimportant is the clearly instinctive natureofmorals. No one has discussion it so well as seized upon the essentialtruthhere and expressed in England. He bringsout the fact that the social, W. Trotter tendencies of man that are so commonly moral,and religious to mere"'instinct '-of a of as beingabove and contrary thought as illustrated between different by Huxley'santithesis world-order, " processes-are " and "ethical instinctive justas truly the"cosmical thetheological theyovercome. Of course as the"baser" instincts distinct, elevated something view has always made of morality oflife-even supernatural-but evena above theothertendencies a to make distinction here. likeWardfeelsit necessary sociologist He says:
or this social instinct, For want of a bettername, I have characterized but not without as religion, that it clearlyperceiving instinctof race safety, undifferentiated the primordial plasm out of which have subseconstitutes human institutions. This .... quentlydeveloped all the more important and ofanimalinstinct, is at least the humanhomologue ifit be not an instinct, served the same purpose afterthe instinctshad chieflydisappeared,and have rapidlydriventhe race to when the egotisticreason would otherwise in its mad pursuitof pleasureforits own sake.' destruction
thanfeeding noris it any less an instinct sivelyhumanpossession, or sex. He says:

fact that amongstanimals there are some whose Now, it is a striking of self-preservation, conductcan be generalized veryreadilyin the categories and sex, whilethereare otherswhoseconductcannotbe thus sumnutrition, marized. The behaviorof the tigerand the cat is simpleand easily compreno unassimilable anomalies,whereasthat of thedog,with presenting hensible, his capacityfordevotion his terror of loneliness, his humour, his conscience, devotionto the hive, to a brutal master; or that of a bee, with her selfless can assimilatewithoutthe aid of a furnish phenomenawhich no sophistry willshowthat the animalswhoseconinstinct. But littleexamination fourth
I Ward, I903, p. I34. PureSociology,
Trottershows that this social instinctis by no means an exclu-
THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF MORALITY
435
underthe threeprimitive to generalize instinctive categories duct it is difficult are gregarious. The conceptionof man as a gregariousanimal is of course extremely of psychologists and meets with it in the writings familiar; one frequently with the lay public. and it has obtained a respectablecurrency sociologists, that it is the first who duty of a writer It has, indeed,become so hackneyed is not even yet fully to show understood, holds the thesisthat its significance exhaustive. As hitherto, of it has been farfrom that the popularconception its impaired the idea seemsto have had a certainvaguenesswhichhas greatly practicalvalue. ofthisvague way of regarding the social consequence The mostimportant of its psychological habit of man has been that no exhaustiveinvestigation has been carriedout ....I corollaries
in man is the factthat to the factof gregariousness Corollary behavioreven, to let of his native (instinctive) a large segment alonehis learned adaptednotat all actions, is, or was at one time, as an individual but as a member ofthe theindividual to preserve in the case of the dog, illustrated herd. The same factis clearly to the behavior of otherdogs; his tendin his ceaselessattention and also to lead hisfellows; inhisnumerous to follow, encyto seek, and barkings, and otherminorbodilymovements tail-waggings, to the behavior whichseem to have purposeonlyin reference of of control behavior with Such individual reference to the others. ofwhatwe call moralofothers thebeginnings behavior comprises and senseof duty. It is by no meansfar-fetched ity,conscience, withthecat,forexample) to say thatthedog or horse(in contrast is the powerful to seek One aspect of gregariousness tendency withtheherdand to feelgreatdiscomfort at separaand to remain is the tendency to co-operate Another withthe tion therefrom. withthisis, perhaps herdin its aims and activities. Associated of gregariousness, themostimportant that corollary forsociology, This, whichBoris Sidis2treatsas an abnormal is, suggestibility. to be a normal is shown tendinstinctive by Trotter phenomenon, a peculiar sensitiveness to thebehavior and ency. It is essentially selection becauseofits value call oftheherd, developed by natural
I Trotter, Instincts Herdin PeaceandWar,I9I6, p. I 7; seealsoSociological ofthe Review, I, 227-48; II, 36-54. 2 B. Sidis,ThePsychology ofSuggestion, I903, p. 295.
has a conscience.
436
THE AMERICAN JOURNALOF SOCIOLOGY
In man it appearsas and homogeneity. co-operation in enforcing and in theface without question, to acceptinstinctively, a tendency to thecontrary, or individual experience impulses egoistic of either to act whichcomewiththe voice of the or impulses any beliefs herd. WilliamJamesshowedthat an impulseor a beliefbased maidento of an attractive (suchas the desirability upon instinct appearsto the to eat or to seekprotection) a man or theimpulse which as an axiom,an obviousproposition, layman's introspection "undeit seems "wrong,""foolish,""wicked," "unnecessary," of the an "a priori synth&esis or "bad form"to question, sirable," but its ownevidence."' It is no proof mostperfect sort,needing and idealswhich are genjust in thisway thatmoralpropositions appear to the averagemind; to erallyacceptedand sanctioned seems"foolish," them "wicked,"or "shocking." Trotter question and idealsare based upon thatsuchbeliefs takesthisas evidence in thiscase is the thanuponreason, and theinstinct rather instinct of conthe veryintensity herdinstinct. To a socialpsychologist in in "national the ultimate we believe with which honor," viction wedlock,in and divine sanctionof monogamous righteousness " chastity "-the resentment " courage, " or in feminine masculine are critically analyzed-all thisis we showwhenthesepropositions not rational these beliefs appreciation that any upon rest, evidence but rather of the ideals in question, of the actual value or utility to thevoiceof theherd. sensitiveness uponourinstinctive conflict withthedesires herd largely very suggestions That these of instincts more of the etc.,need fighting, sex, hunger, egoistic born to origin not surprise us, norlead us to assigna supra-instinctive in is to be expected;it is implied them; in fact,sucha condition of the herdinstincts. In fact,thisis the basis the veryfunction thewishand the"ought." The between antithesis oftheconstant indi"ought,"thesenseofduty,is the call oftheherdto restrain unit. The survival ofthelarger in theinterests vidualistic impulses is forwhentheir is enormous, pressure poweroftheherdinstincts made to can be sex the individual food, up give applied rightly and even life itselfwith the martyr's willingness. satisfaction, or the"voiceof as "duty," moralobligation, What he interprets
I
James,PrinciplesofPsychology, i8go, Vol. II, chap. xiv., p. 387.
437
God," is the same unseenforce whichholdsthe wolfto his pack and makes the sheep follow his comrades to the slaughterhouse. The sacrifice ofthemartyr is by no meanspeculiarto inteliigence and highly civilizedsentiments; widowsamongtheHindoosand other peoples diedwillingly at their husbands' funerals, and,according to theJapanese ofhara-kiri, custom an injured man punished his aggressor by committing suicidebefore his door. Cannon'has described the neurology of the self-defense reactions (anger,fear, etc.),withtheir characteristic adrenalsecretion and otherorganic changes, andhaspointed outhowthis whole ofmechanisms complex alwaysdominates theneural mechanisms ofhunger and sex. When a self-defense instinctbegins to function, hungerand sex are thisbeinga resultof course of the greater inhibited, immediate necessity of the former to survival. Now, it seemsthat in like manner theherd instincts, whatever their neurology is,arenormally dominantoverself-defense. Although manydifferent classifications ofinstincts are possible, thesimple fourfold classification used by Trotter (nutrition, reproduction, self-preservation, or, better, self-defense and herdpreservation) is mostmeaningful a genetic from pointofview. As Cannon shows,thereis great physiological in this significance for thefirst grouping, at leastfunction three bywayofvery distinct neuralsystems. To thesea fifth forconvenience groupmight be added-a group of miscellaneous tendencies, such as curiosity, mental manipulation, multifonn and physical activity, acquisition, migration, calledby Kirkpatrick "adaptive" and "miscellaneous" instincts.2These tendencies are characterized by a lack of the organicreflexes and strongimperative drive which the major instincts possess; theyare rather in thenatureof servants to the majortendencies, in themainto nutrition.A closeconprobably nection between curiosity and hunger has beensuggested. The mosttypicalemotional reactions ofthefour majorgroups are, respectively, hunger (if thismay be allowedforthe purpose to be calledan emotion), sex love,anger and fear, socialenthusiasm
I
American Journal ofPsychology, XXV, 256-82. 2 E. A. Kirkpatrick, Fundamentals ofChild Study.
W. B. Cannon, Bodily Changesin Pain, Hunger, Fear, and Rage, I9I5;
see also
438
THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF SOCIOLOGY
arisesin regardto what of thought and shame. Some confusion of an emotion. or the self-reference is called "self-consciousness" with not associated " is " self-consciousness paradoxical, Seemingly but ratherwith the herd instincts, the purelyself-preservative linebetween theherdand selfand thoseon the border instincts thisself-consciousness instincts. In objectiveterms, preservative etc.,haveberelations, meansthatone'sownbodyand itsposition, and that certain part of the stimulus-complex, comea significant understoodthereto. Thisis easily aredirected reactions peculiar is most situation to the external attention in simpleself-defense self between relation the to attention essential; in herdreactions advantageous. as suchis sometimes andfellows ? What is this"herd instinct" will demand, The psychologist to be conis no longer "mental" categories, likeother An instinct, of mind" "faculty a mysterious self-sufficient ceivedas an entity, suggest holdsany suchview,but hisbookmight (not thatTrotter a nameforthefact to thelay reader); it is simply sucha concept a inbornconnections, through produces, that a certainstimulus has who to Thorndike, turn Professor if we response. Now, certain we find nature, accountofhumanoriginal giventhebestall-round to thebehavior which are "responses series behavior thefollowing as Thorndike givesthem, human beings." I shalllistthem ofother of them. from his description passages a few significant quoting basis as an essential shouldbe read,however, His wholechapter in socialpsychology. discussion forthisor any other
"Man respondsto the absence of human beingsby (2). Gregariousness ... . The rich and to theirpresenceby a positivesatisfaction discomfort, of the presenceof even a singlecompanionconsistsnot only in satisfaction stimulus as their whichneed a fellow-man variousdesirableactivities allowing but also in the merefact that he is there." McDougall says: "In civilized on every we may see evidenceof the operationof this instinct communities of the populationof our townsis The normaldaily recreation hand. in whichthe to go out in the eveningand to walk up and downin the streets on a slightly higher is densest ... . It is the same instinct working throng plane that bringstens of thousandsto the cricketand footballgames on the half-holidays.",
I
behavior (i). Motherly (i). Filial behavior
chapter on "Gregariousness." McDougall, SocialPsychology,
439
Attention tohumanbeings (2).-"Man has a specialoriginal interest in the behaviorof othermen. Doubtless this in infancy is largelydue to the mere in movement which humanbeingshave in common withdogs,mechanivariety cal toys,the leaves oftrees,and the like. But it is hardlywholly due thereto. The humanfaceis too earlysingledout from otherobjects and too constantly a controller of attention between ... . Evidence is foundin the difference the sexes in respectto it. If measurements are taken of the strength of the interest in the intellectual and moraltraitsofpeople compared to the strength of the interest in the mechanicaloperationof things,womendiffer notably from men." Attention-getting (2).-"There seems to be, thoughone cannotbe sure,a real, thougheasily counteracted, tendencyto respondto the presenceof an inoffensive human being by approaching, gesticulating, calling,and general and annoyanceuntilhe noticesone. restlessness Responses to approvingand scornfulbehavior(2).-"To the situation 'intimateapproval,as by smile,pats, admissionto companionship, and the like,from one to whomhe has theinnerresponse ofsubmissiveness,' and to the situation 'humble approval, as by admiringglances, fromanybody,' man respondsoriginally with great satisfaction. The withdrawing of approving intercourse by mastersand looks of scornand derisionfromanyoneprovoke a discomfort to utterwretchedness." that may strengthen Responsesby approving and scornful behavior (2).-"Smiles, respectful shouts occur, I think,as instinctive stares, and encouraging responsesto relieffromhunger,rescue fromfear, gorgeousdisplay, instinctiveacts of and daring,victory, and otherimpressive instinctive behaviorthat strength is harmless to the onlooker. Similarly frowns, hoots,and sneersseem bound as original responsesto the observationof empty-handedness, deformity, and defect." Thorndike disagrees with physical weakness, pusillanimity, facial Cooley, who believes that responsesto approvingand disapproving are learned. Cooley admits,says Thorndike, "that facialexpresexpressions sionsare madeinstinctively; and that is one of the best reasonsforexpecting to instinctively." themto be responded and submissive behavior (3).-"There is, I believe,an original Mastering to respondto 'the presenceof a humanbeingwho noticesone, but tendency behavior'by holding or submissive the head up and a little without approving and at himor not lookingat himat all, or alternately forward, staring staring and energetically morerapidly one is doingsomewhat ignoring, doingwhatever and makingdisplays of activity.... . ." Submissivebehavioris "in essence ofhead and shoulders, a lowering wavering glances,absenceofall preparations of muscletonus,and hesitancyof movement. forattack, generalweakening * .. and self." (These tendenciesare called by McDougall self-assertion abasement.)
Display(2). Shyness (2).
440
Sex-behavior (i).
Self-conscious behavior (2).
Secretiveness (3).
Rivalry (3).-Combatin rivalry (3). thetendSuggestibility seems tomean to believe andto act without reason without sufficient ..... But ency proof is a secondary described or suchbehavior consequence oftendencies already to be described, not a new set of bonds, requiring a separate placein our list."
Enviousandjealous behavior (3). (reed (3). Ownership (3). Co-operation (2). Suggestibility and opposition (2).-"
'a living frightKindliness (2).-"The situation thing displaying hungry, and the ened,or painedbehavior by wailing, clinging, holding out its arms, and discomfort and may . . . . provoke acts of like,' provokes attention described relief. Whether this lastissueis a consequence oftheoriginal bonds of motherly and under theinstinct or is a somewhat behavior independent is oflittle for ourpurpose. The differently specialized kindliness, importance is the likelier, former but someodd factssuggest tendencies to specialized food and protection with as inborn share thesuffering qualimayhavearisen ofcertain socialanimals. " tiesofthenature
Teasing,tormenting, and bullying. Specific forms of imitation.'
list of "responses to the behavior Now, Thorndike's foregoing of otherhuman beings" very clearlyis composed of threegroupsof tendencies: (I) those of the reproductive group-sex and parental, (2) the purelysocial instincts, makingup Trotter's"herd-instinct," of the self-defense and (3) tendencieswhich seem to be offshoots such as mastery,subinstinctsbrought about by gregariousness, mission, rivalry,jealousy, ownership. I am particularlyinclined to regardmasteryand submissivebehavioras gregarious derivatives of anger and fear, respectively, developed because of their value in preservingdefinitemastery-submission statuses between individuals of a group withoutwastefulrecourseto continual fighting. These instincts, then, take a position between the purely selfdefensive anger and fear, on one hand, and the purely social tendencies of gregariousness,response to approval, etc., on the other.
I
Psychology, 1913, Vol. I, chap.vii. E. L. Thorndike, Educational
441
Theymight be calledtheherd-self instincts. The figures after in the foregoing instincts list tell to whichof thesethreegroups each is bestassignable. The tendencies ofgregariousness, suggestibility, approval, scorn, the responses to approvaland scorn; shame,and self-conscious behavior, attention to others and attention-getting, co-operation, and possibly some"imitative"behavior-all thesetendencies seem to be very closelyassociatedand related. A group of related instincts suchas thiswe may call an instinct-complex. This conceptis, then, relatedto instinct is relatedto somewhat as instinct reflex. This complex ofinstincts just outlined we shalldesignate as the herd-control to distinguish complex, it from altruism and other socialtendencies, which function in a different wayand have a different significance. The reproductive, herd, and herd-self instincts are ofvalue and to the behaviorof otherindividuals. significance onlyin relation Thorndike, this important realizing distinction, has groupedall suchtendencies under thehead "responses to thebehavior ofother humanbeings." Including in thisall innatebehavior whosesole is as a stimulusto the behavior utility of others, we have a large group of tendencies whichmay be called "complementary behavior." The term "socialbehavior" be used,butitis better might thisforthe narrower of herdinstincts, as disto reserve category from tinguished sex, mastery, etc., whichmay involveonly two individuals. instincts Now, the significant thingabout complementary is, not the behavior of any one individual, of interbut the system actionsbetweena thebehavior of theseveralindividuals concerned, suchas thesexpursuit, or themasterycoyness, capture, yielding, ortheapproval-satisfaction submission series. Sucha sysstruggle, tem we shall call an instinctive mechanism. Such interaction form mechanics thefundamental offolklore and literature, themes and are,I believe, in terms thebasic unitconcepts ofwhich social be described. Amongthe mostimportant of these origins might are the sex mechanism, the mastery-submission, and the herdcontrol interaction mechanism.This latteris in the fullest sense a social-interaction machine mechanism. It is the functioning
442
of the herd-control instinctformed by the various tendencies approval, suggestibility, complex, as defined above (gregariousness, (in which relation, into socialrelation shame,etc.), whenbrought and utility lies). of course, their onlysignificance oftendencies a-nd itssocialmechanism Thisherd-control complex of"herd-instinct." ofTrotter's concept form theimportant feature convention, fashion, rootofcustom, It is thiswhich is theprincipal and groupmorality. Not that the moral is identicalwith the or even with the customary. The herd instincts fashionable with andvaried reactions. By combinations include many complex seldomfunction each otherand withotherinstincts (forinstincts of kindsand degreesof social alone) theyproduceany number from the sanction. The sanction ofthemoralact is verydifferent sanction placed upon the season'snewhats,but bothderivetheir forcelargelyfromthe same source. The commonelementin whichappears fashion, custom, and moralsis thissocialsanction, as a self-evident or propriety.The "call of the senseofrightness herd" is capable of manyvariations. Thereis the commonplace, forms of conformity which demands withtheexternal visibleherd, circle ofacquaintances convention and fashion;there is thesmaller more"ideal" or professional who call fora somewhat associates, there is something "higher"still,variously behavior;and finally, which self, identified as "duty,""conscience," God,or one'sbetter This higher to mostfellow-men. may at timescall in opposition of many ethicalconscience is treated by McDougall as a product emotions sentiment.This very boundup withthe self-regarding of the is a product however, self-reference and self-consciousness, social instincts. The betterselfseemsto be a kind of abstract, ideal herd, coupledwithself-assertion. with was once identical Dewey and Tuftsshowthatmorality differenofenlightenment, gradually custom, but,withthegrowth so thatwe nowhave a reflective, tiatedtherefrom; personal ethics, or of from our lowerlevel custom- group-morality.' distinguished of intelligence;but its ultimate This ethics containselements motiveforceis likewise largelyto be foundin theherdinstinct. social theexclusively enters a protest Professor against Giddings other and of ethics,economics, socio-psychic pheinterpretation
igo8. t Deweyand Tufts, Ethics,
443
nomena, as maintained by Baldwin. He pointsout that there is an original independent self,and that the give and take does not with takeplaceindiscriminately withanyalter, butonly those more here is that or less similarto self. His essentialcontribution ofbehavior, likeresponse to thesamestimulus, is a presimilarity requisite to the development of social instincts and the"organic sympathy"correlative with them.' I cannot attach as much importance as Giddings does to the grouping of stimuli intolikeselfand not-like-self stimuli. It seemsto me that'thedistinctive to kindis not attributable to the circumto any reaction reaction to self,"nor to any associativeshifting from stance "similarity to like-self-stimuli. It is rathera resultof (i) the self-stimuli has made principle implied by Giddings thatsimilarity ofbehavior of such a reaction thedevelopment whenit to kindadvantageous oflife, notbe so; (2) thefactthatother conditions wouldotherwise and hencea food-getting methods, etc., have made co-operation, reaction to kind,advantageous;and (3) thereaction to distinctive of the habits parents, whichis certainly due to the permanency formed in infancy and possibly, in part, to a specialinstinct to or simply a following reactto parents (Thorndike's filial behavior), for to the instinct, developed itsnutritive and protective advantage young. Many factssuggest thatmeresimilarity, whennot essenthe three tial to fulfil is oflittleimportance. foregoing conditions, reactsdistinctively The infant to parentratherthan to another infant whichhe mostclosely resembles. Anytwo cats,pickedat and random,are to all appearancesmore similarin structure thantwodogs, andyetthesocialbehavior behavior similarly picked, in the latter. to kind are much morepronounced and response a henas they willfollow mother. Thereare Ducklings wouldtheir kinds of many cases of co-operation betweenwidelydifferent animals.
THE CONDITIONED REFLEX CONCEPT APPLIED TO THE GROWTH OF CHARACTER AND MORAL SENTIMENTS OUT OF INSTINCTS
A verysignificant such as grequestionis how any instinct, can and does becomethe basis, source,or origin gariousness, of morality. In fact,what does it mean fora sentiment or a habit
I
F. H. Giddings, andEmpire, Democracy igoo, chaps.ii and iii.
444
? These expresto be "rootedin" or "based upon" someinstinct by satisfaction and apparent sionsare used withgreatfrequency and and yettheyare mereanalogies and psychologists, sociologists or habitand the tellus nothing exceptthefactthatthesentiment instinctare causally related in some way. But what is this ? relation thatanyinstinctive thisby showing McDougalltries to explain or has threesides or aspects: the perceptive, tendency emotional part; and the or central side; the affective or afferent cognitive, aspectaloneside.' The central or efferent expressive, conative, and the expresthe perceptive the feeling tone-is unchangeable; of an by experience.That modification sive sides are modified would or ideal is formed by which a sentiment or emotion instinct according to McDougall,in thefactthata new"perceptual consist, inlet" to theparticular was developed. The perceptual tendency says McDougall, in is modified, aspect of the innatetendencies as whenwe learnto disregard threeways: (i) by specialization, realdanger; harmless loudnoisesand reactonlyto thosesignifying as when ofstimuli, ofstimulus, causedby association (2) by change ofa guncometo fearat the theloud report birdsfearing innately withthereport, without ofthemanwhois alwaysassociated sight or complex association; (3) by similars, any processof reasoning itsresemblance through evokesa tendency as whena newsituation situation. Under(2) comesthespecialsubcasewhere to a familiar a stimulus to thereaction formerly the"idea" ofan objectbecomes evokedonlyby the objectitself. ofan older in terms Thus does McDougalldescribe thoroughly, thefundamena mostfundamental process-probably psychology, tal process-of all learning. The same thingis what Thorndike features in his accountoftheessential calls "associativeshifting," been has long recognized of the learning process.2 This principle and is nothing the days of modern essentially before psychology, beenrealized has never ofitssignificance new. But therealextent to thefront havebrought movements untilrecently. Two modern Freudian is the One of the importance thisassociative shifting.
i9i6 toSocialPsychology, An Introduction t McDougall,
2
ed.,chap.ii, pp. 35-37.
II, i5. Psychology, Educational Thormdike,
445
thateven evidence showing clinical withits abundant psychology, as the sex reaction is not so a tendency and definite so powerful but sex stimulus, boundto the normal and inevitably exclusively and to be one stimulus from "transferred" may another, be may connectedto almost any innocentobject as stimulus. This is couchedin a complicated subjectiveterFreudianpsychology is the studyof the conditioned minology.The othermovement reflex. This is a purelyobjectiveconcept,and applied to the reducesthe latterto a much greater simFreudianphenomena plicity and intelligibility. sounded dogand at thesametime Pavlowgavemeattoa hungry to inborn result ofsalivawas thenatural (according a bell. A flow from stimuli themeat. Previous ofthegustatory reflex tendencies) alone had no salivary the bell stimulus effect. to this experiment the bell simultaneously of ringing of repetitions a number After thatthebellalone,without the themeat,it was found withgiving of of meat,produceda flowof saliva. As the number presence stimuli ofthetwosimultaneous was increased, thepower repetitions the approaching of the bell alone to producesecretion increased, theexhibition stimulus. Similarly ofa square oftheoriginal power oftheskinwas found madea food capableofbeing or thetouching inthesameway.' behaved secretion secretion.Gastric causing sign, indifferent stimulus, Now, the pointis that herea previously of the associatedwiththe original stimulus by beingrepeatedly an to and itself able important becomes provoke original reflex, is calleda " conditioned thusformed response. The newconnection the nativeconnection salivary seby whichfoodproduces reflex," indiffercretion beingthe "originalreflex." The new,previously is calledthe"conditioned stimulus." ent,butnowcapable,stimulus has shownthatmanyreflexes, muscular as well as Experience can thusacquiremany, perhaps any,kindsofpreviously secretory, themechanism stimuli. Presumably indifferent appliesuniversally cases of clear conditioned are reflexes to There in behavior. many in theprocess someofthem offormation. in dailylife, be observed
I See W. H. Burnham, Journal American XXVIII, 43, and bibofPsychology, and XIII, 589-96, Jour. Phil.,Psy.,andSci. Meth., liography, p. 55; J. B. Watson, Journal American Vol. 28,pp. i63-74. and Morgan, ofPsychology, Watson
446
are simply Now,sinceinstincts chains complex ofreflexes, they also followthis law, and we mightverywell speak of "conditioned or "conditioned instincts" emotions." A child, frightened severely on one occasion by a dog,thereafter showed fearwhenever passing the spot wherethe original eventtookplace, though the dog was absent. The surrounding objectshad becomeconditioned stimuli to fearresponses. An original to angeris restraint stimulus of movements.Any personor thingthat has repeatedly been such is likely to become a conditioned an obstacle stimulus to anger, and laterwe are irritated at the veryappearance of said object. Sex and perversions are obviously fetiches conditioned sexualreflexes, facttheFreudians havetried to express which in a needlessly simple The original elaborateterminology. stimulus is perhapstactual, plus certain physiological conditions; any circumstance frequently associatedwiththeseconditions or intensely may becomea constimulus. The processof "fallingin love" is a normal ditioned conditioned sexand otherreflexes processof forming to a specific as stimulus. individual ofthebraincortex The function is evidently to form thesesecor conditioned ondary reflexes, by whichwe are enabledto adapt to an environment stimuli farmorecomplex ourselves than giving reflexes are attuned. It seemsvery thoseto whichour original probablethat most,if not all, of our responses to stimuli to the distance whichhave been thought receptors of (vision,audition), are as innate, really secondary, being conditioned by original reflexes to tactual stimuli. Thus we shudderat the sightof a and are attracted ofparent, knife orneedle by thesight fellow-man, or mate,perhapsonlybecausethosestimuli have been associated in our ownpast withtactualexperiences.W. von Bechterew has in which an Objektive written lifeis explained Psychologie,' psychic in terms ofthese association instead ofthestaticsubjective reflexes, conceptsof sensation, image,and affection.It is possiblethat is reallyacquiredand thatThorndike's muchthatwe call instinct list of original tendencies contains of manyacquiredcombinations but thisneed not disturb reflexes to acquiredstimuli, us forthe present.
I
and French with German Russian translations. original,
447
to apply thisconceptof the condiThereis now a movement the that characterize to the major organicreflexes tionedreflex thisphenomenon and have recognized emotions. The Freudians in bringing itssignificance intothelimeagency have beenthechief transfer Now (Ubertragung). light. Theyhavecalledit emotional to dawnuponpsychology thatthe"new perceptual it is beginning of the Freudians, inlet" of McDougall,the "emotionaltransfer" by in the learning process, as described the "associativeshifting" and the same reflex"are one and the "conditioned Thorndike, thing. of theemotional or reflex As Wellspointsout,the conditioned otherconditioned from kindseemsto differ generally the organic easilyestablished; in twoimportant respects:(i) It is more reflexes often thepathin question suffices, intense a single through discharge are necessary. in otherhabitformation manyrepetitions whereas theoriginal stimulus seemsto loseitspotency to provoke (2) Often is a in favor of the stimulus-there conditioned the response ' of affect" from to secondary stimulus.' The primary "siphoning as in sex perstimulus stimulus, conditioned becomestheessential thatthetruly stimulus original versions. It is doubtful, however, loses its ever potency. as Dr. G. Stanley Hall, A further has beento show, development transfer have shown, that thisemotional Dr. Watson,and others emotions equallyas well as to is applicableto the self-defensive attention. have largely giventheir sex,to whichthe Freudians tilltertiary, ofstimuli indefinitely The association maycontinue are acquired; in thiswayhighly symbolic etc.,stimuli quaternary, stimuli languageand dress,becomeeffective including situations, reactions. native to powerful follow We shallverynearly McDougallin usingtheword"senof one or severalemotional the connection timent"to designate differs (object). Now sentiment reactions to somegivenstimulus ofwhenthe kindsof habitswhichare usuallythought from other term"habit" is used, in two respects. First,it is a habit of as distinguished from emotional manual,vocal,and other reaction,
I
American Jourrnal Watson and Morgan, XXVIII, ofPsychology,
H. L. Wells, Jour. Phil. Psych. and Sci. Meth.,XIII (i9i6),
354-56; see also
I63-74.
448
OF SOCIOLOGY THE AMERICAN JOURNVAL
beingsuch, reactions thatare calledskilland intellect. Secondly, whichhave is native,unlikeotherforms of behavior the reaction of movements; trialand successselection to be learnedthrough usually which is acquired. Hencea sentiment andit is thestimulus or theobjectrather thantheresponse. The specifies thestimulus used as we shalluse it,willinclude all theterms word"sentiment," controls of what he calls "the emotional by Bagley to designate standards,prejudices, conduct "-namely, ideals, emotionalized attitudes.' A sentiment is a conditioned tastes,and emotional are shockat indecency, enthusiasm at the reflex. Good examples at the sightof a grave,or words"country," "honor,"etc., grief at the sightof certain works of art. These reacfeeling aesthetic aboutby theverysamemechanism by virtue of tionsare brought at theringing ofa dinner bell; which oursaliva maybeginto flow of etc.,in terms we needonlyto describe enthusiasm, grief, shock, to realizethesimilarity. in order arcsin function, theactual reflex a very interesting has written articleon the W. K. Wright ofValuesfrom inwhich against he contends, Instincts," "Evolution from whowouldhave all valuesdescend above, somephilosophers sentiments to original that theycan all be tracedback through He has verywellstatedthepointwhich I am trying tendencies.2 I to am to in his trying to emphasize, contention, but, addition show also the mechanism by whichthese values develop from instincts. This has been neglected by mostwriters. be questioned thisconditionedwhether It may veryproperly that we didn't know reflex terminology reallytells us anything that the essential before. It has been pointedout, forexample, has been described in mostbookson habitforinvolved principle formanyyearspast; thatit is simply an mationand on learning identical calls of the with what Thorndike learning process, aspect that associative verypositively shifting.To thisI wouldanswer notonlyfrom in scientific theformulation comes, thought progress butvery from theshift newprinciples, ofentirely ofemphasis largely is thrown on old principles and attenresults whennewlight which directed to themwithnewforce. Thus it appearsto tionthereby
I
W. C. Bagley, Educational Values, IgII,
chaps. iv and v.
(I9I5),
2W.
K. Wright, Philosophical Review, XXIV
I63-83.
449
methattheconditioned reflex is ofalmost revolutionary significance to sociology, becauseit shifts the emphasis from the qualitiesof stimuli themselves to the factsof cerebral association. Therehas been a tendency for the social sciences, in interpreting human reactions, to lay the burdenof explanation upon the intrinsic ofthestimuli. In thisthey properties haveunconsciously accepted thenaiveexplanations ofcommon speech:we enjoya thing because it is "beautiful," we laughat something becauseit is "funny," and we approvesomething else simplybecause it is "moral." The is rather truth thereverse:thatA is beautiful becausewe enjoyit in a certain way, B is funny becausewe laugh at it, C is moral becausewe approve it. Thisconfusion ofthought evenamong psychologists is illustrated by themanyattempts to explain thepsychology ofhumor. Many have tried to answer thequestion, Whatis theessential element of humorous situations-what is therealnature of"funniness" ? The answers include: senseof superiority, deviations from thenormal, Lipps's "Groszeserwarten und Kleineskommt," Bergson's "when a person givestheimpression ofbeinga thing," Freud'sreleaseof psychic etc.I Thesetheories energy, are all suggestive ofthetruth, but theyall makethemistake of trying to find theexplanation in the natureof the humorous stimuli themselves.Now, if we were to assemble all situations which stimulate theonlyproplaughter, ertythatwe couldfindcommon to all of themwouldbe the fact that theyprovoke the samereaction. The much-sought-for similarity or common quality is notintrinsic, butextrinsic, to thesituationsthemselves.The explanation ofwhyanything is funny must be genetic. We mustinquire first whatis theoriginal stimulus to laughter, and whatis the biological and origin of laughter. utility Good tentative of primitive answers to thisare Schauer'stheory orbanter,2 "Neckerei," that is originally and Crile'stheory laughter a meansof energy to use up certain chemical discharge products whichhave been mobilized in the body in preparation forgreat
1913;
Sidis, Psychology ofLaughter, (translation), 19I3; H. Bergson,Laughter Brill, Psychanalysis, 1913, chap. xii; also Freud, WitandIts Relation tothe Unconscious (translation by Brill),I9i6. 2 O. Schauer, Archiv. f. d. Gesamte Psychologie, XVIII (I9IO), 411-27.
t See B.
450
THE AMERICAN JOURPAL OF SOCIOLOGY
suddenly which orflight), exertion exertion, however, (as in fighting ofthestimulus., Thus becauseoftheremoval unnecessary becomes wouldbe in mockcombator play. of laughter the original setting ofnewstimuli we muststudytheprogressive association Secondly, situations, or, in otherwords,the progressive withtheseoriginal stimuliby the laughterreflex. Any acquisitionof conditioned humorous is funny, not becauseofany mysterious situation, then, in it, but becauseits relations to othersituations qualityinherent socialpractices to become place it in a position and to thecurrent play activities. Its humor withthestimuli ofprimitive associated but in its past associations. lies,notin itself, of explanation can be applied to Now, this same principle of humanreactions. In this morals,and otherforms aesthetics, it is attempted to applyit especially to morality. It is monograph to makeshumanemotional responses clear that this explanation thantheyare generally and inevitable farless fixed things stimuli to be,which to education and conceived possibilities opensup great is to while it not possible sociology. For, is ofenormous significance it is possible the intrinsic nature of stimuli themselves, to modify and other relations between thesequences, to control coexistences, thatthedevelopment thestimuli;and it is by just theserelations is determined. ofcharacter The pointwe are working to is thatmoralidealsand thesentireflexes and fashion are conditioned convention, mentsof custom, comof theherd-control tendencies builtlargely upon the original thattheseinstincts plex. It is nowclearwhatwe meanby saying will illustrations are the "roots" ofmorality. A fewhypothetical ifsuchwe maycall them, herdreflexes, showhowtheseconditioned or "imare formed. A child doingsome naturalbut annoying "mustn't," by theparental immediately proper"act is stimulated "naughty,""isn't nice." These wordsmay mean little to the childat first, but theyare accompanied vocal tones, by gestures, oforiginal and facialexpressions which originally prodisapproval, duce in the childtheshrinking, ceasing-what-he-is-doing avoiding, to disapproval. By thatwe call theunpleasant response responses withthe disthe act itself, beingnearlysimultaneous repetition,
I
igi6. Man, an Adaptive Mechanism, B. W. Crile,
45I
stimulus to thatavoidbecomes a conditioned approving behavior, at least underthe circumance and hencetendsto be eliminated, stances,'being watched.' Later any symbolor "idea" of the figuratively speakforbidden ontothereaction, act maybe grafted by being conditioned stimulus. Similarly, ing, as a secondary ofthose to whom with theapproving behavior repeatedly associated justice,honesty, of respector submission; one has the response democratic to women, courtesy marriage, goverment, monogamous ortheproper holding ofone'sspoonmaybecome respect to theflag, thatwe call " satisfied conditioned to thatgroupofreflexes stimuli response to social approval." Likewisethereseem to be certain of suchas thepresence tonesofvoice,and circumstances, gestures, by stimuli individuals, especially ifaccompanied olderand stronger which are stimuli to the of threatening danger or necessity, ""ought," forms like"nice,""proper, suggestible attitude. Words like "you wouldn'twant to be (or do) of speechand inflection gestures, etc.,and wouldyou?" alwaysgo withthesetones, In theseways stimuli to suggestibility. thus becomeconditioned one generation to thenext. are sentiments passedon from To use an analogy, (like we might say thatthe herdinstincts about certain acts,objects, other instincts also) tendto crystallize ofcrystallization or circumstances; centers are,variously, and these fashions, morals. In thewordsofProfessor customs, conventions, a social and distribute the "moresand themistes gather Giddings, one with impresses Folkways pressure."' A readingof Sumner's thegreat instincts right.2This fact thattheherd canmakeanything or indedoes not mean that the moresare determined arbitrarily ofanyadvantage;butoncedetermined-perhaps by some pendent areintrenched or advantage-they by instinct temporary necessity of dislodgement, however disadvantaalmostbeyondpossibility geoustheymaybecome.
OTHER SOURCES OF MORALITY
are the socialforces conserved, by whichthemoresare organized,

I
2
instincts i. Thesetendencies herd-control that wehavecalledthe

to use this. for permission to Professor Giddings I am indebted Folkways, I9I3. W. G. Sumner,
452
to explain and enforced.They alone,however, are not sufficient how any givencustom or the origins of themores. They explain but do notexplain why moralstandard exerts its compulsive force, the emotions tend to crystallize about some kinds of situations " morality " natural rather thanothers. Thereseems tobe a certain of suggestion and approval; amongchildren whichis independent and the analysisof our own moralreactions seemsto revealthe presence ofother verydifferent instincts. Most oftheseare.other or aspectsof tendencies tendencies to the largerherdbelonging instinctgroup,but some are more related to the self-defense as follows: instincts. These variousfactors may be grouped 2. There is another social instinct, whichTrottertreatsas a funcof his herdinstinct, as he recognizes, component but which, from tionsin sucha verydifferent the gregario-suggestibilityway is it separately. This tendency approval groupthat I consider ofThorndike's list; initslarger aspects essentially the"kindliness" it is called"altruism"by Trotter and Ward,and is aboutidentical as used by others with"pity" and "sympathy" (McDougalluses in a different the Giddings suggests sympathy sense). Professor term "compassion." This mightseem to be derivedfromthe but Thorninstincts, parentalratherthan fromthe gregarious dike thinksthat in social animalsit is distinct frommotherly in range as gradually behavior. Wardspeaksofaltruism widening all kindred, thenall mankind, thenall sentient it includes until life, nature.' Trotter inanimate says: and, finally,
uct.
ofgregariousness a fourth in manis thefactexpounded Again, corollary instinctive is a natural thathuman altruism prodmany years ago byPearson
Man is altruisticbecause he mustbe, not because reasonrecom-
not of courseas such,but as an innovator. can the herdexecutesthe altruist, instinct ofthegregarious oftheproteancharacter This is a remarkable instance forwe see one instinct it introduces and the complexity into human affairs, to everhostileto each other-prompting producingmanifestations directly of altruism, leads to anynewprowhileit necessarily advancingdevelopments moreover. . . . thata gregarious duct of advance beingattacked. It shows, species rapidlydevelopinga complexsocietycan be saved from inextricable confusion only by the appearanceof reasonand the applicationof it to life.2 xL. F. Ward, PureSociology, PartII, chap.v. 2 Trotter, Instincts ofthe Herd, p. 46.
and when it mends it, forherdsuggestion opposes anyadvancein altruism,
453
On this tendency is based the ethicsof pity and of love,the and races. It is thechief of oriental sentiments socialand kindly also a social root of the ethicsof Christ. Although distinctive of the herdwiththe tendencies extensively it conflicts instinct, of mental conflicts controlcomplex. One of the characteristic the is caused by witnessing to Trotter, times,according modern to believe whiletrying of humanity, suffering and futile needless order,of of the existing of the rightfulness the herd teachings and rewards of future of compensations, responsibility, individual self-defense thepurely groupofmoralrootsincludes 3. A third of mastery instincts of angerand fear,and the herd-self instincts ofthesetendencies thefunction and submission.To showclearly themso muchas not to consider it is better as pillarsofmorality, i.e., but to consider themin their socialrelations, instincts, single of the instincts. mechanisms the severaltypesof social interaction ofthesocialorder as follows: great pillars Now,Rossmakesthefour of and sense individual reaction. justice, sociability, sympathy, are essentially what I mean by social-interaction These concepts as distinguished from of instincts separateinstincts mechanisms twowe have alreadycovered, under kindliness as such. The first Individual reactionrefersto the leveling and gregariousness. of the anger,that is, the angryresentment powerof individual over the aggressor, the injuredgiveshim a handicapof strength a groupwhose peace and equalitywithin resultbeingto preserve would be, withoutthis emotionalhandicap,rather individuals to producea tending unequal. Sense of justiceis a mechanism oftheseveral instincts members result. In it themasterly similar and in such a way as not to simultaneously, of a groupfunction of anyone, but to be satisfied behavior by demandthe submissive balance is a peaceful theabsenceofactualdomination.The result of the the self-assertive instincts of self-feeling. Furthermore, whosuffers domination on behalf ofanymember function majority ofequality, arethefoundation by another. Thesetwomechanisms becausewe are and justice. Dr. Giddings sayswe are free liberty, thanthereverse.2 equal, rather
' Ibid.,p. 52.
2I
punishments.'
am indebted to Professor Giddings for this.
454
way. The in a verydifferent mayfunction But theseinstincts in a group(or theindiindividuals maybe thattheweaker result to the domination group)succumb conquered vidualsof another, attitude. We and assumea habitualsubmissive of the stronger of domination. Unlike the equality have here the mechanism leaders and and intrenches it favorsstratification mechanisms, mastersin theirpositions. In a milderformthis becomesthe ofsocialprestige.Dress,property, conspicumanners, mechanism stimulito submissive becomethe conditioned ous consumption, and thus and humility respect producing behavior. Theyare signs pave theway forexploitation. at the in generalare favored Now the equalitymechanisms of mechanism abundance by of the domination-prestige expense of offunction, absence ofinterests, differentiation diversity wealth, from external and education. These in general enemies, pressure thegrowth ofcivilization.But we cannot attending are conditions also works back uponthe organization denythatthepsychological of as a causal influence conditions greatweight. possibly material in the functioning and self-herd instincts, The self-defense as are the root of such moral sentiments equalitymechanisms, "an eyefor an eye." indignation, righteous revenge, honor, justice, thenext his emotions carefully If one doubtsthis,let himobserve to use theword"honor." In manysocieties timehe is prompted moralcode. In oftheduelhas beena supreme honor thepersonal as in the Teutonic some races these ideals have predominated, as Ross shows, proppersonal self-reliance, justice, where, peoples, honorhave been and the senseofpersonal individual rights, erty, of conduct. On the otherhand, among the the rulingcriteria of have been morethe criteria and kindliness sociability Chinese, not honorable makes so is honest and conduct the whether right; muchdifference.' in the domination functioning instinct, From the submissive ofreverence, for arisethesentiments humility, respect mechanism, valuable submissive These though sentiments, law and authority. tools of and co-operation, are frequently for control sometimes greatevil.
I
p. 30 ff. E. A. Ross,SocialControl, igoi, chap.vii,pp. 58if.; chap.xxiii,
455
the aggresthreetypesofgregariousness: Trotter distinguishes of thewolf, of the thedefensive gregariousness sive gregariousness of the bee. Human sheep, and the socialized gregariousness of the first and thirdtypes. Germany represocieties are chiefly and Englandthe third. Now, the says Trotter, sentsthe first, and by the factthatits solidarity typeis characterized aggressive aggression;it cannot moraledependupon a policyof continued so welllaborand waitin thefaceofreverses as can the socialized of mien seriousness by an intense type. Also,it is characterized within to authority slavishsubmissiveness and by unquestioning individual and greater with thecheerfulness thegroup, as contrasted type. It wouldseemthatgroupaggresof thesocialized freedom to authority with individualamenability sivenessis correlated an actual thegroup. Thereis a striking analogy, probably within thisand thefactthataggresTrotter between thinks, connection, moreby the whip animals,like the dog, profit sivelygregarious types,like the horse. The than do animalsof othergregarious seems to be more immediately group like Germany aggressive but in the long run,thinks the socializedtype Trotter, efficient, more has with individual liberty greater efficiency.' fear. instincts we should mention Underthehead ofself-defense themoralcode. Thisin thepasthas playeda largepartin enforcing consequences and of unseenbeingshas been a Fear of unknown as an is stillappliedto persons oftaboo. " God-fearing" bulwark thechief moralfunction ofmoralapproval. But perhaps adjective to withothertendencies, of-fear is in certainspecialconnections later. be discussed and ownership, ofdisgust, ifsuchexist, The instincts acquisition, ofsomemoral as partial sources sentiments. also be included should in ceris to be found rootof morals and important 4. A fourth it seemsto me, whosenucleus, tainill-defined tendencies, original tothe Trotter treats simply this unfamiliar. as reaction is beststated He says: ofgregariousness. as a corollary
and fearful of solitude,physicalor mental. This He [man]is intolerant and intellectualincuriousness intolerance is the cause of the mental fixity xTrotter, Herd. Instincts ofthe
4.56
which,to a remarkable degree foran animal with so capacious a brain,he the resistance constantly displays. As is well known, to a new idea is always a matter ofprejudice, objections, primarily the development of the intellectual just or otherwise, beinga secondary processin spite of the commondelusion to the contrary.'
That is, as I understand the old and him,to breakaway from is psychologically familiar reflex equivalent(via the conditioned I suppose)to physical from theherd. This mechanism, separation seemsto be an important in taboo, reaction to theunfamiliar factor of notions and to be relatedto the "mana" conceptand to other by a breach primitive magicand religion. The emotion generated is readily associated withanydipastrous ofcustom eventoccurring nearthesame time. It is by no meansuncommon todayto make of this kind,such as half-consciously irrationalassociations atan automobileaccident to drivingon Sunday or to tributing an unaccustomed road. traveling this tendency If we were to classify in the Thorndike orthe we might modiMcDougalllistofinstincts, say thatit is a peculiar on thestimulus and organization, theattention fication side,offear, or symbolic and intellectual about by brought reflexes, behavior, tendencies. thegregarious tendency 5. There seemsto be in humannaturestillanother realized. A survey of the has beenimperfectly whosesignificance one universal ofprimitive menreveals phenomenon-that customs Hall has calledspecialattention to therelais taboo. Dr. G. Stanley of repression-sublimation, taboo and the mechanism tionbetween in human character. Accordwhichhe thinksis fundamental of thedeathand resurrection of ing to him,the essential meaning of it is a this mechanism of is that human Christ symbolic projection the mostessential of nature. In orderto understand philosophy he says: humanlife,
First we must postulate that something happened very early in man's withnature,such as animalsstillhave, and to careerto disturbhis harmony and uncertain. He had to leave make his lifemoreor less anxious,conscious, to the work of restoration. As himself the apex paradiseand apply himself and thusthe chiefbearerof its highest ofevolution momentum, he musttranhis way on and up withconstant and scend the animal plane and forge effort and arrest.2 dangerboth of error
I 2
Trotter,ibid., p. II3. the in the Light ofPsychology, II (I9I7), G. S. Hall, Jesus, Christ,
722.
457
thatthese Wundt, He holdsthepsychoanalytic view,as against deities thatcould "rudeimpulses-tabooand repression-preceded stuff out of which both reward or punish"-werea sortof generic is the repression of a and religion morality developed. Morality as a higher one. Whether lowerdesirethatit maybe sublimated and attachgreat of sublimation or not we acceptHall's doctrine to the distinction between and his higher lower desires, significance is verysuggestive. philosophy associated as Dr. Hall shows, principally Now, taboo is found, towardenemies, with food,attitudestowardrulers, towardthe ofthetribe, ofmembers and more war,industry, dead,therelations sex. In generalit seems that whereemotionand particularly, arestrongest, strongest. impulse there, also,aretabooandrepression to safeguard It wouldseemalmost as ifnature, manfrom excessive ofhisstronger and sexinstincts-anger, domination, functioning had connected witheach of theseinstincts a system of inhibition to stimulation and opento theformation reflexes of verysensitive reflexes.But,on the otherhand,thismay conditioned-inhibition for this be a wholly instance, superfluous hypothesis.To Trotter, a matter of herdinstinct conflicting withthe repression is simply otherinstincts.Again,takinga stillbroaderview,repression is whenanybehavior conflicts whathappens withany pattern simply it. According and overcomes to thisview,represopposedpattern ofanyspecialoriginal a reality, butthenotion sionwouldbe indeed ofrepression as such wouldbelong to thesamesuperfluous tendency intowhich Thorndike has put the "instinct and mythical category of imitation." of the stronger is a special or not repression Whether impulses of behavior it is evidently an element that can separateinstinct, and becomea habit or sentiment.The rigoristic be abstracted ofthenorthern racesis contrasted with themore indulgent morality in his study ofthe morals bredin morefavorable climates. Sharp, in Wisconsin of customupon moraljudgment students, influence of rigoristic in the ethicsof elements founda greater proportion conthanin thecity-bred.'The NewEngland country-bred youth oftheconditions is proverbial. Severity oflife is a stimulus science
of Wisconsin(igo8), No. 236. University
xSharp, ofthe Bulletin ofCustom onMoralJudgment," "A Study Influence ofthe
458
habits. The greater the whichhas greatinfluence on repressive of satisfying usual difficulty desires,the greaterthe repression becomeseasy. placed upon thesedesireswhen theirsatisfaction of lifeact as a standard difficulties of reference. The accustomed tendto underconsume under and to mainPersons reared hardship habitsof restraint whentheydo obtain tain curious unnecessary standard of living; theypreachself-denial the meansof a higher once havingbeen a necessity as an ethicalideal; repression has thereverse sometimes nowbecomean end in itself. But ofcourse are othertendencies ofhumannature. as there happens, ofthestronger ofrepression instincts is related This notion to a evenmorefundamental.This conception, ofmorality conception idealsofharmony and in other in theGreek moral though suggested in an findsits clearestand completest expression philosophies, on "The Ethical severalyears ago by Giddings, essay, written is mostfundamentally and essenMotive." In thisview,morality and regulating of the severaltendofthebalancing a matter tially enciesofan organism. Giddings says:
for a varied andthis oftheentire satisfaction, Now,this hunger organism ofanyoneappetite, theoverindulgence oftheentire protest organism against desires for from those a phenomenon particularistic is obviously quitedistinct as thespecific havebeenrecognized inrecent which satisfactions specific years motives. economic for oftheorganism thecraving and general, satisThusdistinct integral andtheorganic indulgence constitute, faction protest against anyparticularistic form.' in itsoriginal, motive theethical I think, physiological
the ethicalmotive motiveaims at pleasures, Whileeconomic "makes forlargeness of conscious life." The aims at happiness, and between reason antithesis attributes Giddings popular morality the meansand end to thefactthatman usuallyperceives clearly economic but is unableto in themore undertakings, particularistic and motives whichconstitute analyzethe vague mass of feelings theethicalmotive. as onemeansofpreventing Repression, then, maybe conceived of singlemotives. Closelyallied to this is the overindulgence the theory that modesty had its origin in the ambivalent
I
andEmpire, chap.ii. Giddings, Democracy
459
reactionof weaknessand completeinhibition following sexual indulgence. This physiological ethicsof Giddings is relatedalso to Holt's to be mentioned morefully later. In bothviews Freudian ethics, the final moralaim is to securethe harmonious satisfaction of all of the organism, for fulness and variety oflife. desires thusmaking But thisphysiological ethicsof Giddings and likewise Holt's of the individual, Freudianethicsare phrasedin terms and seem to overlook thedistinctively socialfactors out in theherdbrought instinct theory. These concepts applyto solitary animalsas well as to the gregarious species,and fail to take accountof the very discussed essential difference above between dog and cat behavior. more to individual mental than to complete They refer hygiene morality. However, theymightbe appliedin an analogical sense to thesocialgroup. I think thatwe mustrather consider socialmorality as a process distinct from, though analogousto, physiological morality. The ofsinin group is notexcess essence butbreakmorality indulgence, ingthebondsofherdinstinct. Duty and tabooare often opposed andvaried oftheindindual, to thelarge satisfaction as inasceticism. is on the side of a verysingleor the moralpressure Sometimes special motiveratherthan of the greatbulk of variedmotives. or dutycalls the indiSuch is the case whenhonor, compassion, andmore thesatisfaction oflarger varied interests. vidualawayfrom and considering actual Leaving the demandsof herdinstinct we findthat thisoften makesdemands socialwelfare, whichbear of the individual. An littlerelationto the integral satisfaction in all things, of labormay be kindly and temperate and exploiter in churchgoing and ill-advised hisaltruistic motives indulge philanand purposes he may be enjoying themost thropy-toall intents and integral and yet be a detriment to harmonious satisfaction, was originally a beneficial devisedto society. If repression force, preventexcessof particularistic indulgence, underthe complicait often and becomes tionsof the socialinstincts outdoesitself an evil ratherthan a good. The number and varietyof repressed motives may becomeso greatthat theymay deserveto be called theethical rather thantheindulgent sideofthestruggle.And,as
460
therational repression and ethicalaim is to eliminate Holt shows, I that is a certain danger it. Therefore think there notto cultivate Hall's philosophy of againstin interpreting thatmustbe guarded be misand sublimation.That is, that the emphasis repression the old moral and to preserve placed so as to idealizerepression rather be directed when attention should self-denial, attitude toward of humannatureand to solutionof the conflicts to the scientific theneedforrepression. eliminating
PART II. SOCIOLOGICAL AND EDUCATIONAL BEARINGS
THE CONCEPT OF LIBERTY AND A PSYCHOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY
appearsas a progressive To some the advance of civilization for For it appearsas a conmankind. others of increase liberty and of the need of restraint.This of restraints tinual growth well explained formula that by the well-known paradoxis fairly under law. But there is no liberty this, is, asidefrom there except another pointthat needs to be made. Much of verysignificant to distinguish thefailure results from two ofthought theconfusion whichcan kindsof restraint.The one is restraint verydifferent to the group. The otheris itself by advantageor utility justify on tradition orsentiment, basedentirely without regard to restraint we needgo no farther thantheTen examples advantage. To find Commandments. "Thou shalt not kill" and "Thou shalt not of obviousutility. "Thou shaltnot restraints steal" are rational the take thenameoftheLord thyGod in vain," and "Remember irrational Sabbath Day to keep it holy" are chiefly sentimental, on thelifeand customs ofprimitive man restraints.Anytreatise ofcommandwillshowthathe was burdened by a greatmultitude and thatin manycaseshis obedience oftheirrational ments type, theTen Commandments, to hisprogress. Among was an obstacle an amountof moralfervor the less rationalones have provoked ones. comparable to, if not actuallyequal to, the veryessential the sentimental restraints Now, withthe advanceof civilization, ofnewcommandments in appear,devised wane,buta vast number of socialefficiency. We need no longer concern ourtheinterests or purifications foruncleanness, nor selves about burntofferings
46I
ourmanners to appeasethe needwe regulate ourdress, ourspeech, of thegods; but we have to be increasingly careful howwe wrath thespread ofdisease, and howwepay our buildourhouses, prevent of history have been offered; employees. Many interpretations couldwe not have a psychological interpretation of history whose theme central wouldbe theprogressive taking overby rational law and liberty ofhumanbehavior formerly underthecontrol ofblind ? Sucha philosophy ofhistory instinctive sentimental mechanisms works. This changein the is suggested by Giddings' sociological ofbehavior is correlated a change in socialinstitutions, control with is determined by bloodor tradifrom thegroup whose membership tionalqualification is determined to the groupwhosemembership Moreorlessassociated these with changes byfunctional efficiency. is also the changeof the modeof functioning of the self-assertive instinct, mentioned above. That is, the equality-liberty-justice mechanism of thedomination mechanism. gainsat theexpense No discussion of liberty versuslaw is adequateunlessit pays heed to the distinction made above betweenrationaland sentimentalrestraint. of individualism versus Likewisethe timeworn controversy has failedto make a certainimportant distinction. collectivism Therehas been a half-conscious to associatethe human tendency ofindividualism, as shown typically bytheAnglo-Saxon race, policy of the of socialpressure and relative weakness withindependence thisindividualand habits. But on closer socialinstincts analysis tobe as much a product ofherdinstinct as is collectivism. ismseems of individualism to thetruebiological It is notat all to be likened difference believean instinctive cats and tigers. One couldhardly betweensuch closelyrelatedraces as the Germansand AngloSaxons such as to account fortheirpresentextremely opposed ofculture. Free enterprise, thefearofgovernforms competition, and pecuniary emulation forconspicuous leisure, ment,reverence of system, of herdprejudice as the worship are as muchmatters valuesofthetwo and efficient nationalism.The relative authority, on othergrounds-bytheirresults. cultures mustbe determined The belief thateach of thesecultures is a finaland unchangeable and that wholewhosepartscorrelate witheach other, necessarily
462
we cannot takeoverthegoodelements oftheGerman culture without also getting its bad, are,we hope,herddelusions.
INADEQUACY OF MORAL SENTIMENTS AND IDEALS
Popularly, morality is usuallystated in termsof ideals and standards. The moralteaching of children too oftenconsists in givinga stocklist of virtues, and thenelaborating upon each in turnin a half-emotional, half-rational manner. These ideals are lookedupon in a staticway,and are considered as endsin themselveswhich it is foolish or wickedto question. Ideals and sentiments are,as we have seen,simply instinctive emotional tendencies withacquiredstimuli. In teaching reflexes them, the conditioned are established thefunctioning of suggestibility and other through herdinstincts, not through reason. In thelight oftheprinciples I believe brought outin thisarticle, that our whole policyof moral instruction needs to be revolutionized. Of theseidealswhich we have taught, some,liketruth, and honesty, seemto be universally and will efficiency, applicable probably alwaysbe so. Many others are inadequateto meetthe needs of changedconditions.Many are bound to conflict with each other,because we fail to clothethemsufficiently with the notionof relativity and the intellectual powerto discriminate the propersphereof each. Of coursethis lack is oftensuppliedby of thatthere is a "proper teaching place" foreach; in thewisdom Ecclesiastesthereis "a timeto weep,and a timeto laugh,""a timeto love,and a timeto hate,"etc. But all thistellsus mostly whatis alreadyobviousand does littleto tellwhatactuallythese proper timesand placesare. must The essenceof the neededreform is this: thatattention be directed, to with static less motives and their conformity ideals, and moreto external situations and results. A fewexamples ofsomeofourmoral willshowtheinadequacy standards reason: unguided by sufficient comI. Whensocialsuggestion and approval(theherd-control plex) are strong, ofright is socialsanction. We need thecriterion notgo to savagesfor modern sins examples. If a listofall possible ofmoralconweredrawnup, and each evaluatedas to (a) degree
THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGYOF MORALITY
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demnationand (b) actual harm to humanity, the correlation coefficient between (a) and (b) wouldbe probably positive butvery low. As Ross shows,the reallygreat evils are overlooked and pettypersonalvices emphasized.' Murderof an individualor grave-robbing horrifies us, but we overlook the long-range and large-scale murder by adulteration, exploitation of workers, and neglect of safety precautions. Many pious souls who wouldnot breaktheSabbathwouldno doubtbe glad to holdlandidleneara growing cityand pocketthe unearnedincrement.To steal $ioo is a serious moral and legaloffense, butto destroy several thousands in order ofdollars' ofone'sowngrain to diminish worth the supply in a public officer and increase is not so bad. Stupidity profits ofhispersonal maybe condoned, butanysuggestion "immorality" is considered exceedingly important.Today he who spitson the is despised and punished flagofhis country morethanhe whoby profiteering and shrewdbargaining spits on the country itself. but loyalty to an asocial Loyaltyis one of thepillarsofmorality, at all. It is just thatwhich cause is worsethanno loyalty we are fighting today. Thus has societyblundered at along,straining gnatsand swallowing that its every camels,supremely confident moraldictum is a revelation of absolutegoodness and a signpost maximum pointed straight toward welfare. 2. In kindliness and sympathy we have perhapsa saferguide to right thanwithany othermereinstinct. The criterion of the righthere is love. But thereare many errors. We feed the and opposevivithemultiplication oftheunfit, beggar, encourage sectionon thegrounds of "humanity." We attendto immediate but overlook thelong-range effects of our conduct. This distress, evil occurred underthepoorlaws in England. The good Samarihis sympathetic willhave no time tan, unlesshe limits attention, forthe impersonal and effort to real progress. thinking necessary The GoldenRule is not entirely adequate,becauseit failsto take accountofindividual in reaction differences to thesame stimulus. Likewise theKantianprinciple ofdoing thatcould onlythose things be allowed to all violates thevery ofsocialorganireality, for nature zationdemands thatsomehavefunctions and privileges thatothers
I
E. A. Ross,Sin andSociety, I907.
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whenhe pang of conscience do not. Who has not felta certain and rights realizesthat he accordsto some of his acquaintances of and yet such a difference whichhe deniesto others, privileges inevitableand stimuliis psychologically reactionto different necessary. socially are of right instincts rule,the criteria the aggressive 3. 'When is Attention sentiments. "manly" and and other justice, honor are reigning and self-reliance honor to self. Personal nowdirected looms largein the ethicsof the Southern ideals. This element in especially ofmanynations, and in thearistocracy mountaineers personal by best the eliminates morality of kind This the past. of in the pursuit duels. It drivesnationsto mutualdestruction appeals to cer"nationalhonor." "Betterdeaththandishonor" and welfare. Also but is a poorsloganforsurvival taininstincts, of man as obvious justice,equality,and the rights we proclaim upon the mind to moral ideals whichneed only be impressed thatmenare funto recognize becomerealized. We need rather are a myth;and hence rights unequaland thatnatural damentally analysisof realities. intelligent therecan be no justice without property, of individual thesentiments also support Theseinstincts of before use. The rights of the fewowners and place ownership of thanthe satisfaction agentsare farmoreimportant productive with interferes consumers.The ideal of self-reliance the miany because manysatisfactions forego social co-operation.Americans and use of ownership adaptedto collective theyare not mentally responsiand the notionof individual things. Mere self-respect of a is the that individual product largely the fact obscure bility the is of socialresponsibility and thata concept his environment, maylead to neededleverforreform.The ideal ofindustriousness which and planning thanto thethinking rather busyactivity mere the moral boy who,following to success. The office is necessary with thefloor sweeps books, and ofinspirational adviceofhiselders his own prooften hinders and conscientiousness, greatdiligence in thisposition. Pernicious becauseof his veryefficiency motion man.' of theself-made to youthis themoralphilosophy
of I This suggestion work and writings guidance from thevocational is derived Mr. Meyer Bloomfield.
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and sentiments ofrespect andfear instincts giveus Thesubmissive to selfish authority, and fearof God thatmakeus slavish reverence passive to evil whichwe shouldfight. victimsof exploitation, the criteria of factor, 4. Whenfearof changeis an influential the old and tried,the faithof our fathers. rightare familiarity, largely of thisare obvious; theyhave been discussed The results under other headings. is the predominating the test of factor, 5. When repression We nowhave the Puritan righteousness is difficulty-self-denial. and if an act be easy the ideals. What is hard mustbe right, hereis thekey to is strong thatit is evil. Self-sacrifice suspicion of asceticism which hereafter.This was the morality happiness someofEurope'sbestblood. It sanctions severe conditions cutoff It preserves evil conditions of lifeand favors underconsumption. them. It is the rootof one of the mostperinsteadof fighting in ourmoral thatis,thetendency to make thinking, nicious fallacies would a virtue outofa necessity. As Weekssays,"socialevolution of if once forall the supposedcompensations movemoreswiftly and the fact were subjectedto actual observation, misfortune oflife arebetter, immeasurthatsomeconditions frankly recognized thanothers."' ably better, So thebasingofmorality chiefly uponany one of thesefactors oftheethical thesupposed between advantage leavesa largeerror howcode and the trueadvantage. This does not mean to infer, thegolden meanbetween orfinding thatanykindofbalancing ever, ofinstincts and No combination factors willbe satisfactory. these of the habits built directly upon them,withoutthe mediation is adequateto givean ethical codenearthe calledreason, processes oftruewelfare. The onlyguidethatcan makemorality direction is knowledge. in the senseofmaximum benefit, truly moral,
ERRORS IN THE CONCEPTION OF MORALS AS SOCIAL CONTROL
of morality withtrueadvantagehas probably The correlation increasing. though low,and is veryprobably alwaysbeenpositive, it is wellto too uncritically and joyously, But, lestthisbe believed facts. certain important emphasize
I
XXI (Ig9I), i59. A. J. Weeks, AmericanJournalof Sociology,
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and thatmany do approach socialwelfare The factthatmorals is to be right also proveto be beneficial, things felt"intuitively" abouthisconduct to man'sexcellent reasoning notto be attributed are ofmeansto ends. Rather,thanks norhis rational adaptation of naturalselection in fostering instincts due to the beneficence and therefore in themajority in their (but which direction, general of conduceto thewelfare not all) of their acquiredmodifications, man'sprotection ofwomen and children thespecies. For example, to an adultmaleis obviously beneficial from theviolence accorded sanctioned. This is not due to any to the race and also morally of such courteous conduct, but to the reflection upon the utility whichenforce it. of instinctive mechanisms naturalselection of thefullsignificance of to recognize In consequence thefailure of social control theories in this truth, have been too teleological Ross's Social Control, the most admirable viewpoint. Professor errs,I believe,in workextantin this fieldof social psychology, too much the rather view thanthe purposive emphasizing altogether ofceremony, andmorals as " tools custom, genetic. The conception of adaptationof of control"conveysa notionof inventiveness, ofthispointofviewis found meansto ends. The bestillustration of ceremony.He of courserecognizes the in Ross's treatment as described by Spencer,' but he genesisof this out of instincts, to recognize thecontrol claimsthatit is equallyor moreimportant thatsociety(through its indicated aspect,thatis, is it not rather used it in controlling men ceremony efficacious, leaders),"finding withone another untilthecoming to handofnew in their dealings modesof control enabledit increasingly with to dispense and finer so clumsy"'?2 an instrument of the feelings "Let us see if it is not a meansof impressing to society." He quotesthesayin waysadvantageous individuals usagesserveas dykesto the ingsof Confucius:"The ceremonial to whichtheyare prone": peopleagainstbad excesses
of the individual malitiesare just thosewhichmarka changein the relations of the whichinvolvesthe acceptanceof new responsibilities.The recognition
I
2
forthattheoccasions most accentuated We find by public scrupulously
p. 248. chap.XiX, Ross,SocialControl, Ibid.,p. 25I.
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of manhoodor womanhood, the comingof age, newborn child,the attainment the successionto the headship,marriage, of family property, the inheritance the promiseof allegiance, naturalization, confirmation, adoption, initiation, and treaty-these .... in office, installation compact, ordination, enlistment, or forthe groupat largewhat forhis family, to do forothers, bind somebody hitherto has not been laid upon him. insteadofwidens, the event, narrows, On the otherhand,whenobligation is not signalizedby ceremony. Thus; divorce as important, thoughcertainly is less formalthan marriage; withdrawalfromassociationor church,than thannaturalization;mustering out of expatriation, initiation or confirmation; of court,than its opening. service,than enlistment;the adjournment the performance of these promotes Why should this be unless ceremony obligations-is,in sooth,a meansofcontrol?" or betweenintimates, forms where are not used in the family Prescribed theswayofformality But as distanceincreases, insures self-restraint. affection in the negotiaofbelligerents grows, tillit reachesits climaxin the intercourse in militant but not solelyas sugtionsofambassadors. It flourishes societies, of inferiors. It is most observedby members gested by the obsequiousness class and by thosewho commandratherthan thosewho obey. of the military while the lowerordersmay practicehumbleobeisances,it In caste societies, caste that ceremony ofpoliteis in the highest growsmostrankly. The forms notfrom belowupyvard. The courtesy above downward, nesshave passedfrom not forburghers. It is noble or courtier, not of chivalrywas forwarriors, wherever place peasant,thatfeelsmosttheyokeofetiquette. In otherwords, excessiveself-assertion, theresocietyimposesits rules or pursuithas fostered and suggest thesacredness to checkarrogance ofanother's ofbehavior designed
personality.2
is to a largeextent useful Now,we cannotdenythatceremony of naturaland social that by processes forits allegedpurposes, or at least appearto meansthatare moreor less useful, selection be so, surviveand less valuable ones are eliminated. We also oftheleaders ofsociety admitthattheintelligence mayplaya small and custom and morality likepart in thisselectionvCeremony, do reactupontheemotions which causedthem, withtheeffect wise, those emotions in habitual reand preserving of strengthening called tools are thus control. But my of rightly sponses. They is a secondary and thatit is likely claimis thatthisfunction fact, and significant of the to blindus to the moreprimary conception whichlatterconception of the said behavior is standards, genesis
I
Italicsare Ross's.
Ibid.,chap.xix.
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to enableus rightly in terms necessary to evaluatethesestandards ofhuman progress. examples quotedfrom I believethatevery one oftheforegoing can be morefundamenRoss and by himinterpreted purposively in somecasesa mere by-product, ofthe tally interpreted as a result, instinctive emotional tendencies alreadyarousedby the circumceremony may be stancesof the occasion. Adolescent initiation morea resultof a certain jealous attitudeof old towardyoung, ofgregariousness, to be a by-product believed thanit is by Trotter newobligations.' The etiquette a meansofimpressing ofthecourt of self-assertive and palace may be more a naturalby-product and kindly instincts by original nature not instincts (thesubmissive thana deviceto restrain to form suchreactions) dangerous tending I knowofno evidence ofself-assertion. to showrationexpressions underpresent moreefficient systems ally thatan armyis actually and discipline thanit could be underverydifferent of formality are methodsof control. We know that industrial organizations without close-order drill and ritual. efficient Perhaps very periodic underwhichan armymustworkmake the usual the conditions the only possible controls, formsof ceremony but, if this be We know far less than true, it is still to be demonstrated. we usually think we do about the realitiesof psycho-social causation. tendencies and the underanger, In the emotional fear, coming theactualmotor reations involved are often herd-control complex, varied. In such cases some one motoract tendsto exceedingly becomeselectedand to becomea habit-response, just as definite from the babble of original vocalization. The wordsare selected intoonedefinite channel. Vocalinterjecnowflows nervous energy suchas clenching thefists, thelips, biting tions, many automatisms, and only and praying, kneeling etc.,maythusbecomethehabitual of certain emotions. Now, manyceremonial outwardexpressions function.To conceive a ritualas essentially acts servea similar orsubmissive orrepresa deviceto arousesuggestible and primarily likeconceiving an oathas essentially is something and sivebehavior a deviceto arouseanger. We do not deny,of course, primarily
I
Trotter, Instincts ofthe Herd, pp. 84-85.
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thatthe ritualdoes secondarily reactupon the emotions and also helpsto spreadthemto other individuals. is valuable,says Ross: If ceremony
Why,then,does societyallow this code to lapse? Is it, as Mr. Spencer and social feeling? Partly,but not asserts,due to the increaseof sympathy that industrialism wholly. Whilegranting developsa pacific temper thatdoes not need a rigidceremonial discipline, let us not overlookthe finer type of controlthat has come in. What now curbs men in theirintercourse is not but idea. gesture, Justas proverbs losetheir value becauseofthegrowing ofjudgment variety so ceremonies uponlife, lose their impressiveness becauseofthegrowing variety oftaste. Whenthereis no form or ceremony thataffects all in thesamewaywhenthatwhich movesoneis meaningless to another and ridiculous to a thirdwiththe resultis over. The building of a complexculture, the age of symbol ushersin the era of speech-making ...... differentiation, ing intellectual
I believethatRoss woulddo wellhereto eliminate thenotion, in the first that the lapse of ceremony is expressed paragraph, in theneedsforcontrol or by thepresence causedby a change and possibility of another meansof control, and to state simply, as in the latterparagraphquoted, that new conditions cause man's instinctive emotional tendencies to becomeattachedto new types of conditioned stimuli and rendersimpossibletheir continued to theold.2 attachment To explain theexistence ofa socialinstitution or by its effects, for is dangerous. It is legitimate it as a means, by the"necessity" in twoways: (i) through human teleology, (2) through adaptation of thefit. The first as our has a verynarrow by survival sphere, discussion is contained the whole endeavors to show. In thesecond in Ross'spointof view. In general, instinct essential truth every to survivalor it must be, or have been at one time,favorable couldneverhave been developed. Likewisethe instinctive interaction mechanisms of the complementary instincts have been selected becauseoftheir survival value to thesocialgroup. Hence it is probable thattheconditioned reflexes formed from thesetendencies are on thewholebeneficial.Thus theherd-control instincts
Ross,SocialControl, chap.xix. See also,Snedden, "The Waning ofArt," Powers American Journal ofSociology, XXII, 80I-2I. The same considerations applyto the interpretation of Snedden's article.
I 2
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and to a largeextent favorco-operation and thereby survival, the of suggestion and approvalare connected conditioned reflexes to significance. stimuli which have a truewelfare made (and the realsourceof But thegreatmistakes frequently be gained from Ross's conception) theerroneous impression apt to are: (I) to assumethatall theeffects and corollaries oftheinstincts are therefore conditions, and advantageous, even underprimitive and the consequent (2) to assumethe workof naturalselection instincts. adaptivevalue as extending too farbeyondthe original mustsimply be fitenough, it may anything First,to survive, be far fromwhat human intelligence could make it. Biology shows that adaptive characters are likely to carrywith them indifferent, or even harmful, by-products.Nature's adaptations are remarkable, but onlyrough;thatis all thatwe can expect from her. Ward'sphilosophy of the artificial is the of the superiority we keynote of social amelioration.The truthof his philosophy or even to economic wouldall recognize as appliedto machinery of applying it to human organization, but fewof us would think mechanisms. behavior as we advancefarther and farther from the original Secondly, is increasintotherealm ofcomplex artificial there stimulus stimuli, ingchanceofdeviation from thepath oftrueadvantage. In fact, it may be shifted from an instinct be originally beneficial, though theresulting habitsare actually to stimulus stimulus finally, until, so that to the race. The sex instinct may be perverted injurious and approval is defeated. Desirefor socialadmiration reproduction of makesrequirements -a partof theherd-control instincts-now birth-rate and consequent individuals whichresultin a defective racialdecline. The call oftheherdhas in recent yearsbeena call to suicideformillionsof Europe's best population. A colossal in man is to be of theherdinstincts exampleof the consequences and in thesentiments and ideals,theloyalties and traditions found whichpaved the way to prejudices, the moralsand the religions, thepresent war. no value at all under Many instincts may have practically modern conditions. Fear is a notableexample. Otherinstincts mustbe connected stimuli thantheusualones to other conditioned
47I
ifthey are to be ofservice. A great proportion ofhuman behavior, bothinnateand acquired, mustbe conceived, not as adaptive, but as a bunchofuselessby-products of tendencies serviceable onlyin other waysor in past ages. It must be remembered that man's presentequipmentof instincts was developedin the environment of the small animal group. When his intelligence led him to formgreat complex societies and to achievevast control overnature, his environment becamea verydifferent and in this new environment thing, his instincts aboutresults in Ward's unchanged brought "unintended," or not. Mutasense,by nature-which maybe to his advantage, tionand naturalselection have not yethad a chanceto adapt his instincts to hispresent environment. The real significance of emotions is realizedmoreclearly from a treatise reading like Crile'sMan, an Adaptive Mechanism, than from any purely"psychological" accountthat I knowof. Crile and muscles can be showsthatthe brain,liver,thyroid, adrenals, considered as forming a "kinetic whose function distinctly system," and in great it is to transform energy quickly quantity when needed forself-defense of the organism. The emotions are aspectsof the of this system. He pointsout further, functioning verysignifiis continually thatin civilized lifethiskinetic mechanism cantly, liableto be driven by numerous artificial stimuli, evento thepoint are twogreatsources ofinjury: ofbodily exhaustion. In thisthere it is rarely themuscular reactions for first, possible to consummate under thebodyis being as it is usually which prepared, savageand to reactso as it is often animalconditions;secondly, impossible is thenormal reacthestimulus, which goal ofemotional to remove likeworry. results a condition ofchronic tion; hencethere emotion, Therefore the value of emotions to modern whatever man, this value mustbe set overagainstgreatdisadvantages.' Returning now to the otherpossibleway in whichceremony, thatis, through custom,etc., may be explainedby their utility, humanintelligence, we must point out anotherfallacy. Social is commonly welfare used as an argument to justify a customor
I Forsignificant comment ontherelative values ofdifferent andinstincts emotions in civilized see Thorndike, Educational life, Psychology, I, 308 ff.
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moralstandard, such as, forexample, monogamy, individualistic free enterprise, or thekeeping oftheSabbathDay. But thedogmatic positiveness and conviction with which such thingsare asserted to be forthesocialgood,in theabsenceofmuchrealeviin theirfavoror disfavor, dence,either immediately arousesour suspicion. In fact, many such arguments are more superficial rationalizations to justify something already "felt" to be right than theyare reasonable grounds forthe ethicalstandard in question. The reasonis a secondary matter. Exogamy was feltto be right longbefore its biological advantagewas proved. But childlabor once to be of God and forthesocialgood, was sanctioned thought and afterward it proved to be injurious. In many cases it is impossible to tellwhich lineofconduct actually willbe ofgreatest in thelongrun,but themoralcode is seladvantageto humanity or dom in doubt-it assertswithgreatauthority the rightfulness of acts whosereal social effects wrongfulness couldbe determined onlyby yearsofscientific investigation.
MORAL EXHORTATION
We haveusedceremony as an example, but thesameconsiderationsapplyto the toolsof moralcontrol and of moraleducation. A significant question may be raisedconcerning the function and value ofmoralexhortation in all its forms-of preaching, scolding, etc. I am reminded so frequently oftheprevailing attitude toward matters ofcharacter and morality thatI have beenset to thinking hard about its real meaning. We all knowthe typicalsermon, or pamphlet etc. lecture, upon the subjectsof character-building, These discourses as a ruledevotetheir space to doingone or both in eloquent terms admiraof twothings: (i) They simply express tion and approvalforideals whichwe already, by virtueof our and approve, such as honor, instincts, do admire justice,courage, tendencies do denounce. and denounce whatouroriginal sympathy; force ofherdsuggestion and some (2) Theyaimto impress, bysheer to sentiments and ideals moredifficult play upon otherinstincts, of other suchas reverence, form becauseoftheconflict tendencies; etc. self-denial, are moralguidance, Preaching, scolding, muchthatcalls itself behavior of the original simplyoutgrowths approving-suggesting
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designed by nature to transmit thecontrols ofindividual behavior. Theiradaptation tosecure their assumed endsis nature's, notman's, calculation. Hence theyare likelyto be way out of adjustment underartificial conditions, stillbelievedto be as useful though as ever. The characteristic of an instinctive (or habitual,directly from developed instinct without themediation ofreason)meansto an end,as opposedto a rational is means, that the individual is to use thatmeanswithout impelled deliberation and without any to theactualconsequences attention as they except act upon directly him. Moral exhortation is a meansto transmitting desirable senin that timents thesameway thesexact is a meansto reproduction. In neither case does theactorat first knowanything aboutresults, and, whenhe does reach the stage of enlightenment wherethe causal relation is perceived, he tendsto take that relation upon faith rather thancritically to analyzeit. Aska parent's for reason and punishing a child, scolding and he or she willtellyou that,of it is a meansto controlling course, thechild's ortobuilding conduct, its character. A lesssophisticated but truer answer wouldbe that he or she just feltimpelledto scold, withoutany attention to consequences. But if naturetakes care of the consequences, why worry? Here'stherub. As we have notedbefore, be at all sure we cannot thatnature willtakecareoftheconsequences newconditions, under different from thoseunderwhichtheinstincts wereevolved. Just as the sex act is easily separatedfrom its "natural" resultsby artificial so all quantities of parentalscolding circumstances, and moralexhortation to produce mayfailin civilized theconsociety sequences theyare believedto produce. The foregoing considerations suggest whythehuman is so being prone toprotest he knows when thatprotesting can do no good,and whyhe feelsmorally obligedto "take a stand" uponissueswhen results hisdesired couldbe more obtained meanslikely byindirect thesituation bystudying and bymaintaining a seeming indifference untiltheeffective moment forstriking comes. In fact,thisnoble disinterestedness in resultsand emphasis upon motivesis a perofourmoral feature as we shall seemore vading later. idealism, fully Preaching and inspirational moralizing are thusmore essentially of innatetendencies results thancauses of their supposedresults.
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than Theymaybe more an expression ofalready existing sentiments creators ofthose sentiments.Thosewhohearsermons andexhortaleast. tions areusually those who, in thepreacher's words, needthem They like to hear expressed the sentiments theyalreadypossess. in this But even whensentiments are effectively transmitted are way,as theycertainly to a largeextent, thismethod is inadequate to build the morality whichis most neededtoday. That demandsnot blind suggestion but enlightenment. In brief, the is moreoftensimply a mouthpiece platform forthe voice of the herdthanan effective meansof making thatvoice effective. But and stillless-far less thaneither-isit a sourceof enlightenment rational guidance. The same considerations apply to the sayingsof the great prophets of all lands,thewisdom of theProverbs, and the "deep insight into humannature" of such writers as Shakespeare. All thisgoes to makeup the vast popularstorehouse of nourishment after a knowledge ofhuman and thirst sought by thosewhohunger nature. We mustgrantthatthisproverbial and literary wisdom our often comesfrom unusualunderstanding, and thatit broadens to callattention, itspleasing to andserves form, sympathies through of whichwe are often and thereby improves experience oblivious, for uncritical conduct. But, in view of the wholesale reverence oftheages,"it is ourdutyto pointout its limitathis"experience ofwhatis already it is simply a pleasing reminder tions. Too often teaches us nothing. We likemuchofthis"wisobvious and really but is merely becauseit doesn'tteachus anything, dom" simply ofwhatwe already an ear-tickling know. Furthermore, repetition an appreciation of the triesto cultivate whenthe Englishteacher I often maliand the classicin literature, "good," the standard, of is as influential as themerits ciouslysuspectthatherdinstinct the literature itself. The coursein Englishhas been a breeding ratherthan forreason. Happily there groundforsuggestibility are a fewsignsofreform.
INADEQUACY OF THE INSTINCTIVE METHODS OF CHILD TRAINING
Therewillprobably uncritical, alwaysbe a place where direct, in moralsuggestion and exhortation mustbe used to someextent
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moraltraining. That place is in the earlyhomelifeof the child. effecchanged. However hereneedto be greatly Yet themethods it does not tive may have been the naturaland usual methods, conditions, thecomplex modern are effective under follow thatthey as others might be. or thattheyeverwereas effective in a group werefew inprimitive life, whenchildren For example, families, parents or immediate withtheir and keptin closecontact to moldcharacter by thevigorous use ofparenit was very possible and some behavior, and approval,fear,masterly tal suggestion life But in conditions aremet. new city entirely brutality perhaps. and the on the streets of largegroups of children The assembling of amongthemenablesthe formation freedom of communication of children and ideals of their herds as such,withherdsentiments own,often at variancewiththoseof parentsand teachers. The from ofchildren free intimate has setlargenumbers factory system thehabits materials and from with household productive connection freeand of responsibility goingtherewith.Their timeis largely conditions theessential uncontrolled. The foregoing are,I believe, that have made a "boy-problem" wheretherewas none before. by the and held up to ridicule are nullified Parentalsuggestions ofthejuvenile herd. The fear appealis nullicontrary suggestions Pious precepts becomea and sense-experience. fiedby education conditioned stimulus to irritation and indifference. behavior Control force and by threatening, masterly byphysical and authority succeedsonlywhenit is possibleto have complete whennecessary. to push the methodto its logicalconsequences is limited and threats which ofauthority whose sphere The assertion in thechild be madegoodonlyserveto arouseself-assertion cannot of nature's and make for disobedience.No betterillustration ofa thanthesight can be found method ofcontrol goneto futility and a displayof or boy's worker who by threats parent, teacher, the very in the children is stimulating angerand self-assertion behaviorhe is "trying"to inhibit. The comparative enlightenofdiverse childand themultitude mentofthemodern suggestions from varioussourcesdiminish respectforparent,or for received any one sourceof suggestion.The Americanchild of today is worker attitude. A settlement cynical especially proneto a certain
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for parental is little respect tells methatthere in an Italiandistrict have the children he believes, of the handicap authority, because, adapting and thusin better in knowing English, overtheir parents to their environment. themselves an appeal ofcontrol mustbe devised. Sometimes Newmethods whatweeksofscolding willaccomplish to tenderness and sympathy up in persons brought and punishment failto do. I have known inwhich suggestion homes ofdogmatic were few ornoelements there or authoritative have been whosecharacters or approval, religion, better intovaludevelop adaptedto lifethantheaverage. Others calculated would seem able citizens whole homeenvironment whose is develto producecriminals.I sometimes thinkthat character in spiteof,rather thanby meansof,homeand school oped largely factors whataretheessential training. The factis,wedo notknow thatwillguide and,untilwe getactualevidence in moraltraining, and investigative. attitude is experimental us, theonlyright illustration is a splendid of modern prisonreform The history naturalof the fallacy we have been discussing. It is perfectly upon dominate, and take vengeance maltreat, bully, instinctive-to and most for wrongdoing.The moststrict those under punishment in orderto but necessary, seem,not onlynatural, cruelmeasures ofthecrime. But, repetition intimidate againstescapeand future was discardedand the when this simplefaithin our intuitions it was found ofother methods ofcontrol was considered, possibility results. led to better thatthe veryopposite treatment of Hall's advice to use angerin punishment On this ground, nature'smethod,must be taken with great following children, of this If the generalphilosophy cautionand discrimination.' nature. At any in unguided we cannot put faith paperis correct, " is so ambiguous thatwe might rate,whatwe mean by "nature that forexample, better discardthe concept. Rousseauthought, it is just as "natural"for he was going back to nature; but really philosophy as to be "natural,"as Trotter's manto be conventional telic an artificial, was really shows; and whatRousseauadvocated control-an intelligent upon improvement methodof educational the course"nature" had takenin socialevolution.
I
I906, chap. xii. andHygiene, Regimen, Its Education, G. S. Hall, Youth,
477
in developing new methods of moral One thingseemscertain sincerity, truth, and rationalization. training. That is theneedfor Someillusion and useful under mayverywellhave beenlegitimate to remain ignoprimitive conditions.It mayhave beendesirable rantof certain things whentherewas no otherpossiblesourceof conditions truth is the only enlightenment. But under modern safecourse. Tobacco is said to be-veryinjurious, but experience controverts this. Honestyis said to be the best policyand the honestman alwaysprospers, but youthlearnsof the prosperous resultsof dishonesty.Opportunities forsexual indulgence soon againstit. Our herdteachings overbalance the moralteachings and withotherherdteachings, and as a conflict withexperience result everything appearsin an unreallight. To thesemirationalis a mass of contradietions, resulting ized childoftodaytheworld child, and in another, in indifference in mental conflict in a thinking he might otherwise have been to thelarger aspectsoflifein which old era ofillusion and interested.Sincewe cannotgo back to the is to go forward to thorough enlightenignorance, theonlysolution ment. willbe to teachas much ruleofthenewmoraltraining Another to use and command and as possible suggestion onlyas by reality it is for a childto learn howmuchbetter a lastresort. Holt shows command. burnthanby parental a slight to avoidflame by getting " ofa moral thattellsa child he " ought Whatshallwe think training or to admire revere that? Much better this and of be ashamed to willautomatically stimulate situations which it wouldbe to arrange to theright reactions thedesired things.
THE MORAL VERSUS THE SCIENTIFIC CONDUCT ATTITUDE TOWARD HUMAN
If by ethicalwe denotetrulybeneficial, then,the prevailing is, I believe,decidedly "moral" attitudetowardhuman affairs of our of lifeheld by gteat numbers unethical. The philosophy the backbone and capable population, well-educated moderately whichin of society,is pervadedby a certainmoral viewpoint of the greatest human realityis an obstacle to the attainment betterment.
478
nowconceive of Whenmechanical problems arise,mostpersons reach ofmechanical causeand -effect and thereby theissuein terms in termsof is conceived a solution. Human conduct, however, and punishment, of ~'higher"and moral responsibility, reward, of the conduct in pro"lower" motives. The real causal efficacy is veiled by the emphasis ducingcertaineffects placed upon its relationto personaland moral standards,based largelyupon of thepreinstinct. The inadequacy uncriticized and unanalyzed is well when moral vailing sentiments, unguided byrational insight, illustrated by the typical ethical debate. One antagonist will that honordemandsthat a nationshall take claim,forinstance, nation. The otherwill claimthat actionagainstanother certain and justicedemanda different and they perhapskindness policy, will tryto prove that theircause is likewise equallyhonorable. and moreHonor,and thatis And so HonorbattleswithKindness to anyone occurs to question as faras theycan go. It seldom the or to view it in its widerrelations. What natureof honoritself is this"honor" which itself sortoftwo-faced so often thing arrays ? In thelight on bothsidesofa question oftheconditioned reflex, is intrinsically nothing "honorable,"and very few thingsmust obtainthatquality. The honorofanything is derived necessarily is judgedby its superficial conduct from its associations. Personal uncriticized sentiments rather thanbyanyintelliappealto various into its real antecedents or consequents.We have gent insight ofa certain as lacking "'moral heardmuchcriticism highexecutive animalsdemandinstinccourage." As Trottersays, gregarious his presence a leaderwhomakesknown and his determinatively he leadsin theright direction tionin conspicuous ways.' Whether as longas he leadswithdecision difference or notmakeslittle and force. It is manyyearssinceHerbertSpencer2 pointedout this attitude oftheaverageman toward naivedogmatic political quesbut its tionsof infinite will be complexity, significance probably morefullyrealizedafteranalysisof its instinctive basis, such as has made. Trotter forcertainideals werecompared If the uncritical admiration ofhuman we should in a very withtherealities see things behavior,
I
2
of theHerd, pp. ii6-i8. Trotter,Instincts I894, chap. i. ofSociology, H. Spencer,The Study
479
antithesis between thebravemanand different light. The popular less simpleand the coward,for example,would be exceedingly of men advance obvious. The eventsof war, wherethousands flee side by side towarddeath, and then at a suddenstimulus in panic,suggests that courage may be morea function together in character. differences thanofindividual circumstances ofexternal fora traitmaytellus verylittleofits realnature Our admiration ofourinstincts, we shallalways, and utility. Of course by virtue and admireuncritical courageand honorand despisemeanness of thesesentiments mustbe undue caution,but our enjoyment rather thanof rational put in the realmof aesthetic appreciation judgment. ofthisreadyand simple whatis therealmeaning classiAgain, " ? Imagine " and " lower and actsas " higher ofdesires the fication human tendenciesin physiological terms! moralistdescribing and assumethathis higherRatherhe wouldscornsuch realism is a self-evident lowerterminology classification. Of course it is a it bearsto scalesof objective scale of admiration.What relation needsto be investigated, not takenforgranted. utility to must theatmosphere be cleared If we are havesocialprogress, in terms mistand conduct mustbe conceived ofcause ofthismoral natural are conceived. Socrates processes just as other and effect, thanmostlatermoralists when hemadeknowlthetruth wasnearer is sole of virtue. It not claimed that the sothe edge prequisite side of moraltraining shouldor can be entirely called emotional ormore oftheenergy thatone-half eliminated. It is claimed spent better be used might upon thatside is unnecessary.This energy into the conditions of humanlifeand, to developrational insight which willaim to discover above all, an intelligent what ignorance ofconduct them for insteadof taking aretheresults granted. The in treating diseaseis notlessened because physician's effectiveness his attitudeis de-emotionalized and scientific instead of being excited withmoralfervor. A significant viewof the ethicalproblem is presented by ProE. B. Holt. He illustrates the common moraldilemma fessor by a ruraland pioushomegoingto the case ofa young womanfrom and there thegreatcityto earnherliving thetemptation meeting of the theater:
480
We are fairly withthreeways in whichpersons familiar behave whenthey meet such a dilemma. One way is to resistthe presenttemptations, which means to suppressthe wish forcompanionship and pleasure,to renounce the tree of knowledge;eventually to drift away from social connections and into a warped,acidulous,and (as Freudfinds)nervously diseasedspinsterhood. A secondway is to "forget" (i.e., to suppress)the righteous precepts learnedat home, to indulgeunthinkingly in every "pleasure" offered, to become the and riotouspleasure-lover ... . These two waysare equivalentin butterfly pointof badness. In both cases the suppressed wishesburstforth in furtive of conduct. side-channels The third way is no better. It is theway ofthosewhoundertake to follow both of two conflicting courses; in the presentinstance,to observeboth the' traditions ofhomeand themorally relaxedhabitsoftown. church-going in the most reprehensible This is, of course,the path of "compromise," sense of the word,and the directrouteto all the vilestforms of hypocrisy. A proof character is established, and the personbecomestwo gressivedissociation one piousand one pleasure-loving. Each set oftendencies persons, suffers alternate suppression. In none ofthe threecases is the victimable to do any one thingwithhis wholeheart; a part of his strength has always to be spent dissociatedand antagonistic in suppressing tendencies. But thereis a fourth way of meetingthe dilemma,a way that involves and not dissociation, nor yet suppression .... . It consistsin a integration and a line of confreeplay of bothtendencies, whereby theymeeteach other, duct emergeswhichis dictatedby both sets of motivestogether, and which in the two embodiesall that was not downright .... . Suppose antagonistic of the theateris not split up into the two dissociated ... . her knowledge wicked. Her complexesof the deliciouslypleasurable and the abhorrently aroundthe centralthemeof "theater"; and her knowledge. . . integrates towardthis,thevariousappeals whichthismakes,meetone another, reactions so that the theater'sattractiveand repulsiveaspects,not being dissociated, and this balanced interplay worksitselfout in workon one anotherdirectly, . The youngwomanlearnsto avail her.... line of conduct a discriminating is good in the theaterand to avoid what is bad.' selfof whatever
Holt thenuses the exampleof a personwanting to eat some he has found, but fearing thattheymaybe poisonous. mushrooms as in the preceding His conduct, case, may be of fourkinds: suofeither ordissociation pression tendency, (thatis,here, hesitation, at themushrooms, thendiscarding themin fear, nibbling etc.), or the fourth and only rightway of learning to discriminate the the from edible poisonous species.
I
E. B. Holt,TheFreudian WishandIts Relation toEthics, I9I5,
pp. II9-24.
48I
My contention is that everymoralfailure and everymoraltriumph is preciselyanalogousto thiscase ofthe mushrooms. And we can now see how and whysuppressions occurin thisworldofours. It is through lack ofknowledge. Our first us withanomalies,contradictions, contactwithobjects presents perplexities. Untilfurther experience teachesus to discriminate further particulars within theseobjects,we shall be in somedegreethe victimsofsuppression and our conductwill be to the same extentequivocal, immoral . It is .... truthand the ever-progressive discrimination of truththat alone conduceto moralconduct. Right is that conduct,attainedthrough the discrimation of facts,which fulfills all of a man's wishesat once, suppressing none. The moral sanction is fact .. Life is a process; it is a game to be played upon the checkerboard of facts. Its motionis forward;yet its motivepowercomes,not from " ends"), butfrom in front (from behind, from thewishes which are in ourselves. We shallplay thegamerightly and trying if,insteadofso painfully scrutinizing to suppress our wishes, we turnabout and lucidlydiscriminate the facts. That is the ethics "frombelow." The ethics "fromabove" are a very different or obligesus to suppressour wishes, story. There Someoneexhorts and if we observeSomeonea bit carefully, we shall all too oftenfindthat he generally busies himself withsuppressing the facts. Ethics from above come indeed fromabove, fromthe man or institution "higherup." And forthis thereis a veryfrailand humanreason,whichno one need go veryfarto discover. According to the ethicsfrombelow,the ethicsof the dust, facts are the sole moralsanction; and factsimposethemostinexorable moralpenalties.,
Holt's conception of the ethicalproblemis akin to Ward's a scientific "positiveethics. "2 This makesofmorality essentially or inventive problem. In Dewey and Tufts'sEthics we read that the criterion of themoralis a choicebetween mutually incompatible ends, as opposed to a mere technicalquestionof means.3 Perhaps Holt's conception is outside the moral sphereas here of thanmorality. The notion defined;if so, it is moreimportant banka resignation and an intellectual endssuggests incompatible moral attitude of the prevailing ruptcy, whichis characteristic of moralideals. towardthe worldand the uncritical admiration The aimshould be,as Holtsays,to solveconflicts bydiscrimination, all desires. Repression notby repression ofonemember, to satisfy as and self-denial mustbe thought as necessary evils,notidealized
I Ibid., pp. I 28-33
2
3 Dewey and Tufts, Ethics, chap.x.
Ward, Applied Sociology, I9o6, PartIII, chap.xiii.
482
the essence ofmorality. Morality in thenarrower senseis itself a necessary evil,as Wardpoints out,whose endis to do awaywith the needfor itself.' A broadsurvey ofhuman lifereveals an enormous amount ofconflict and repressed desire. Conflict is physiologically injurious and inefficient; ourpurposeshouldbe to eliminate it as faras possible. Therewill alwaysbe enoughof it leftto satisfy thosewho believeit has somepoeticor sentimental valueas a featureofhumanlife. The solution lies in this: thatthesameinventive attitude that has revolutionized the mechanical environment shall be applied (and it neverhas beenappliedhereto any extent) to theproblems ofhuman conduct and relations. Before thiscan be appliedto any general extent the popularmindmustbe trained to takethescientific attitudetowardall humanproblems and to attackthemas any otherproblems. Suppose,forexample, it wereproposedto the following investigate scientifically questions: (i) Should the and sacredor shouldall Englishlanguagebe preserved inviolate writers be granted withit, deviseshortcuts licenseto experiment of expression, of efficiency? invent newwords, etc.,in theinterests (2) Shouldthepresent in armies system ofdiscipline and ceremony be preserved, or would a moredemocratic and the organization rejectionof half the ceremony as trash bringbetterresults ? Would children be better fitted forlifeby the omission of all (3) religious teaching from their education? (4) Wouldit be possible to solvethesexualproblem by a widespread of measures teaching to preventdisease,unwilling and excessivedissipaparenthood, full tionofenergy, and,havingtakentheseprecautions, by giving amountof sexualpromiscuity? social sanction to a moderate We are not considering whatwouldbe theanswers to theforewouldall be answered thatthey going questions. It is very possible "moral intuitions" by sciencein the same way that our present to the answerthem. What interests us is the common reaction on ofsuchquestions. To manywhopridethemselves veryasking thatsuchmatters could theverysuggestion beingliberalthinkers, and in thelast case positively wouldbe "foolish," be questionable
I Ward, PureSociology on "Moral and Psychic Factors of Civilization, chapters Forces."
483
to such a questionas this last would "shocking." The reaction ofintellect in the senseof freedom be a good testforrationality, from herdinstinct. In this connection we must deplorethe commonprejudice In fact,a great againstexperimentation in humanrelationships. ends are manythings thatwe do supposedly as meansto certain in reality merechanceshots. We would do betterto recognize thatlifeitself is mostly frankly thatthey are experiments-in fact, whatis the a greatexperiment.The factis thatwe do notknow and employees, best form of relationship between paremployers entsand children, or man and wife. The greatbulkofthe"expevaluebecauseofthe rience"ofmankind on thesepointsis oflittle attitude and to observe and failure frankly to taketheexperimental record in fashion. results scientific
THE PLACE OF KNOWLEDGE IN MORAL EDUCATION
in his essayon The Moral Obligationto be IntelliJohn Erskine, has pointedout a mostsignificant error in our stockmoral gent, ideals.' Anglo-Saxon traditions have always tended to idealize of will and of character, and to manifest moralcourage, strength theherois a certain ofintelligence.In Englishliterature distrust and thevillain blunderer so frequently as thecourageous portrayed as the clever artificer.WitnessMilton'sParadise Lost, Shake"The Tennyson's speare's Merchant of Veniceand otherworks, of Dickens and Chargeof the Light Brigade,"and the writings of thelongstruggle of Thackeray. All thisseemsto be a product our ancestors against naturein a rathersevere climate,which and will. This separationof necessitated largelyself-reliance to makea moral from is seenin ourtendency goodness intelligence it seems issue out of social evils because, as Erskinesuggests, forintelligence.This in to confess thema problem humiliating whichemphasized the Hebrewmorality, manyrespects resembles the "heart" in contrastwith the Greek stressupon intellect. of otherraces, Erskine the culture sees a hope in our assimilating ofwhich we should be moretolerant. We needto moveourethics theHebrewand toward the Greekideal. away from
I
Erskine, TheMoralObligation tobeIntelligent, andother Essays.
484
Ofcourse it is notmeantthatmoraleducation shallgiverefined intellectual concepts before theycan be comprehended. We can now discuss,not questions of technique of moraleducation, but and aim. It is just thosethings thatwe need onlyits philosophy of ethicaltraining to question. Too manytheories take the aim If forgranted. our purposeis merely to make the childa good herdanimal,to makehimreceptive to the voice of social suggesof moraltraining willbe of littlevalue to tion,thenany method social progress. Our aim should be ratherintellectual freedom and suspicionof the voice of the herd. If European children, instead of being taught the stock sentiments of nationalistic and authoritative patriotism, honor, had been taught the religion, advantages of international thatwar couldbring no co-operation, greatadvantage to themassesofeither victor or vanquished, that self-sacrifice forthebenefit of a few, or for very questionable ends, at least,is folly, and that theidea of God is often used to delude thatcouldneverhelp themhereor herepeopleintodoingthings thenconditions after, mighthave been otherwise.By thisI do not meanto assumethatthe educational system is freeto change independently of the economicand social conditions behindit. But it is possible thatit can reactuponthoseconditions withgreat influence. Thereis good reasonto believethat,if a system ofmoraleducationcouldbe worked outwhich ingetting wouldbe efficient really ethical(beneficial) sucha curriculum results, wouldneedto contain a verylittleshareofwhatwe now call distinctively "moral." It wouldconsist and civiceducation, ofvocational largely elementary and thesocialsciences. It wouldaim biology, hygiene, psychology, at a knowledge of the mostimportant conditions of human chiefly life and its environment.It would portrayall ideals such as means to the one courage,honor,self-denial, etc., as important greatidealofhuman welfare rather thanas endsin themselves.It It wouldlay morestress and efficiency. uponsuchidealsas truth wouldteachsuspicion thewriter ofthevoiceoftheherd. In fact, believesthat one of the mostimportant partsof a trulyefficient educationwould be an elementary coursein social psychology wouldexplain the theviewsofRoss and Trotter), which (especially
485
natureofherdsuggestion and thusenabletheindividual to detect in hisownthinking.A popularization thefallacies and widespread circulation of the material in theseworkswouldbe, in embodied myopinion, one ofthemostimportant possible stepstoward social betterment.In thisconnection Week'ssplendid seriesof articles on "The Mind of the Citizen"deserves mention.'
T FEAR OF ENLIGHTENMENT
Somehave evenlookeduponsociology as a college studywith fearlest it breed anarchyand revolution.It has been said to destroy ideals. So, perhaps, religious it has. But it wouldbe very to investigate interesting whatpercentage ofsociology students are rendered thereby and destructive immoral, of the social selfish, good. As faras onecanjudgefrom thegreat observation, majority of themare made farmorevaluablemembers of society. Thereis prevalent among thestable-minded members ofsociety a peculiarand subtlefearthat a widespread and enlightenment rationalization wouldset free man'spowerful egoistic instincts and thereby disrupt thatsomething society. Kidd believed morethan of factsis necessary the sanction to prevent the selfishness of the individual from amuckto the social detriment, running and this function he assigns to thesupernatural sanction ofreligion.2 This same fearis suggested in the closing of Ross's Social paragraphs in which he speculates Control, of publishing upon the danger the "secretsof control." Such a danger seemsat first sightperfectly but a closeranalysisof it in the lightof our previous plausible, discussion arouses thesuspicion thatthefearitself maybe nothing but a product ofherdinstinct. It suggests thatjealousy pointedly of old towardyoung, whichTrotter notesas a characteristic of and gregariousness, the fearof sex enlightenment of the young correlated therewith.If it has a rational basis,such needsto be demonstrated.Of course there have beenrevolutions in thewake ofdestructive but they have had their criticism, in theturnsource instinct infavor ingofherd ofrevolution rather thaninindependent norhave theybeenselfishly thinking, individualistic in aim.
' American JournalofSociology, XXI, I45-84, 2 Kidd,Social Evolution, I894.
382-99, 50I-20,
634-55.
486
There is good reasonto believethat the fearin questionis we have alwayswithus, boththe selfgroundless.Our instincts and the social. One cannotby educationdestroy preservative to which intheenvironment areanystimuli them. As longas there are sensitive, theyare sureto acquireconditioned theyoriginally the a set of traditional sentiments, stimuli. Once set freefrom aboutnew analogically) (speaking wouldcrystallize socialinstincts valuable to connect tomore them serves simply ideals. Knowledge of the sociallybeneficial stimuli. It is objectedthat knowledge oftheeduconduct. The example does notofitself right produce of others, is cited. to the injury usinghis intellect cated criminal, and the of conscience the nature concerning Woulddisillusionment ? Would make us all intelligent criminals sentiments traditional of emotional cultivation withoutthe deliberate mereknowledge criminals? I would as such make us all intelligent connections as follows: thisbriefly answer likeothers, shownthattheherdinstincts, i. We have already shifted to by education. They are merely cannotbe destroyed or objects. stimuli other on thesideofintelligence, arrayed instincts, strong 2. But other like thoseabove. should quite neutralizeany evil possibilities whosefuncof humantendencies groups Thereare twoimportant stifled is largely ofsocialwelfare in theservice by theolder tioning free butis given playbyknowledge. Oneofthese sentiments, herd underthe blinding whosescope was narrow is kindness-altruism, it was opposed oftradition by suggestion, largely influence (in fact, to immensely as Trotterpoints out), but which is stimulated reveals the real greaterand broaderactivitywhen knowledge ofhumansuffering. and the futility extent is themanipulative-constructive-curiosity-mental3. The other manlikesto discover, ofwhich ofinstincts, control by virtue group themsakeoftheseactivities for thevery and think plan,construct, in and some are of, independent selves. These instincts probably we must complex. Although opposedto, the gregarious respects ways,as inperfecting admitthattheyhave beenused in antisocial of exploitation, and methods of destruction yet their instruments The been realized. never has to value society possiblepositive
487
ofthesetendencies to all aspectsoflifeand by all wideapplication heretofore limited thing from their different persons wouldbe a very use forspecialends. This groupmakesup whatVeblencalls the it is opposedlargely "instinct of workmanship."'In his analysis whichhave largely and dominating instincts to the predatory ofexploitation and war. In fact, workmanmotivated theregimes to theselatter beenin service instincts rather than shiphas usually be made. as it might in itself, a motive in the foregoing tendency, mentioned 4. The curiosity-interest r6leto play. Thosewhoholdthat has a veryimportant complex, createthe "intellectual" study ofa subjectdoesnotofitself purely " failto consider thatthe" emotional moral responses perhaps right in be the "intellectual" training theyseekmay implied responses flourish ofmoralapprovaland without any outward itself, though has remarked Thorndike that strong emosuggestion.Professor is no index to the volitional to anything habits tional response attention to the factsof civics it.2 Prolonged formed concerning and scientific evenin an "impassionate" way,ifwell or sociology, with as much concrete and experience taughtand accompanied theconditioned reflexes tendsto form as possible, that self-activity forthosefacts. Furthermore, and enthusiasm sugwe call interest in that at the influence indirectly, gestion mayget in a favorable is made thattheend of all thisstudyand outsettacitassumption ofthegreatest welfare number. is naturally thegreatest activity rather itself we mustadmitwithDeweythatactivity Ofcourse is thebestmoraltraining; or feeling thanthinking but,sinceit is in all the not usuallypossibleto give a comprehensive training we are herediscussing therelative of moralsignificance, activities and their and feeling relation to of emphasizing merits thinking is also an each other. What we have said above, furthermore, thesethree ofseparating oftheimpossibility aspectscomexample pletely. to lay the emphasis upon the 5. A finalreasonfornot fearing is thatmoralgoodness itself, aspectofmoraleducation knowledge of right in the sense of social value, today consists verylargely
I
2
Class,I9I2. Leisure Theory ofthe TheInstinct I914; ofWorkmanship, Veblen, I9I3, II, 227-30. Psychology, Educational Thorndike,
488
as wellas, perhaps morethan,right thinking, doing. In ourcomtheinfluence plexsocialsystem ofanyoneindividual is surprisingly moral attitudetoward human conduct small. The customary theresponsibility to fix alwaystries for eviluponindividuals. The blameforaccident, or theEuropean exploitation, warmustbe laid at the doorof someone or severalpersons. Individuals mustbe as good or bad, whichis largely classified a resultof the view of reward ordamnation. Thisshort-sighted future individual attitude failsto see thatmuchevilis notthefaultofpersonal overtactions, of the relations between but rather persons-ofthe social system allowssuchevilsto occur. Ross has pointed itself which out that sinsconnected with thegreat sinsofmodern times arethecorporate thanindividual vices.' The newerview of rather money-making in thesocial-insurance is seenespecially socialresponsibility movekind is to be obment. Moral progress of this reallybeneficial in thedailyconduct notby anygreatchange ofindividuals tained, but rather in their or in their motives, conceptions social regarding not in personaldeeds of goodness, but in life,whichtake effect, and the ballotbox. That is, society, not theindipublicopinion vidual,is theinitial pointof attackfortheweaponsof reform. has shownfrom Professor Giddings roughinductive evidence, electivereturns, from that in any societyas large and gathered as oursthere is alwayslikely to be a greatconservaheterogeneous faroverbalancing thatcan be brought tiveinertia, forces anyradical of radicalism to bear.2 The dangers are overemphasized. It is as thosewho raise the anchorof a ship not to we cautioned though pull too hardlest the anchor flyup witha jerkand fallupon the of selfdeck. It is a great mistaketo conceivethe instincts and sex as entirely base and dangerous and preservation, nutrition, as alwaysexercising a beneficial thesocial instincts the restraint, which would allow be consumed in of the weakening societyto WhenI reflect on the war, I am thankful flames of selfishness. and baserwantsto prevent his beingdriven thatman has selfish Humanbehavior to collective suicideby his owngregariousness. in greatcrises thebiblical herdofswine faintly suggests which, havI907. Sin andSociety, I Ross, 2Giddings, andEmpire. Democracy
489
intoby devils,rushed into the sea and perished. ing beenentered ofthemore as indulgence viewofwaras relaxation, selfish Patrick's ofthe it fails totakefull account is one-sided, for animaltendencies, in making man believeand do what influence of theherdinstincts neverwouldhave believedand done.' Even if it be he otherwise mento go to war,it viewof themotives correct impelling a fairly their there modern conditions longunder can hardly staying explain to the fact thatmanis a fighting of warfare. War is attributed halfbeingthathe is theother which is onlyhalfthetruth, animal, the satisfactions animal. It is a farcryfrom of also a gregarious warfare. combatto thoseofmodern personal thegreat evilsarenottobe blamed uponpure economic Likewise instincts. Much of the waste and inefficiency of individualistic of wealthis to be attributed and the unequaldistribution luxury and other ofsocialsuggestion forms submission to fashion to slavish and approval. A more and to the desireforsocial admiration and less individualism mightseek more satisfying enlightened manhas beensetfree ofpleasure. Although modes from expensive his herdinstincts the restrictions imposed uponhimin theregime as theycall for of status,he is stillin bondageto thoseinstincts and lavishwaste inefficiency. human and ofcourse We do notneedto change original nature, save by a sloweugenic we cannotdo so anyway, process. There thatoriginal sincethe dawnof naturehas changed is no evidence stimuli-the the objects-of the history. We simply change and emotions. The radicalwho sneersat the common instincts has nottherefore ornational honor losthisfighting idealofpersonal those very and self-assertive instincts;he is ratherexpressing has unusual need for them-in the instincts-he resisting opinion itself in a verydifferent ofthemajority. His honor way, expresses to truth or the exists. The scientist's devotion but nevertheless herdinstinct socialist's devotion to thecause of humanity embody to religious as muchas does blindadherence dogma. The funcand criticism is not to destroy tion of intellectual enlightenment but to cut them ofsentiment, loosefrom theroots wrong objectsto stimuli themand to allowthemto fixate themselves to mobilize
I
G. T. W. Patrick, Psychology ofRelaxation, I9I6.
490
to tradition. We to advantageinstead of according according to his man'sattention thistaskwhenwe direct beginto accomplish novel-writer directs attention to as such,as the skilful sentiments whichone ordinarily takes for littledetails of daily experience grantedand says nothingabout. In other words,we are to and the purposeof thisis that we our own sentiments, objectify therational. onesand retain shallbe able to rejecttheirrational in as it appearsto me,is thatmoraleducation The conclusion, its broadersense shouldbecomewhat some personswould call radical. Less stressmustbe laid upon motives and dangerously and morestress uponfactsand results. Man mustlearn virtues, than his badnessof motives. moreabout his ignorance to worry we have alwayswithus, and thegreatideal is The herdinstincts ofto oppose instead to co-operate with reason be brought thatthey enlightenment, only by thorough it. This can be accomplished as to the natureof these instincts theminstruction including and fallaciesresulting against the delusions selves,and warning them. from

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The Social Psychology of Morality and Its Bearing on Moral Education Author(s): Joseph K.

THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF MORALITY AND ITS BEARING ON MORAL EDUCATION

OF SOCIOLOGY THE AMERICAN JOURNAAL PART I. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL ORIGINS OF MORALITY

thanfeeding noris it any less an instinct sivelyhumanpossession, or sex. He says:

Trottershows that this social instinctis by no means an exclu-

THE SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY OF MORALITY