RATIONAL GEOMETRY

A TEXT-BOOK FOR

THE SCIENCE OF SPACE

BY

GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED

A.B.and A.M.,
Princtton; Pk.D., John's Hapkim; F.R.A.S.

SECOND EDITION, THOROUGHLY REVISED

FIRST

THOUSAND

NEW YORK

JOHN WILEY & SONS

London:

CHAPMAN
1907
'iM-

& HALL, Limited

Copyright, 1904,

1907,

BY

GEORGE BRUCE HALSTED.

ROBERT DRUMMOMD, PRINTER, NEW YORK.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

This

is

the

first

text-book of geometry to treat

jiroportion

without

any continuity assumption.

it

Likewise

it

treats 'content' witho\it assuming

It discards the circle or

to

be a magnitude.

compasses

as an instrument for problem solving;

any un-

marked visiting-card is an all-sufficient instrument. The marvelous two-term prismatoid formula

dominates mensuration.

The beginnings
Geometry

cling close to Hilbert.

at last

made

rigorous

is

also thereby

made more

simple.

George Bruce Halsted.

Greeley, Colorado.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
Association

I.

PAGE
i

CHAPTER
Betweenness

II.

CHAPTER
Congruence

III.

15

CHAPTER
Parallels

IV.

35

CHAPTER
Problems of Construction

V. 50

CHAPTER
Sides and Angles

VI
61

CHAPTER
A
Sect Calculus

VII.

66

CHAPTER

VIII.

Proportion and the Theorems of Similitude

72

CHAPTER
Equivalence

IX.
81

Vt

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER
The Circle

X.

PAGE

lou

CHAPTER

XI.
128

Length and Content of the Circle

CHAPTER
Geometry OF Planes

XII.
141

CHAPTER
Polyhedrons and Volumes

Xni.
>

165

CHAPTER
Tridimensional Spherics

XIV.
184

CHAPTER
Cone and Cylinder

XV.
194

CHAPTER
Pure Spherics

XVI.
200

CHAPTER
Angloids or Polyhedral Angles

XVII.
236

APPENDIX

I.

Proofs of Two Betweenness Theorems

241

APPENDIX
The Compasses

II.

247

APPENDIX
The Solution of Problems
Index

HI.
250

267

TABLE OF SYMBOLS.

We

denote
;

the vertices by b3'' A the angles at A, B, C by a, j3,

triangle

.4,

B, C;

y;

the opposite sides by a. b, c; the altitudes from A, B, C by ha, hb, the bisectors of a, /?, y by ta, h, 1c\ the medians to a, h, c by lUa, nib, ntc', the feet of ha, hb, he hy D, E, F; the centroid by G; the orthocenter by

lu;

the in-center by /; the in-radius by r; the ex-centers beyond a, h, c by /,, /j,

7,;

their ex-radii

by

r,,

r,,

r^;

the circiimcenter by O; the circumradius by R; angle by ^; angles by ^s; angle made by the rays BA and BC by y^ABC; angle made by the rays a and h both from the point ^ (a, h) or :^ ci?i

O by

by bi'; circle by O; circles by Os; with center C" and radius r by OC"(r); congruent by = equal or equivalent by completion by =
bisector
circle

for

example [exempli

gratia]

by
;

e.g.;

greater than
less

by >

than by

<

parallel

by

||;

parallels

minus by by ||s;

vil

viii

TABLE OF SYMBOLS.

parallelogram perpendicular
plus by + quadrilateral
right

by llg'm perimeter [sum of sides] by p by j.; perpendiculars by xs;

;

by quad'

by

r't;

spherical angle

by

'v

spherical triangle
similar

by S;
;

by

-r

symmetrical by
therefore

by

.".

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER

I.

ASSOCIATION.
The Geometric Elements.
1.

Geometry

is

the science created to give under-

standing and mastery of the external relations of things; to make easy the explanation and description of such relations

and the transmission

of this

mastery.
2.

Convention.

^A^e

think three different sorts of

The things of the first kind we call poiiits, the things of and designate them by .4, S, C, call straiiilits, and the second system we designate the things of the third set them hy a, b, c, we call planes, and designate them by , /?,
things.
;
. .

?-

3.

We

think the points, straights, and planes in

mutual relations, and we designate these relations by words such as "lie," "between," "parcertain
allel,"

"conginient."
description of these rela-

The exact and complete

'

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

tions is accomplished
of geometry.

by means

of the assumptions

The assumptions of geometry separate into groups. Each of these groups expresses certain con4.

nected fundamental postulates of

otu" inttiition.

I.

The

first

group of assumptions:
association.

assumptions

of

of this group set up an assobetween the concepts above mentioned, points, straights, and planes. They are as follows: I I. Two distinct points, A, B, always determine a straight, a. Of such points besides "determine" we also em5.

The assumptions

ciation

ploy other turns of phrase; for example, A "lies on" a, A "is a point of" a, a "goes through" A

"and through" B, a "joins"

B, etc.

A "and"

or "with"

say two things determine some other that if the two be given, then this third is explicitly and uniquely given. If A lies on a and besides on another straight b
thing,

When we

we simply mean

weusealsothe expression "the straights "a" and b " have the point A in common."
:

'

I 2.

Any two distinct

points of a straight determine

THIS straight.

That is, if AB determine a and AC determine and B is not C, then also B and C determine o.
1 ^.

o,

On

every straight there are at least two points.

there are

In every plane
straight points.

always

at least three non-co-

ASSOCIATION.
I

I 4.

Three points, A, B, C, not costraight, always

expressions

determine a plane a.

We use also the

A, B,
I 5.

C "lie in" a, A, B, C "are points of" a, etc. Any three non-costraight points A, B, C of a
two points A,

plane a determine this plane a.

I 6. If

of

a straight a

lie

in a

plane a, then every point of a lies in a. In this case we say The straight a
:

lies in a.

I 7. //

two

planes a,

/3

have a point

in common,

then they have besides at least another point

in

common.
I 8.

There are at

least

four non-costraight non-

coplanar points.

Theorem. Two distinct straights cannot have two points in common. Proof. The two points being on the first straight determine (by I 2) that particular straight. If by hypothesis they are also on a second straight, therefore (by I 2) they determine this second
6.

straight.

Therefore the

first

straight

is

identical

with the second. Two straights have one or no point 7. Theorem. in common. By 6 they cannot have two. Proof. 8. Theorem. Two planes have no point or a straight in common. Proof. If they have one point in common, then (by I 7) they have a second point in common, and therefore (by I 6) each has in it the straight which (by I i) is determined by these two points.
9.

Corollary to

8.

A point common to two planes

4
lies

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
in a straight

common

to the two, which

may

be

called, their straight of 10.

intersection or their meet.

Theorem. A plane and a straight not lying in it have no point or one point in common. Proof. If they had two points in common the would straight be (by I 6) situated completely in
the plane.
11.

Theorem.
there is

on

it

Through a straight and a point not always one and only one plane.
the straight there are (by

I 2) two two with the point not points. These on the straight determine (by I 4) a plane, in which (by I 6) they and the given straight lie. Any plane on this point and straight would be on the three

Proof.

On

points already used, hence (by I 5) identical with the plane determined. 12. Theorem. Through two different straights with a common point there is always one and only one
plane.
it (by I 2) one and (by 6) these two points are not the same point, and (by I 2)

Proof.

Each

straight has

on

point besides the

common

point,

the three points are not costraight.

These three points determine (by I 4) a plane in which (by I 6) each of the two straights lies. Any plane on these straights would be on the three points already used, hence (by I 5) identical with
the plane determined.

CHAPTER

II.

BETWEENNESS.
II.

The second group

of assumptions: assumptions of

betweenness.
13.

The assumptions

of this group

make

precise

the idea "between," and

14.

make

possible on the basis

of this idea the arrangement of points.

of a straight stand one another, to describe which especially the word "between" serves us. II I. If A, B, C are points of a straight, and B lies between A and C, tlioi B also lies between C and A, and is neither C nor A. in

Convention.

The points

certain relations to

Fig.

I.

II

2.

If

and

are two points of a straight, then

there is

always at

least

one point B,

ivliich lies

between

Fig.

2.

between.

and C, and at least one point D, such A and D.

tltat

C
S

lies

R/tTlONAL GEOMETRY.
II 3.

Of any

three points of

a straight

there is

always one and only one which

two.
15.

lies

between the other

Definition.
a,

Two

straight
it

we
ov

call

a segment or

with

AB

BA.

and B, upon a and designate The points between A and B

points
sect,

are said to be points of the sect

AB

or also situated

within the sect

AB.

All remaining points of the

straight a are said to

be situated without the sect

axQ called end-points of the Let A, B,

AB.
sect

The AB.

points A,

II 4.

(Pasch's assumption.)

be three

points not costraight

and a a

straight in the plane

if

ABC

going through none of the points A, B, C;

Fig.

3-

then the
sect

straight a
it

goes through

AB,

must always go

either through

a point within the a point of

the sect

BC or

through a point of the sect

AC.

Deductions from the

assumptions of association and

betweenness.

16.

Theorem.

Between any two points of a straight

there are

always indefinitely

many

points.

[Here taken for granted, and

its

proof removed to
of points of

Appendix I.] 17. Theorem.

If

any

finite

number

BETIVEENNESS.

a straight are given, then they can always be arranged in a succession A, B, C, D, E K, such that B lies between A on the one hand and C, D, on the other, further C between A, B ,..., on the one hand and D, E, on the other, then D between A, B, C on the one hand and E, on the other, and so on. Besides this distribution there is only one other, the reversed arrangement, which is of the same

character.
[This theorem
is

here taken for granted, and

I.]

its

proof removed to Appendix

1 8.

Theorem.

If

A, B,

be not costraight,

any

straight in the plane ABC which has a point within the sect AB and a point within AC cannot have a

point

witJiiii

Proof.
points.

BC. Suppose F, G,

three such costraight

One, say G, on AB, must (by II 3) lie between the Then the straight AB must (by II 4) have a point within the sect EC or the sect CH, which
others.

(by

and

II 3)

is

impossible.

19.

Theorem.

Every

straight

a,

which

lies

in a
every

plane , separates the other points of this plane a

into

two regions, of the following character:

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

point

of the one region determines with eiwry point

of the other region

sect

AB,
the

within which
contrary,

lies

point of the straight a;

on

any two

Fig.

s.

points A,

A'

of one

and
a.

the

same region always

a.

deter-

mine a

sect

Proof.

A A' which Let A he

contains no point of

point of a which does not

all

lie

on

a.

Then

reckon to one region

points
P,

of

the property, that between

and

therefore

Fig. 6.

within AP, lies no point of a; to the other region all points Q such that within AQ lies a point of a.

Now is to
(i)

be shown

(2)

(3)

On PP' lies no point of a. On QQ' lies no point of o. On PQ lies always a point

of a.

BETIVEENNESS

lies

From hypothesis neither within AP nor a point of a. This would contradict II within PP' were a point of a.
(i)
(2)

AP'
4,
if

By

hypothesis there

lies

within

AQ

a point

of a, likewise within

AQ'

therefore (by 18) none

within OQ'.

By hypothesis AP contains no point of a; on the other hand contains one such. Therefore (by II 4) a meets PQ.
(3)

AQ

20.

Convention.

If
is

A, A', 0,

points

such that

between

B are four costraight A and B but not

between

and A'; then we say: the points A, A'

Fig.
lie

7.

in the straight a on one and the same side of the point 0, and the points A, B lie in the straight a on
different sides of the point 0.
21.

Definition.

The assemblage, aggregate, or to-

on one and the same side of is called a ray starting from O. Consequently every point of a straight is the origin of two rays. 22. Convention. Using the notation of 19, we say: the points P, P' lie i)t the plane a on one and the same side of the straight a and the points P, Q lie ill the plane a on different sides of the straight a. Every two intersecting straights a, 23. Theorem. b separate the points of their plane a not on either
tality of all points of the straight a^situated

into four regions such that if the end-points

of a sect

are both in one of these regions, the sect contains no

point of either straight.

lo

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
Proof.

point and A point on a. another another point on h, and B Then two points both on the A side of a and the B side of b make a sect which (by 19) can contain

Let

be their

common

no point either

of a or of

6.

So also

if

both were

Fig.

8.

on the A side of a and the non-i? side of or both and side of a the B non-A side on the of b or both on the non-A side of a and the non-B side of b. A system of sects AB, BC, 24. Definition. KL is called a sect-train, which joins the CD, points A and L with one another. This sect-train will also be designated for brevity by A BCD KL. The points within the sects AB, BC, CD, KL, together with the points A, B, C, D, K, L
fe
; ;

are

all

In particular
is

together called the points of the sect-train. if the point L is identical with the
is

point A, then the sect-train

called a polygon
. . .

and

designated as polygon
25.

A BCD

K.

The

sects

sides of the polygon.

AB, BC, CD, ... KA are called the The points A, B, C, D,

,

K are called the vertices of the polygon.

26.

sect not a side

is

but whose end-points are

vertices

called a diagonal of the polygon;

BETlVEENhlESS.
27.

n
,

Polygons with
respectively
ii-goiis.

3,

4,

5,

vertices are

called

triangles,

quadrilaterals,

penta-

gons

28. If the vertices of a polygon are all distinct from one another and no vertex of the polygon falls within a side and finally no two sides of the polygon have a point within in common, then the polygon is called simple.

By

quadrilateral

is

plane polygon

is

meant simple quadrilateral. one all of whose sides are cois

planar.

A
on
29.

convex polygon

one no points of which a-e

different sides of the straight of

Theorem.

any of its sides. Every simple polygon, whose ver-

tices all lie in a plane , separates the points of this

plane a, which do not pertain to the sect-train of the polygon, into two regions, an inner and an outer, of the following character; if .4 is a point of the inner (interior point) and B a point of the outer

then e^'ery sect-train which joins A with B has at least one point in common with the polygon; on the contrary if .4, A' are two points of the inner and B, B' two points of the outer, then there are always sect-trains, which join .4 with A' and B with B' and have no point in common with
(exterior point),

the polygon. There are straights in n: which lie wholly outside the polygon; on the contrary no such straights which lie wholly within the polygon.
Proof.

For a triangle
side of

ABC
A
AB,

there

is

(by 23) a

region with points on A12

of

side of
i.e.,

CA, and the C

BC, the an inner

side

region.

12

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Moreover, the straight determined by a point on h and a point on c both in non-A lies wholly without the region ABC, since it cannot again meet 6 or c and so cannot (by II 4) have a point in common with BC. Moreover, if any straight has a point
within

ABC,

it

has a point on a

side.

For the

Fig. 9.

straight determined

by the point within and any

point on a side has (by II 4) a point on another

side,

thus making another triangle, in

common

with

one side of which the given straight has a point,

and therefore (by

II 4) with another side, that is with a side of the original triangle.* A straight through a ver30. Corollary to 29. tex and a point within a triangle has a point within

the

'

opposite

'

side.

* It can be shown, that any other simple polygon has a diagonal which

does not cut the

sides,

then gives a number of triangles, then

satisfies 29.

BETIVEENNESS.

13

31. Theorem. Every plane a separates all points not on it into two regions of the following character: every point A of the one region determines with

B of the other region a sect AB, within a point of a; on the contrary any two points .4 and .4' of one and the same region always determine a sect AA', which contains no point of a.
every point
lies

which

be a pomt which does not he on to the one region all points P of the property, that between A and P, therefore within AP, lies no point of a to the other region all points Q such that within AQ Ues a point of a. Now is to be shown: (i) On PP' Hes no point of a. (2) On 0.0' Hes no point of a. (3) On PQ lies always a point of . (i) From hypothesis neither within AP nor AP' lies a point of a. Suppose now a point of lay on PP'. Then the plane a and the plane APP' would have in common this point and consequently (by
Proof.

Let

.4

a.

Then reckon

9)

a straight

a.

This straight goes through none

;

of the points A, P, P'

it

cuts

PP'

it

must

thereis

fore (by II 4) cut either

AP

or AP', which

con-

trary to hypothesis.
(2)

By

hypothesis there

lies

within

AQ

a.

point

of a, likewise \\'ithin
of

AO' The intersection straight the planes a and AQQ' therefore meets two sides

.4 (_\/; consequently (by 21) it cannot also meet the other side QQ' (3) AP contains by hypothesis no point of a; AQ on the other hand contains one such. The inter-

of the triangle

section straight of the planes a

and

APQ

therefore

14

R/ITIONAL GEOMETRY.

meets the side

in triangle
side

AQ

APQ.

and does not meet the side AP Therefore (by II 4) it meets the
Using the notation of
31,

PQ.
Convention.

32.

we

say:

the points A, A' He on one and the same side

of the plane, a,

and the points A,

Me on

different

sides of the plane a.

Ex.
7

I.

straight cannot traverse

regions of the plane determined

more than 4 by the straights

of the of the

sides of a triangle.

Ex. 2. Four coplanar straights crossing two and two determine 6 points. Choosing 4 as vertices we can get two convex quadrilaterals, one of which has its sides on
the straights.

Ex.
others

3.

Each vertex

of

i)

straights.

an w-gon determines with the So together they determine

n{n i)/2. Ex. 4. How many diagonals in a polygon of n sides. Ex. 5. What polygon has as many diagonals as sides?

CHAPTER

III.

CONGRUENCE.
III.

The

third

group of assumptions: assumptions of congruence.

of this

33.

The assumptions
Convention.

group make precise

the idea of congruence.

34.

tions to

Sects stand in certain relaone another, for whose description the

especially serves us.

word congntcut

Ill I. If A, B arc two points on a straight a, and A' a point oil the saute or anotlicr straight a', then we can find on tJic straight a' on a given ray from A' always one and only one point B' such that tJie sect AB is congruent to the sect A'B' We write this in symbols AB = A'B'. Every sect iscongruent to itself, i.e., always ylS = ^45. The sect AB is always congruent to the sect BA, i.e.,

say more briefly, that every sect can be taken on a given side of a given point on a given straight in one and only one way.
Ill
2.

AB^BA. We also

If a sect

AB

is

congruent as

ivcll to the sect

A'B'

as also to the sect

A"B",

then is also A'B' conis

i6

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
to

and i.e., if AB = A'B' A'B' = A"B". Ill 3. On the straight a let AB and BC he two sects without common points, and furthermore A'B' and B'C two sects on the same or another straight, likewise without common points; if then AB = A'B' and
gruent
the
sect

A"B",
also

AB = A"B",

then

is

BC = B'C',

so always also

AC=A'C'.
c'

jL
Fig. 10.

Let a be any plane and h, k any two distinct rays in a going out from a point 0, and pertaining to different straights. These two rays h, k we call an angle, and des35. Definition.

ignate

it

by^

{h, k)

or

4-

{k, h).

The rays h and k, together with the point 0, separate the other points of the plane a into two regions of the following character if A is a point of the one region and B of the other region, then Fig. II. every sect-train which joins A with B, goes either through or has with h or k sX least one point in common; on the contrary HA, A' are points of the same region, then there is always a sect-train which joins A with A' and neither goes through O nor through a point of the rays h, k. One
of these

two regions

is

distinguished from

the other because each sect which joins any two points of this distinguished region always lies wholly

CONGRUENCE.

17

in it; this distinguished region is called the interior of the angle

{h, k)

in
is

contradistinction from the

called the exterior of the

other region,
angle
Qi, k).

which

The

interior of

{h, k)

the same side of the straight h as

altogether on the

is

wholly on the ray k, and

is is

same

side of the straight k as

the ray

/;.

The rays
the point

/;,

k are called sides of the angle, and

called the vertex of the angle.

is

Ill 4. Giveti

any angle
,

{li,

k) in a

plane a and a

straight a' in a plane a'

also a determined side of a'

of the straiglit a' startis

on

a'.

Designate by
tlie

a ray
then
k'
Qi'

ing from

point 0';
angle

tlierc

in the

plane a'

ONE AND ONLY ONE ray

is

siicJi
,

that the angle (h, k)

congruent

to tlie

k'),

terior points of the angle {h'

k') lie

and likewise all inon the given side

of a'.

ft^

ft'

Fig. 12

In symbols:

Every angle

is

congruent

to

itself,

i.e.,

always

^ih,k)^^{h,k).
The angle
(k,h),
i.e.,

{h, k)

is

aht'ays congruent

to

the angle

4{h,k)^4{k,'h).

say also briefly, that in a given plane CA-ery angle can be set off towards a given side against a

We

l8

RylTIONAL GEOMETRY.

but in a uniquely determined way. There is one and only one such angle congruent to a given angle. We say an angle so taken is uniquely
given ray,
determiijied.

Ill

5.

//

an angle
,

(h, k)

is

congruent as well

to

the angle Qi'

k')

as also
,

to the

angle (h", k"), then is

the angle (h", k")',
{h,

also the angle Qi'

i.e.,

if

{h,

k)=^

) congruent to (h', k') and ^

,

k)=^ {h",

k"),

then always i Qi' 36. Convention.

angle;

k')

-^

Qi" k").
,

I^et

ABC

be any assigned

tri-

we

designate the two rays going out from

through

and

respectively

by h and

k.

Then

the angle

{h, k)

is

called the angle of the triangle

sides

ABC included
the side BC.

by the
It

AB

and
is

AC

or opposite

contains in

its interior all

the inner

points of the triangle

ABC

and

designated by

^BAC
Ill
6.

or

^A.
two triangles

// for

ABC

and A'B'C we

have the congruences

AB = A'B', AC = A'C', ^BAC^

then always
are^ fulfilled the

^B'A'C,

congruences

^ ABC ^^ A'B'C

and

^ACB^^A'CB'.

Deductions from the assumptions of congruence.

37.

Convention.

to the sect A'B'.

Since,

Suppose the sect AB congruent by assumption III t, also

is congruent to AB, so follows from A'B' is congruent to AB; we say: the two sects AB and A'B' are congruent to one another. 38. Convention. Suppose ^ (h, ^) = ^ Qi', k').

the sect

AB

III 2 that

CONGRUENCE.

19

Since (by III 4) ^ (h, k)^ :!f{h, k), therefore (by III s) 4 Oh' k') ^ ^ (/;, k). We say then: the two angles ^ (h, k) and ^ {W k') are congruent to one another.
,

39. Definition.

Two

angles having the same ver-

tex and one side in

common form

sides not a straight, are called adjacent angles.

common, while the

Two angles with a common ver40. Definition. tex and whose sides form two straights are called
vertical angles. 41. Definition.

Any

angle which
is

is

congruent to
angle.

one of

its

adjacent angles

called a

riglit

which make a right angle are said perpendicular be to one another. to Two triangles ABC and A'B'C 42. Convention. are called eo)igrnetit to one another, if all the constraights

Two

gruences

AB^A'B',

4A^4A',
are fulfilled.
43.

AC^A'C, ^B^^B',

BC^B'C,

^C^^C

(First

congruence theorem for triangles.)

if

Triangles are congruent

they have two sides a)td

the included angle congruent.

In the triangles

ABC and A'B'C take AB = A'B',

AC^A'C, :^A=^A'.

20

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

To prove
Proof.

aABC= aA'B'C
assumption

By

III 6

the

congruences

4B' and ^C= ^C"' are fulfilled, and so we have only to show that the sides BC and B'C are
congruent to one another. Suppose now, on the contrary, that BC were not congruent to B'C, and take on ray B'C (by III i) the point D', such that BC = B'D'. Then the two triangles ABC and A'B'D' will have, since ^5 = ^B', two sides and the included angle respectively congruent therefore, by assumption III 6, ^ BAC = ^B'A'D'. Hence, by assumption III 5, ^B'A'C = ^B'A'D'. This is impossible, since, by. assumption III 4, against a given ray toward a given side in a given plane there is only one angle congruent to a given angle. So the theorem is completely
;

^B=

established.
44.

(Second congruence theorem for triangles.)

if they

Triangles are congruent

have two angles and

the included side congruent.

Fig. 14.

In the triangles

ABC and A'B'C

take

AC'^A'C,

^A^iA', ^C^^C.
To prove t^ABC= a A' B'C.

CONGRUENCE.
Proof.

21

Suppose now, on the contrary,

AB
,

is

not

= A'B', and take on ray A'B' the point D' such that AB = A'D'. By III 6, -^-ACB^ ^A'C'D', but by hypotliesis ^ACB=^A'C'B'. Therefore (by Ills) ^ ^'C'B' ^ 4 A' CD'. But this is impossible,
since (by III 4) in a given plane against a given ray

toward a given side there

is only one angle congruent to a given angle. Consequently our supposition, AB not = A'B', is

false,

and

so

AB = A'B'.
aABC=

follows (by 43) that aA'B'C. 45. Theorem. // tivo angles arc coigniciit, so are
also
tlicir

Now

adjacent angles.

Take ^ABC= ^A'B'C. To prove 4CBD= ^C'B'D'.

Proof.

from B'

so that

Choose the points .4', C, D' on the sides A'B' = AB, C'B' = CB, DB = D'B'.

ABC and A'B'C then the and CB are congruent respectively to the sides A'B' and CB', and since moreover the angles included by these sides are congruent by hypothesis,
In the two triangles
sides

AB

so follows (by 43) the congruence of those triangles,

that

is,

we have

the congruences

AC = A'C

and

iBAC^^B'A'C.

22

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Now
(again

since (by III 3) sect

AD=A'D',

so follows

43) the congruence of the triangles CAD and C'A'D', that is, we have the congruences CD = C'D' and ^ADC^:^A'D'C', and hence in the

by

triangles
:f

BCD
By

and B'C'D' (by

III

6),^i-CBD^

C'B'D'.
46.

Theorem.

Vertical angles are congruent.

4,

Proof.

III

-iABC^^CBA.

Therefore,

by

45, their adjacent angles are congruent,

^ CBD =

i-ABF.

Fig. 16.

Theorem. Through a point A, not on a straight a, there is one and only one perpendicular to a. Proof. Take any two points P, Q on a. Take from P against the side PQ of '4-APQ, and on the non-^ side of a, i-BPQ= ^APQ. Take PB = PA. Since A and B lie on different sides of a, there must of sect AB on a. be a point Then AOB is perpen47.

dicular to a.

For (by 43) aBPO= aAPO, so ifBOP=^AOP. But these are adjacent. Therefore, by definition 41,

AOP
to a.

is

a right angle.

Moreover this. is the only perpendicular from A For suppose any straight AO' perpendicular to a at 0', and take on this straight on the non-^

CO)^GPUBNCB.
side of a the sect O'B'
sis

*3

^O'A. Then from hypothe^PO'B' ^^.PO'A and so (by 43) aPO'B' = aPO'A. Therefore ^ B'PO' ^ ^ APO' and B' P ^

Fig.

17.

AP. Therefore (by III 5 and III 2), ^B'P'0 = Hence the points B and B' ^ BPO and B'P = BP
Therefore no second perpendicufrom .4 to a can exist. *48. Theorem. Let the angle {h, k) in the plane a be congruent to the angle Qi', k') in the plane a', and further let / be a ray of the plane a, which goes out from the vertex of the angle {h, k) and lies in
are not different.
lar

the interior of this angle

I'

then there

is

always a ray

which goes out from the vertex of the angle {h' k') and lies in the interior of this angle, such that i (h, D^yf Qi', V) and i {k, 1)=^ (k', I'). Proof. Designate the vertex of ^ {h, k) by 0, and the vertex of 4 U'-'y k') by 0', and then determine on the sides h, k, h', k', the points A, B, A', B', so that we have the congruences
in the plane a',
,

OA = 0'A'
* 48

and

OB = 0'B'.

may be omitted

if

49 be taken as a redundant assimiption.

24

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Because of the congruence of the triangles and O'A'B' (by 43)

OAB

AB = A'B',
The

i-OAB^i-O'A'B',

iOBA^^O'B'A'.

straight

AB

we determine on

(by 30) cuts /, say in C; then the sect A'B' the point C, such
is

that A'C' = AC, then

O'C

the ray sought, V.

Fig. 18.

For,

from

by means

of III

AC=A'C' and AB=A'B', we may, 3, deduce the congruence BC = B'C'.

i-AOC^i-A'O'C and

Therefore (by III 6) = iB'0'C'.

4BOC

Theorem. Let h, k, I on the one hand and h', k', I' on the other each be three rays going out from a point and lying in a plane if then we have
49.
;

the congruences

{h, /)

= ^ Qi',

V)

and ^

(k, I)

{k', I'),

then also

is

always

^(h,k)^i.ih',k').

CONGRUENCE.
Proof.

25

The rays
is

are supposed such that either

to ^{h,
I)

no point
^(/i',
I')

interior

and

^{k',

I'),

or else that

and ^(k, if one

I),

or to

of these

angles be within a second, then the angle congruent

to the
I.

first is

within the fourth.

/

In the

first case, if

be supposed
,

ivitJiin

Qi, k),

take against

h'

toward

k'

:^ (h' ,

k") =

{h, k).

By

Fig. 19.

48,

take in angle
{h, I)

{h',

k") ray /" such that

i- (h',

I")

and ^ (/", k") ^ 7f (l, k). But by hypothesis ^{W, l')=^Qi,l). Therefore, by III 5, ^ {h', I') = ^ {h',l"), and so, by III 4, ray I" is identical with ray /'. Then ^ {k", I") = ^ {k", V) = {k, I'). So 1)=^ {, ^ ^ {k", V) ^ i. (k\ I'), and, by
III 4,

^^

ray k"

But

identical with ray k'. Therefore 7f{h',k")=^{h,k).

is

^(h,k)

i{h',k').
If, however, I be supposed not ivithin ^ Qi, k), then it will lie in ^ {h", k") vertical to ^ {h, k). For it cannot lie in ^ {h, k") adjacent to ^ (/;, k), since then ^ (/, k) would contain ^ {h, /), contradicting the hypothesis in this case of no point interior to these two given angles. For like reason it cannot lie in

26
i-ih", k)

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
adjacent to ^{h,
(/,

would contain ^
with
is
I

k).
,

is

within ^
(h',

{h, k)

k), since then ^ (/j, Thus the ray m costraight and m' costraight with I'

within ^

k').

Fig. 20.

Then (by
ifik',

45)

(/j,

m)=

-4-

(h',

m')

w!) [^'s adjacent to congruent

and ^ (^, w) = ^ 's are con-

gruent],

and

so this sub- case

is

reduced to the preI)

ceding.
II.

The remaining

case,

where one angle ^{h,

is

within another, ^ (^, /), follows at once from 48. *5o. Theorem. All right angles are congruent.

Let angle

BAD be
its

congruent to
angle

its

adjacent angle
conare
right

CAD, and
gruent to

likewise let the angle B'A'D' be

adjacent

C'A'D'

then
all

^BAD,
angles.

4 CAD,

4 B'A'D',
^ B'A'D'.

4 C'A'D'

To prove
Proof.

iBAD=

Suppose, contrary to our proposition, the right angle B'A'D' were not congruent to the right angle BAD, and then set off ^ B'A'D' against ray
* 50

may be taken

as a

redundant assumption.

CONGRUENCE.

27
falls either in
;

AB

so that the resulting side

AD"

the

interior of the angle

BAD or of the angle CAD

and

sup-

pose

we have the first of these cases. Because ^B'A'D' ^ ^BAD",

therefore,

by 45
hypothesis

^C'A 'D' = ^ CAD"

since

by

:fB'A'D'^ ^C'A'D',

therefore,

by Ills, Since further ^ BAD" ^^ CAD". ^ BAD is congruent to if CAD, so there is (by 48)
within the angle

CAD

ray

AD"' such
D'

that

B'

Fig. 21.

also iDAD"=^DAD"'. i- BAD" =^CAD"' and But we had 4.BAD"= i-CAD", and therefore we must (by Ills) also have ^C.AD" = ^CAD"'

impossible, since (by III 4) every angle can be set off against a gi\-en ray toward a given side in

This

is

a given plane only in oic way.

Here^^^th

is

the proof for the congruence of right

angles completed.

Corollary to so. At a point .4 of a straight a there is in a given plane containing o one and only
51.

one perpendicular to

a.
^4-

At
52.

.4

(by III

4)

take a ray h making

if,,

b)

4POA

found in

47.

Definition.

gruent to two adjacent angles, each the supplement of the other.

^Mien any two angles are conis said to be

28

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
53.

Definition.

If

any angle can be

it is

set off against

one of the rays of a right angle so that its second side

lies

within the right angle,

Definition.

called

an acute angle.

54.
is

Any angle neither right nor acute

called

an obtuse angle.

55. Definition.

triangle with

two

sides con-

gruent
56.

sides

is called an Theorem. The angles opposite the congruent of an isosceles triangle are congruent. Let ABC be an isosceles triangle,

isosceles triangle.

hsiv'mgAB^BC. To prove ^A=i.C.

Proof.

Since

in

the

triangles

ABC
Fig. 22.
if

and

CBA we
,

gruences
III 6)
57.

have the conAB = CB, BC = BA,

(by

ABC =4 CBA therefore ^CAB^^ACB.

theorem
for
to the three

(Third

congruence

triangles.)

Two
other.

triangles are congruent if the three sides of the

one are congruent, respectively,

sides of the

Fig. 23.

In the triangles ABC and A'B'C take AB^A'B', AC = A'C', BC = B'C'.

CONGRUENCE.

29

aABC^aA'B'C In the plane of ABC toward the side of the straight AC not containing B against the ray AC take the angle CAB"^ C'A'B'. Take the
To prove
Proof.

Then (by 43) aAB"C=aA'B'C' Therefore B"C = BC, and A BCB" is isosceles therefore (by 56) 4 CBB" = ^ CB"B. So also is a BAB"
.
;

&ectAB" = A'B'.

isosceles

and .-. ^ABB"=^AB"B. Therefore (by 49) the angle ABC=i.AB"C. But :^AB"C = ^A'B'C'. .-. (by43) aASC= A^'5'C'.
58. If

^, J5, C be any three points not costraight, then (by the method used in 57) we can construct a point B" such that AB" = AB and CB" = CB. Therefore a point D such that no other point whatsoever, say D" gives AD" = AD and CD" = CD, must be costraight with AC. 59- The following have been given as definitions: If A and B are two distinct points, the straight AB is, the aggregate of points P for none of which is there any point such that QA = PA and QB =
,

PB.
If

^, B,

are distinct points not costraight,

is is

the plane

ABC

the aggregate of points

there

for

none of which
60.

any point Q such that

QA^PA, QB^PB,
Convention.

and

QC^PC.
finite

ntimber of points is called a figure; if all points of the figure lie in a plane, it is called a plane figure. 61. Convention. Two figures are called congruent if their points can be so mated that the sects and
angles in this

Any

way

coupled are

all

congruent.

Congruent figures have the following properties:

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

If three points be costraight in any one figure their mated points are also, in every congruent figure, The distribution of points in correcostraight.

sponding planes in relation to corresponding straights in congruent figures the same the like holds for the order of succession of corresponding points in corresponding straights. 62. The most general theorem of congruence for the plane and in general is expressed as follows are conIf {A, B, C, and (A', B' .) .) denotes a point in the gruent plane figures and P plane of the first, then we can always find in the plane of the second figure a point P' such that (A, B,C, P') are again ., P) and (A', B', congruent figures. If each of the figures contains at least three noncostraight points, then is the construction of P' only possible in one way.
is
;

If

{A, B,

C,..

.)

and

(A', B',

.)

are con-

gruent figures and

P any point whatsoever, then we

. .
.

B,C,
If

can always find a point P', such that the figures {A, ,P) and (A', B', C, P') are congruent.
.
.

the figure {A, B, C,

.)

contains at least four

is

non-coplanar points, then the construction of P' only possible in one way.
all

This theorem contains the weighty result, that facts of congruence are exclusively conse(in association

quences
I

with the assimiption-groups

and

II)

of the six assumptions of congruence

already above set forth.

This theorem expresses the existence of a certain reversible unique transformation of the aggre-

CONGRUENCE.
gate of
all

31

with which we are under the name of motion or displacement. We have here founded the idea of motion upon the congruence assumptions. Thereby we have based the idea of motion on the congruence idea. The inverse way, to try to prove the congruence assumptions and theorems with help of the motion
points into
itself

familiar

idea, is false

rigid

and fallacious, since the intuition of motion involves, contains, and uses the conExercises.

gruence idea.
63.

Ex. 6. Show a number of cases where two straights determine a point. Show cases where two straights do not determine a point. Are any of these latter pairs coplanar? Ex. 7 Show cases where three coplanar straights deter.

mine

3 points; 2 points;

point.

Are there cases where

they determine no point? Ex. 8. How many straights are, in general, determined by 3 points? by 4 coplanar points? AVhat special
cases occur?

Ex. 9. Any part of a triangle together with the two adjoining parts determine the 3 other parts. Explain. Ex. 10. Try to state the first two congruence theorems
for triangles so that either

can be obtained from the other

side

by simply interchanging the words

and

angle.

Ex. II. Principle of Duality in the Plane. In theorems of configuration and determination we may interchange point and straight, sect and angle. Try to write down a theorem of which the dual is true;
is false.

Ex. Ex. Dual?

12.

If

two angles

of a triangle are congruent it is

isosceles.
13.
If

the sides of a

A axe =, so are the ^s.

32

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 14. In an isosceles A, sects to the sides from the ends of the base making with it = ^s are s. Ex. 15. If any two sects from the ends of a side of a

to the other sides

64.

making = ^s

are

the a

is isosceles.

Definition.

straights with
65.

Two parallels no common point.

are

coplanar

No assumption about

parallels is necessary

for the establishment of the facts of congruence or

motion.
66.

Theorem.

Through

point

without

straight a there is always one parallel to a.

Proof.

Take the ray from the given point

through any point

of the straight a.

any other point of the straight a. ABC against plane ABC an angle congruent to AB at the point A toward that side not containing C. The straight so obtained through A does not
'4-

Let C be Then take in the

Fig. 24.

meet

straight

a.

If

we supposed

it

to cut a in the

point D, and that, say, B lay between C and D, then we could take on a a point D' such that B lay between D and D' and moreover AD = BD'. Because of the congruence of the triangles BAD and
,
,

ABD'
since

(by 43), therefore ^ABD^^BAD'; and the angles ABD' and are adjacent

ABD

angles, so

must

then, having regard to 45, also the

angles congruent to them, jacent angles.

BAD

and BAD' be ad,

But because

of 6, this is impossible.

CONGRUENCE.
67.

33

Definition.
is

A
If,

straight cutting across other

in a plane,

straights
68.

called a transversal.

Definition.

two
a.

straights are

cut in two distinct points A,

B hy

transversal, at

each of these points four angles are made. Of these eight, four, having each the sect AB on a side
[e.g., 3, 4, i', 2'], are called interior angles. The other four are called exterior angles. Pairs of angles,

one at each point, which lie on the same side of the transversal, the one exterior

and the other

[e.g., I

interior, are

called corresponding angles

and

i'].

Two

on opposite
transversal,

non-adjacent angles sides of the

''^'

^^"

and both

interior or both exterior, are

[e.g.; 3

called alternate angles

and

i'].

Two

angles on the
interior or
[e.g.,

same

side of the transversal,

and both
69.
if

jugate angles

both exterior, are and i'].

called con-

Theorem.
66.]

Two

coplanar straights are parallel

a transversal makes congruent alternate angles.

70.

[Proved in

Theorem. If two straights cut by a transversal have corresponding angles congruent they are
parallel.

Proof.

The angle
If

vertical to one

is

alternate to

the other.
Ex.
16.

are congruent, or

two corresponding or two alternate angles if two interior or two exterior angles

on the same side of the transversal are supplemental,

34

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
is

then every angle

to
its

alternate angle,

congruent to its corresponding and and is supplemental to the angle

is

on the same side of the transversal which

exterior according as the
first is

interior or

interior or exterior.

Ex.

17.

If

two

interior or

two exterior angles on the

same
Ex.

side of the transversal are supplemental, the straights

are parallel.
18.

Two

straights

perpendicular

to

the

same

straight are parallel.

Ex. 19. Construct a right angle. Ex. 20. On each ray from the vertex of a triangle costraight with a side take a sect congruent to that side. The two new end-points determine a straight parallel to the
triangle's third side.
yf with vertex A take any and on the other side take congruent to these AB', AC Prove that BC and B'C intersect, say Prove BC =B'C, ABCD = i^B'CD, -t^BAD^ at D.

Ex.

21.

On

one side of any

two

sects

AB,

AC

4B'AD.
Ex. 22. From two given points on the same side of a given st' find st's crossing on that given st', and making congruent ^ 's with it. Ex. 23. Construct a triangle, given the base, an angle at the base, and the sum of the other two sides [A from
ffi,

b,

a-\-c].

Ex. Ex. Ex.

A,

24.

If

the pairs of sides of a quadrilateral not con||.

secutive are congruent, they are

25.

On

a given sect as base construct an isosceles a.

26. If

AD =BE=CF,

on the sides AB, BC, CA of an equilateral then ADEF is equilateral, as is A

made by AE, BF, CD.

CHAPTER

IV.

PARALLELS.
IV. Assumption of Parallels (Euclid's Postulate).

IV. Through a given point tliere is not more than one parallel to a given straight.
'ji.

The introduction

of this asstiniption greatly

simplifies the foundation

and

facilitates

the con-

struction of geometry.
72.

Theorem.

Two

straights parallel to

a third are

parallel.

Were i and 2 not parallel, then there Proof. would be through their intersection point two parallels to 3, which is in contradiction to IV. // a transversal cuts two parallels, 73. Theorem.
the alternate angles are congruent.

Proof.

Were say

^BAD

could through

A (by III 4) >fBAD'=^ABC [D' and

we would have
(by 69)

not = ^ABC, then we take a straight making

D on same side oi AB], and

so

a/

'

through
a, in

two

parallels to

contradiction to IV.
Corollary to
73.

74.

A
35

Fio- 26perpendicular to one of two parallels is perpendicular to the other also.

36

R/ITIONAL GEOMETRY.

If a transversal cuts two parallels, 75. Theorem. the corresponding angles are congruent.

Proof.

The angle

vertical to

one
two

is

alternate to

the other.
Ex.
27.

straight meeting one of

parallels

meets

the other also.

Ex. 28. straight cutting two parallels makes conjugate angles supplemental. Ex. 29. If alternate or corresponding angles are unequal or if conjugate angles are not supplemental, then the straights meet. On which side of the transversal?
76.

Theorem.

perpendicular to one of two

parallels is parallel to a perpendicular to the other.

Proof. Either of the two given parallels makes (by 74) right angles with both perpendiculars, which

therefore are parallel

by

69.

Two straights respectively 77. Corollary to 76. perpendicular to two intersecting straights cannot
be
parallel.

Proof.

For

if

they were

parallel,

then (by 76)

the intersecting straights would also be parallel.

When two angles are set off 78. Convention. from the vertex of a third against its sides so that no point is interior to two, if the two sides not common
are costraight, the three angles are said together to

form two right angles. 79. The angles of a triangle

angles.

together form, two right

Proof.

Take alternate

i.CBF=4-C and -^ABD = ^A then (by 69) can

;

neither

By
^^' ^^'

BF nor BD cut AC. the parallel postulate

is

IV, then

FBD a straight.

PARALLELS.

37

If two angles of one triangle are 80. Theorem. congruent to two of another, then the third angles are congruent.

Proof.

Gixen
(||)

tA=i-A' Sind^B = 4.B'.

to

CP

parallel

AB

and C'P'

\\

to A'B'.

Take Then

ta=-4A
^B'.
81.

and

^p=:^B, ^a'^^A' and

49)

^/?'

.-.(by

tBCD = ^B'C'D'.

/.(by 45)
if they

the adjacent angles

Theorem.

^ACB^:^A'C'B'. Two triangles are congrnait

have a

side, the opposite angle

and another angle

re-

spectively congruent.

Proof.

By

80 and 44.

has at least two acute angles. one angle axe parallel or perpendicular to those of another, the angles are congruent or supplemental. Ex. 32. In a right-angled triangle [a triangle one of whose angles is a right angle] the t'n-o acute angles are

Ex. Ex.

30. Ever}' triangle

31. If the rajrs of

complemental (calling two angles together form a right angle).

82.

coiiiptcvictits

which

AB there is always one AC = BC. Take an}' angle BAD at .4 against AB, Proof. and the angle congruent to it at B against BA and
Theorem.

In any

sect

a)id oidy one point

such that

on the opposite
take
an-s'

side of a in the plane

BAD; and

sect

AD

on the

free

ray from A, and one

38

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
it

BF

on the free ray from B. The say in C, since D and F are on opposite sides of a. Moreover, C is between A and B. Otherwise one of them, say A would be between B and C. But then DA would have a point A on
congruent to sect DF must cut
a,
,

Fig. 29.

BC, a side of triangle FBC, and so (by II 4) must meet another side. But this is' impossible, since it meets FC produced at D and is parallel to BF. Since thus ^A=i^B, and ^ACD^^BCF [vertical],

therefore (by 81)

aACD=aBCF.

Therefore
If

AC = BC.
a second such point C, then on C'F' = DC'. Therefore (by 43)

we suppose

ray

DC

take

Therefore F'
that

^ C'BF' ^4.DAC=^ABF, and BF' = AD = BF. is F and is C. The point C of the sect AB such 83. Convention.

AC = BC may be called the bisection-point of AB, and to bisect AB shall mean to take this point C.
Ex. 3^. Parallels
intercept on
sect this p't bisects.

through

the

any straight through

end-points of a sect its bisection-point a

In a right-angled triangle the bisection-point side opposite the r't^) makes equal sects with the three vertices. Hint. Take one acute 2jl in the r't 2Sl.

Ex.

34.

of the hypothenuse (the

PAR/ILLELS.

39

84.

Theorem.

one and only one ray,

Proof.

From
Then
.-.

Qi, k) there is always such that ^ {h, l)= ^ {k, I). the vertex take OA = OA'. By
I,

Within any ^

82 take C, the bisection-point

of

A A'.

aAOC=a
3

A'OC
are=].
If

[As with

sides

^A0C=4A'0C.

ray

we suppose a second such OC, then aAOC'=a

[as
with
2

A'OC

sides

and the included ^ =are = ]. .-.AC'^A'C. .-. (by 82) is C. 85. Convention. The ray Z of :^ (h, k) such that ^ (h, /) = ^ (/, k) may be called the bisection ray or angle-bisector of ^ {h, k), and to bisect ^ (/i, ^) shall

mean
Ex.

to take this ray

35.

I.

An

angle

may

be separated into

2, 4, 8, 16,

...

2" congruent angles.

Symmetry.
86. Definition.

Two

points are said to be sym-

metrical with regard to a straight,

when
The

it

bisects

at right angles their sect.

straight is

called their axis of symmetry.

Two

points

have always one, and only one, symmetry

axis.

A
FiG. 31.

point has, with regard to a given axis

of symmetry, always one,

metrical point,

and only one, symnamely, the one which ends

axis.

the sect from the given point perpendicular to the

axis

and bisected by the

40

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
87. Definition.

Two

figures

have an axis of symmetry when, with regard to this straight, every point of each has its symmetrical point on the other. One figure has an
Fig. 32.

axis

of

symmetry

rX ~L

when, with

regard to this straight, every

its

point of the figure has

point on the figure.

symmetrical

One
it

figure

is

called symmetrical

when
Fig. 33-

has an axis of symmetry. Any figure has, with regard to any given straight as axis, always one, and only one, symmetrical figure. An angle is symmetrical with re88. Theorem.
gard
to its

bisector

and

the

end-points
are

of congruent sects from the vertex symmetrical.

Proof.

Their sect

is

bisected at right

angles
89.
Fig. 34.

by the

angle-bisector.

Definition.

A symcalled a

metrical

quadrilateral
is

with a diagonal as axis

deltoid.

90.
.
!

Definition.

A sect whose endpoints are the bisection-points

of opposite sides
is

a a median.
of

quadrilateral

called

So is the sect from a vertex of a triangle to the bisec-

tion-point of the opposite side.

PARALLELS.
91. Definition.

41

A sjTmmetrical
is

quadrilateral with
a,

a median as axis
Ex.
other,
of a
36.

called a symtra.
if

In a

r't

to set off one acute

^,

in the

^, bisects,

Ex. 37.
-I-

A
if

with /J's sides. The st' through the bisection-point of the base and the opposite vertex is to the base and
so
is it

bisects

Ex. 38. The

vertex.

r't bi' of

the base of a

-I-

bisects

at the

Ex.
I-

39.

The X from vertex

bisects

base and
!

^
a

in a
r't

A.

Ex. 40. The bisector of

bi' of

at vertex of a

is

base.
41. If a r't bi' of

Ex.
is
-I".

a side contains a vertex, the A

a if at vertex of and inversely. Ex. 4 ^ The end of sect from intersection of congjuent A costraiqht and s to one determines with sides of a
-I-

Ex. 42. The bisector of an exterior

II

is

to base,

-1-

a to base. Ex. 44. To erect a X at the end-point of a sect without producing the sect. Ex. 45. A to one side of an :^ makes with its bisector A. and other side a Ex. 46. The bisectors of the = ^s of a-l- A are s. Ex. 47. Every symmetrical quadrilateral not a deltoid is a symtra. Ex. 48. The intersection point of two s},Tnmetrical
I'nd of other
II

-I-

straights

is

on the

axis.

Ex. 49. The bisector of an angle is syminetrical to the bisector of the symmetrical angle. Ex. 50. A figure made up of a straight and a point is
s^mmetrical.
51. In any deltoid [i] One diagonal (the axis) One the perpendicular bisector of the other. [2] diagonal (the axis) bisects the angles at its two vertices. [3] Sides which meet on one diagonal (the axis) are con-

Ex.

is

4*

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

gruent; so each side equals one of its adjacent sides. [4] One diagonal (not the axis) joins the vertices of congruent

and makes congruent angles with the congruent [5] The triangles made by one diagonal (the axis) are congruent. [6] One diagonal (not the axis) makes two isosceles triangles. Ex. 52. Any quadrilateral which has one of the six
angles
sides.

preceding pairs of properties (Ex. 51) is a deltoid. Ex. 53. A quadrilateral with a diagonal which bisects the angle made by two sides, and is less than each of the other two sides, and these sides congruent, is a deltoid with this diagonal as axis. Ex. 54. A quadrilateral with a side meeting a congruent side in a greater diagonal which is opposite congruent angles is a deltoid with that diagonal as axis. Ex. 55. In any symtra [i] Two opposite sides are parallel, and have a common perpendicular bisector. [2] The other two sides are congruent and make congruent angleii with the parallel sides. [3] Each angle is congruent to one and supplemental to the other of tlie ^wo not opposite it. [4] The diagonals are congruent and their parts adjacent to the saine parallel are congruent. [5] One median bisects the angle between the two diagonals, and also ohe angle between the non-parallel sides (produced). Ex. 56. Any quadrilateral which has one of the preceding five pairs of properties (Ex. 53) is a symtra.
92. Definition.

trapezoid

is

a
is

quadrilateral

with two sides

parallel.

93. Definition.

A parallelogram
A

a quadrilateral
opposite).

with each side parallel to another

94.

(its

parallelogram with one angle right is called a rectangle. A parallelogram with two consecutive sides congruent is called a rhombus.
Definition.

rectangle which

is

a rhombus

is

called a square.

PARALLELS.
95.

43
sides

Theorem.

The opposite

and angles

of

Fig. 37.

parallelogram arc congruent, and

cacJi other.

its

diagonals bisect
side

Proof.

aABC = A ADC
BC=AD.
.-.

[2

^ 's and included

].

.-.

(as in 82)

AF=FC

and

BF^FD.
96.
sects

Theorem.

// three parallels

make congruent

on one transversal, they do on every transversal. Given a 6 c, also AB =

|| 1|

BC.

To prove FG = GH. Take FL\\GM\\ Proof. FL = AB = BC Then AB.

^GM [95,
aGMH[2

opposite sides of

allgmare^].
-4^

:.aFLG^
and included
side =].

Fig. 38.
.*.

's

FG=GH.
parallel to

97. Corollary to 96.

straight through the bi-

section-point of one side of a triangle

and

a second side bisects the third side.

[In figure let

coincide
98.

\\-ith .^4.]

Inverse of 97.

section-points of
parallel
tical

The straight through the biany two sides of a triangle is [For, by 97, it is idento the third side.
II

with the

to the third side through either

bisection- point.]

44

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Theorem.

The

sect

whose end-points are

the

bisection-points of two sides of a triangle is congruent to each

sect

made in

bisecting the third

side.

Fig. 39.

By97, 6^/^11 BCbiSince (by 98) sects AC. FG\\CH, .-. (hy 95) FG^CH.
Proof.
it

100.

Theorem.

// two sides of a quadrilateral are

is

congruent and parallel

a parallelogram.

Given AS = and
Proof.

\\CD.

aABC=aADC.

Fig. 40.

.-.^ACB^^CAD.
Ex.
its

.-.CBWAD.

57.

diagonals
58.
is

Every straight through the intersection of cuts any parallelogram into congruent

trapezoids.

Ex.

quadrilateral

with each side equal to

its

opposite

a parallelogram.

Ex.
equal,

59.

A A

quadrilateral with a pair of opposite sides

and each greater than a diagonal making equal

alternate angles with the other sides, is a parallelogram. quadrilateral with a side equal to its oppoEx. 60.
site,

and
61.

less

than a diagonal opposite equal angles,

is

parallelogram

Ex. Ex.
other

opposite
is

is

6z.

quadrilateral with each angle equal to its a parallelogram. quadrilateral whose diagonals bisect each

a parallelogram.

PARALLELS.
loi.

45

Theorem.

In any sect

AB

there are always

two,

andonly two,

points, C, D, such that

AC =

CD = DB.

Fig. 41.

Proof.

and a
II

sect
II

Take on any ray from A, any sect AF, FG = AF, and a sect GH = FG. Take
Then, by
96,

FC GD HB.
II

AC^CD = DB.
.

Suppose two other such points C, D' Then, by Now HB' GD' (by 96) makes D'B' 98, C'F D'G. = D'C' .'. from our hypothesis and III i, B' is identical with B. /. since GD\\HB (by IV) D' is .'. since FC\\GD (by IV) identical with D. is identical with C. 102. The two points, C, D, of the sect AB such that AC = CD = DB may be called the trisection\\

poiiits of

AB.
T/ii? f/zrct?

'medians of a triangle are copiinctal in that triscctioii-point of each remote from

103.

Theorem.

its vertex.

Proof.

Any median AG must meet any

other

CF,

since

and

are

on
st'

dif-

ferent sides of the straight

CF,

and
with

so the cross of
st'

AG
and
If
A

CF is on sect AG,
it is

similarly

on

sect

CF.

P, 0, are bisection-points of

Fig. 42. OC and OA, then (by 98 and is a gm and PQFG 100 by =GF. and PO 99) other. each bisect QG and PF (by 9S)
.'.
|| II

46

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
104. Definition.

The

cointersection-point of its

medians

is

called the triangle's centroid.

105. Definition.

A perpendicular from a vertex to

is

the straight of the opposite side

of the triangle.

called
is

an

altitude

then called the base. The perpendicular from a vertex of a parallelogram to the straight of a side not through
This opposite side
is

this vertex

called the altitude of the parallelogram

with reference to this side as base.

Ex. 63. The bisectors of the four angles which two straights make with each other form two straights perpendicular to each other. Ex. 64. If four coinitial rays make the first angle congruent to the third, and the second congruent to the fourth, they form two straights. Ex. 65. How many congruent sects from a given point to a given straight? Ex. 66. Does the bisector of an angle of a triangle
intersecting
bisect the opposite side?

The bisectors of vertical angles are costraight. two isosceles triangles be on the same base the straight determined by their vertices bisects the
Ex. Ex.
67. 68. If

base at right angles. Ex. 69. Suppose a A to be 3 bars freely jointed at the vertices. Is it rigid? Are the ^s fixad and the joints of no avail? Of what theorem is this a consequence? How is it with a jointed quadrilateral? Why? Ex. 70. Joining the bisection-points of the sides of aA
cuts
it

into 4

= As.
||

Joining the bisection-points of the consecutive sides of a quadrilateral makes a g'm. Ex. 72. The medians of a quadrilateral and the sect joining the bisection-points of its diagonals are all three bisected by the same point. Ex. 73. If the bisection-points of two opposite sides
71.

Ex.

..

PARALLELS.
of a
II

47

g'm
74.

ore joined to the vertices the diagonals are tri-

sected.

Ex.

The

J.S

from any point in the base

of

an

to the sides are together an altitude.

Ex. 75. The diagonals of a rectangle are =, oi a. rhombus are . Ex. 76. If 2 s are cut by a transversal, the bisectors
II

of the interior

:^ s

make a

rectangle.

Ex. Ex.

77. 78.

The
If

angle-bisectors of a rectangle

make a

square.

the

^s

adjoining one of the

||

sides of a trape-

zoid are =, so are the others.

Ex. 79. The bisectors of the interior ^ s of a trapezoid malce a quad' with 2 r't if s. Ex. 80. The bisection-point of one sect between jjs bisects any through it. Ex. Si. The = altitudes in ! A make with the base :^ s = to those made in bisecting the other if Ex. 82. Through a given point within an if draw a sect terminated by the sides and bisected by the point. Ex. Sj. Sects from the vertex to the trisection-points A are =. of the base of Ex. 84. If the if s made by producing a side of a A are
.
-I-

so are the other sides.

Ex. 85. If a quad' has 2 pairs of congruent consecutive sides, the other if s are = Ex. 86. Two AS are = if two sides and one's median are
respectively

Ex.

87.

s Two

As are
are

s s

if

one
a

if

and
its

altitude are

to

the corresponding.

Ex.

88.

Two AS
if

if

side,

altitude

and an

adjoining

are respectively
2

Ex. 89. Ex. 90.

If

altitudes are

= =

the A
sides

is

Two As
=

are

if

two
a

and

one's altitude are

to the corresponding. Ex. 91. Two AS are =

if

side, its altitude

and median
2 altitudes

are respectively

Ex.

92.

are respectively

Two AS s

are

if

a side and the other

48
Ex. 93.
its

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Two AS

are

if

bisector are respectively

a =.

side,

an adjoii^ng

^ and

Ex. 94. Two equilateral as are = if an altitude is =. Ex. 95. The bisector is within the ^ made by altitude and median. Ex. 96. In a right A one bisector also bisects ^ between its altitude and median. Ex. 97. Two sects from the vertices of a A to the opposite sides cannot bisect each other. Ex. 98. The _Ls from 2 vertices of a A upon the median from the third are =. Ex. 99. Two g'ms having an ^ and the including sides s are =.
II

106.

Theorem.
sects.

bisector of a sect

congruent

point is on the perpendicular whose end points make with it of AB. Take bisection point

Then (by

57)

OMl AB.

Fig. 43.

Fig. 44.

107.

Theorem.

of the sides of

The three perpendicular bisectors a triangle are copunctal (in its circum'

center').

Proof.

Bisect (by 82

and

51)

AB
of

at

D and BC

at

F by perpendiculars.
is

These perpendiculars (by

77) meet, say at 0.

Therefore (by 43)

AO =BO=CO.

Therefore (by 106)

on bi'

AC.

THE CIRCLE.
1

49

08.

Theorem.

The

three altitudes of a triangle are

copitnctal (in its 'orthocenter').

Given the ^ABC. To prove that the straights through .4, B, C perpendicular to the straights a,
b,

c respectively, are copunctal.

,--

CHAPTER

V.

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
Existence theorems on the basis of assumptions IIV, and the visual representation of such theorems by graphic constructions.

Graphic solutions

of

the

geometric

problems by

means

of ruler

and

sect-carrier.

109. Convention.

What

are called problems of

Theoretically have a double import. they are really theorems declaring that the existconstruction

ence of certain points, sects, straights, angles, etc., by rigorous deductions from the Thus the existences postulated in our assumptions.
follows logically
possibility of solving such

problems by elementary

geometry

is

a matter absolutely essential in the

logical sequence of

our theorems.

we have shown (in loi) that a always trisection points, and this may be sect has expressed by saying we have solved the problem to Now it happens that a solution of trisect a sect. the problem to trisect any angle is impossible with only our assumptions. Thus any reference to results following from the trisection of the angle would be equivalent to the introduction of additional assumptions.
So, for example,
so

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.

51

But problems

of construction,

on the other hand,

operations,

may have
shall

a
as

reference

to

practical

usually for drawing on a plane a picture which

approximate graphic representation of the data and results of the existential

serve

an

theorem.

Our Assumptions
This

postulate the existence of a

straight as the result of the existence of

two

points.

may be

taken as authorizing the graphic desig-

nation of given points and the graphic operation to join t^^o designated points by a straight, and as guaranteeing that this operation can always be
effected.

Confining ourselves to plane geometry, on

the basis of the

same Assumptions

I,

we

authorize

the graphic operation to find the intersection-point of two coplanar non-parallel straights, and guarantee that this may alwaj's be accomplished.

To
that

practically perform these graphic operations,

for the actual

drawing of pictures which shall represent straights with their intersections, we grant the use of a physical instrument whose edge is by hypothesis straight, namely, the straight-edge or
is

ruler.

Thus Assumptions
of plane geometry:

give

structions, or as solved,

assumed conthe fundamental problem

us as
of the

Problem
plane; (b) to
to

i.

(a)

To designate a given point

draw

the straight

determined by two points;

find

tlic

intersection of two non-parallel straights.

no. Oiir Assumptions III postulate the existence on any given straight from any given point of it toward a given side, of a sect congruent to a given sect.

52

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
This

may be

ing the graphic operation involved in

taken as authorizing and guaranteewhat may-

be called
straight

Problem 2. To set off a given sect on a given from a given point toward a given side. A physical instrument for actual performance of this construction in drawing might be called a sect-

Our straight-edge will also serve as sectwe presume that the given sect may be marked off on it, and it then made to coincide with the given straight with one of the marked
carrier.

carrier

if

points in coincidence with the given point of the

straight.

Notice that in these graphic interpretations

existential

we

freely use the terminology of motion, while the real

theorems themselves are independent of

motion, underlie motion, and explain motion. We assume that the motion of our physical instruments
is rigid.

announce the important theorem that in our geometry all graphic problems can be solved, all graphic constructions effected, merely by using problems i and 2. Theorem. Those geometric construction problems
111.
{existential

We now

theorems)

solvable

by employing exclu-

sively

Assumptions I-IV are necessarily graphically means of ruler and sect-carrier. The demonstration will consist in solving with problems i and 2 the three following problems 112. Problem 3. Through a given point to draw a
solvable by parallel to a given straight.

Given the straight

AB

and the point P.

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
Construction.

S3

Prob.

I.

On

Join P with any point the straight

of

AB by

PA

A take (by AC^^P. JoinC with any other point B of AB. On the straight CB beyond B take BQ^BC. PQ is the parallel sought.
beyond
2)

Prob.

Proof.
113.

By

98.
4.

Problem

To draw a perpendicular

to

given straight.

Construction.

Let

be any point
straight.

of the given

Set off from

AB = AD = AE.
acute,
..

Since

on this straight toward both sides two congruent sects, AB and AC, and then determine on any other straights two through A the points E and D, on the same side of AB^ and such that ^ABD and -^ACE are
.".

angles at the bases of isosceles triangles,

they are

the straights

BD
and

and

CE
in

also the straights

BE

CD

meet in F, and H. Then FH is and

79)

the perpendicular sought.

Proof.
right.

i-BDC and
.".

^BEC
to

are (by 56

Since (by 108) the altitudes of

^BCF

are

copunctal,
114.

FH
5,

is _L

BC.
a given angle against

Problem

To

set off

a given straight, or to construct a straight cutting a given straight under a given angle.

54

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Given
vertex.

/3

the angle

to

be

set

off,

and

its

Construction.

We draw,
I

by Prob.

3,

the straight

through

\\

to the given

straight

against

which
is

the

given
set off.

angle

/?

to

be

By

straight _L
_L

Prob. 4 draw a to / and a straight

/?.

to one side of

Through
3,
||s

any point
of
/5

of the other side

draw,

by
st'
1.

Prob.

to

these s.

Call

their feet

C and

D.
to

Probs. 4 and 3) its foot E.

draw from

a.

Then (by CD. Call

So EA will cut the given under the given ^ p. Proof. Since -^-ACB and ^ADB are right, so (by 146) the four points A, B, C, D are concyclic. Consequently ^ACD= ^ABD (by 133) being inscribed angles on the same chord AD and on the same side of it. Therefore their complements

Then

^CAE=^.
to
/

straight

||

2^CAE= iBAD.
completely demonstrates our theorem, 151, since the existential theorems in Assumptions II guarantee the solution of problems requiring no new graphic operations, such as to find a point within and a point without a given sect, and certain other problems of arrangement. 116. In our geometry, though constantly using
115. This

graphic figures,

we must never

rely or

them

for

any part

of our proof.

We

depend upon must always

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.

55

take care that the operations undertaken on a figure also retain a purely logical validity. 117. This cannot be sufficiently stressed. In the right use of figures lies a chief difficulty of our investigation.

an approximate sugWe cannot rely upon what we suppose to be our immediate perception of the relations in even the most accurate
figure is only

The graphic

gestive representation of the data.

obtainable figure.

In rigorous demonstration, the figure can be only a symbol of the conceptual content co^ered by its underlying assumptions. The logical coherence should not be dependent upon anything supposed to be gotten merely from perception of the figure. No statement or step can rest simply on what appears to be so in a figm-e. Every statement or step must be based upon an assumption, a definition, a convention, or a preceding theorem. Yet the aid from figures, from sensuous intuition, is so inexpressibly precious, that any attempt even That treatto minimize it would be a mistake. proposition is best which connects it most ment of a closely with a visualization of the figure, while yet not using, as if given by the figure, concepts not contained in the postulates and preceding propositions.

118.

in Chapters

As an immediate result of Prob. 5, the proofs I-V of om- existential theo. ems give ruler

and

sect-carrier solutions of the coiTesponding prob-

lems.

We will now give

some alternative

solutions.

56
119.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Problem

6.

At a given point
Solution.

to

make a

right angle.

Draw through A

49.

any straight AD, and through D any other straight BC, and make AD^BD^CD. Then is ^ SAC right. *>

From a given point 120. Problem 7. perpendicular upon a given straight BC.

to

drop a

By Prob. 6, at A construct a rt. :^ BAC. Make BD^BA. Draw DE

Solution.
\\AC.

Make
is

BF^BE.
Fig.
50.

Then
[2

AFBC.
and

Proof.
sides
121.

/^ABF = ADBE. inc. ^ =

.J

Problem

8.

At any point

on a

straight

BC

to erect the

perpendicular.

Solution.

By Prob.
it

straight drop to

7, from any point without the a perpendicular. By Prob. 3,

draw a
122.

parallel to this

through A.
bisect

Problem

9.

To

a given

sect

AB.
BC.

Construction.

Draw through
straight

any other
it

Make on
Produce

BC^CD=DE.
Draw
is is

AE=EF.
Then

FDG.
of

AG ^GB.
the centroid

Proof.

A ASF.

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
123.

57

Problem

10.

To

bisect

a given angle.

Construction.
side of

On one

the given

^A

take any two points B, On the other side C.

takeAB'^AB, and ^AC. The sects

and B'C
sector.
124.

AC
BC
D AD
is

Fig. 52.

intersect, say at

the desired bi-

late.)

Problem 11. (Without the Parallel PostuTo draw a perpendicular to a given straight. Let AB be the given st'. Take Construction.
Cx.

A
A
Fig.
F
53.

another st' AC. On AB take AD =AC. Take (by 123) the bisector of ^CAD meeting CD in G. On AB take AF^AG. On

ray

AG

take

Proof.
125.

AH=AD. Then is HF to aACG^a ADG ^ a AHF.

12.

AB.

Problem

At

a given point

on a given
'

straight

BC

to erect the per-

'X

pendicular.

Construction.
124) at 0.

Draw

(by _
it^

YOZ to
Take

BC, meeting

or = 0Z.
A'.

^^y /
Y V
Fig.
54.

Pro-

duce
of

YA

to
is

i-ZAX
126.

The bisector to BC.

Problem 5. At a given point in a given straight to make an angle congruent to a given angle. Required, against the given ray AB of a, and

SS

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
of a, the C-side, to

toward a given side angles ^D (given).

make an
To one

Construction.
side

of the

given acute

angle erect (by 124)

FH

DF,
A pio"ss.
"

meeting the other side at H. Take AB^ and DF and

BCIAB

BC^FH.
127.

.-.

(by III 6)

^BAC^^FDH.

Problem. To draw a perpendicular to a givenstraight from a given point without it. Let AB be the st' and C the p't. Draw (by 125) OZ _L to AB from a p't on it so as to meet AC, say in Z. Produce ZO to Y, making OZ = OY.

Produce
to

AY to F,

making

AF=AC.

Then

CF is
of the
/,

AB.
128. Definition.

The cointersection-point

three bisectors of the internal angles of a triangle,

is

called the triangle's in-center.

Ex. Ex.

100.

A right
To

loi.

angle can be trisected. construct a triangle, given two sides and

two angles and the included side. Bx. 103. To construct a triangle, given two angles and a side opposite one of them.
Ex. 104. To describe a parallelogram, given two sides and the included angle. Ex. 105. To construct an isosceles triangle, having given the base and the angle at the vertex. Ex. io6. To erect a perpendicular to a sect at its endpoint, without producing the sect or using parallels.

the included angle. Ex. 102. To construct a triangle, given

Hint.

At

this end-point against the given sect

make

PROBLEMS OF CONSTRUCTION.
any acute angle. At any other point toward this a congruent angle.
of the sect

59

make

Beyond the
this

intersection-point of the rays,

make on

second ray a sect congruent to a side of this isosceles triangle. Its end is a point of the required perpendicular Ex. 107. To draw an angle-bisector without using the
vertex.

Ex. which

108.

shall

Through a given point to draw a straight make congruent angles with two given

straights.

Ex. 109. In a straight find a point with which two given points give equal sects. Ex. no. From two given points on the same side of a
straight to draw two straights intersecting on it and making congruent angles with it. Ex. III. To draw a straight through a given point between two given straights such that they intercept on it a sect bisected by the given point. Ex. 112. Through a given point to draw a st' making = ^s with the sides of a given ^. a from b and hb', from a and b; Ex. 113. Construct from P and a +b; from /3 and hb from b and /3 from p and hb; from p and a. Ex. 114. Construct r't a from a and he', from a and c; from a and a+b. Ex. 115. Construct A from p, a, and ha', from p, a, and /3; from its pedal; from h, a+c, a; from a, hb, p; from Ji, /z, 1 3. Ex. 116. Without prolonging two sects, to find the bisector of the ^ they would make. Ex. 117. From one end of the hypothenuse lay off a sect on it congruent to the J. from the end of this sect to
I-

the other side.

A cut a trapezoid with 3 sides =. Ex. 118. From Ex. 119. To inscribe a sq. in a given r't A. A where erected Ex. 120. Find point in side of and produced to other side is = to base.
I-

-I-

6o

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 121. Construct a from a, a, and that ta trisects a; from a and orthocenter from a and centroid. Ex. 122. Construct A from feet of medians; of alti;

tudes.

Ex. 123. (Brahmagupta.) If the diagonals of a quad' with opposite 4C's supplemental are , the st' through their intersection to any side bisects the opposite side.

CHAPTER
SIDES
129. Convention.
is

VI.

AND ANGLES.

taken

When a sect congruent to CD on sect AB from A and its second end- point

between .4 and B, then AB is said to be greater than CD; (AB> CD). When an angle congruent to 4 {h, k) is set off from vertex against one of the rays of i^AOB toward the other ray, if its second side falls within ^AOB, then -ifAOB is said to be greater than ^ {h, k). In symbols, '4-A0B>
falls

4(h,k).
130.

Theorem.

//

tlic

first

side of a triangle be

greater than a second, tlien the angle opposite the first

must be greater than- tJie angle opposite Given BA > BC. To prove 4C> ^.4. Proof. From B toward A take BD = BC. The end-point D of this sect then, because BA > BC, is between A and B, that is within

tlic

second.

^ACB.

Call

the

point

where

the

bisector of

^B

meets
79)

the side AC.

Then

4C=4FDB.

But (by
6i

yfFDByyfA.

62
131. Inverse.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
If

^Ay^-B,

:.

a>b.

Proof.

132. Definition.

[From 56 and 130.] Except the perpendicular, any

sect

from a point to a straight is called an oblique. From a point to a 133. Theorem. straight any oblique is greater than the
perpendicular.
Proof.

Since ^ CAB
.".

is r't,

.".

(by 79)

Fig. 57-

^A>^5.
Any
than
greater

(byi3i)a>fe.

134.

Theorem.

two sides of a triangle are

the

together

third side.

Proof.

On

St'

BC, be-

yond
.-.

C,
s(>)

take
is

CD = CA

{hy

But
.-. .-.

^C 4DAB>i.DAC^4D.
BD>AB.
Theorem.

4 CDA^i^ CAD. within i-DAB,

Fig. 58.

(by 131)
135.

(The ambiguous case.)

If two tri-

angles have two sides of the one congruent respectively

two sides of the other and the angles opposite one pair of congruent sides congruent, then the angles oppoto

site the other

pair are either congruent or supplemental.

AH
Fig. 59.

Hypothesis.

A ABC and ^FGH

with i-A = 4

F,AB ^FG,

and

BC^GH.

SIDES

AND ANGLES.
or

63
of

Conclusion.
Proof.

:^C

=^H,

^ C supplement

take, on the side toward ray falls on ray BC, then (by 80) 7fC=^H. If not on BC, suppose between C and A. Then (by 44) i-BC'A = 4H, .-. and BC'^GH^BC. (by 56) iBC'C^i-C.
C, the

At

B against BA
If

^ABC = 4G.

BC

136. Corollary to

135.

Two

triangles are con-

gruent

if

they have two sides and the angle opposite

the greater respectively congruent.

137. Definition.
is

A
is

triangle one of
called a

whose angles
side opposite

a right angle

right-angled triangle,

or

more

briefly a right triangle.

is

The

the right angle

called the liypothcnitse.

136.

138. Corollary to

Two

right-angled trian-

gles are congruent

if

the hypothenuse and one side

are respectively congruent.

Ex. 124.

If

two

triangles

spectively congruent to
if

have two sides of the one retwo sides of the other, and the

angles opposite one pair of congruent sides congruent, then these angles be not acute the triangles are congruent.

Ex.

125. If

two

triangles

respectively congruent to

have two sides of the one two sides of the other, and the

angles opposite one pair of congruent sides congruent,

then if one of the angles opposite the other pair of congruent sides is a right angle the triangles are congruent. Ex. 126. If two triangles have two sides of the one respectively congruent to two sides of the other, and the angles opposite one pair of congruent sides congruent, then if the side opposite the given angle is congruent to or greater than the other given side the triangles are congruent. Ex. 127. If any triangle has one of the following properties it has all:

64
I.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
Symmetry.

^. 3.

Two Two

congruent sides. congruent angles.

4.
5.

A median which is A median which is

An

6.
7.

an altitude. an angle-bisector. altitude which is an angle-bisector, perpendicular side-bisector which

congruent angle-bisectors.

contains

vertex.
8.

Two

Ex.
is less

128.

The

difference of
side.

any two

sides of a triangle

than the third

129.

Ex.

From

the ends of a side of a triangle the two

sects to a point within the triangle are together less

than

the other two sides of the triangle, but

angle.

make a

greater

Ex. 130. Two obliques from a point making congruent from the perpendicular are congruent, and make congruent angles with the straight. Ex. 131. Of any two obliques between a given point and straight that which makes the greater sect from the
sects

foot of the perpendicular

is

the greater.

Ex.

132.

Of sects joining two symmetrical points to a

third, that cutting the axis is the greater.

139.

Theorem.

// two triangles have two sides of

the one respectively congruent to two sides of the other,

then that third side is the greater

which
angle.

is

opposite

the

greater

Proof.

Take the
pair
of

triangles

with
sides
Fig. 60.

one

congruent

common, BC, and on

air
of

^j^g same side of BC the other The bisector congruent sides, BA, BA'. :^ABA', being within ^ABC, meets ^C at a

of

,.o''n:

G.

Then (by

43)

aABG^aA'BG.

.-.

AG

SIDES

AND ANGLES.

65

= A'G.
140.

But (by 134) A'G and

GC

are together

greater than A'C.

Inverse of 139. If two triangles have two sides of the one respectively congruent to two sides of the other, then, of the angles opposite their third
sides,

that

is

the greater which

is

opposite the

greater third side.

Ex. 133. Two right triangles are congruent if the hypothenuse and an acute angle are congruent, or if a perpendicular and an acute angle are congruent to a perpendicular and the corresponding acute angle. Ex. 134. Given y4B a sect, Cits bisection-point, PA sPB. Prove PCXAB. Ex. 135. Inverse. GivenCPbi' of AS. ProvePA=PB.

Ex.136. GivenPMl.AMsPNJ.yl7V. Prove^PAMs or its complement. Given :^ P^M = :^ PAAA. Ex.137. Inverse. Prove PMi.AM^PN S.AN.

^ PAN

V.

The Archimedes Assumption.*

be any point on a straight between any given points A and B\ take then the points A 2, Az, such that Ai lies between A and ^2, furtherAi, more A 2 between >liand Az, further ^3 between A2 and Ai, and so on, and also such that the sects AA-i, are congruent; then in the .41^2, A^Az, AzAi, there is always such series of points A2, Az, A4, a point A, that B lies between A and A. 141. This postulate makes possible the introducWe have tion of the continuity idea into geometry. not used it, and will not, since the whole of elementary rectilineal geometry can be constructed with only Assumptions I-IV.
V. Let
1
. . . , . . . , . . ,

*Archimeclis Opera,

lec.

Heiberg, vol.

I,

1880, p. 11.

CHAPTER

VII.

A SECT CALCULUS.
142.

On the

basis of assumptions
will

that

is,

in the plane

I 1-3, and II-IV, and without the Archimedes

assumption,

we

establish a

sect

calculus or

geometric algorithm for sects, where all the operations are identical with those for real numbers.

The following proof

143.
triplets

(Pascal.)

is due to F. Schur. Let A, B,C and A', B' be two of points situated respectively on two per,

pendiculars and distinct

from
allel

their
If

intersection

point 0'.
to

AB' is A'B and

par-

BC

then is also parallel to A'C. Proof. Call D' the point where the perpendicular from B upon the straight A'C meets the
parallel to B'C,

AC

straight B'A'.
is

Then
;

C
Fig. 61.

the orthocenter of the

triangle

BA'D'

therefore
.-.

D'CLA'B and Gonsequently C

JL^B'.

is

also the orthocenter of the tri66

A SECT CALCULUS
angle

67

AB'D'

.-.
;

AD'IB'C and

.-.

also

BC'.

Con-

sequently

the orthocenter of triangle AC'D'; .-. AC'D'B and .-. AC'\\A'C. 144. Instead of the word "congruent" and the
is

=, we use, in this sect calculus, the word "equal" and the sign =. 145. We begin by showing how from any two sects to find unequivocally a third by an operation
sign

we
lies

will call addition.

A, B, C are three costraight points, and B between A and C, then we designate c=AC as the sum of the two sects a = AB and h=BC, and
146. li

write to express this c

= a-\-b.

y
1

I,

n. a

^ c=a+6
Fig. 62.

j -^

a determined order, we start from any point A, and take the point B such that AB = that is = a. Then on the straight AB beyond B we take the point C such that BC = b. Then the sect AC is what we have designated as the sum of the two sects a =AB and b =BC in the order
6 in
,

To add the two

sects a

and

a + b.
III 3 follows immediately that this independent of the choice of the point A, and independent of the choice of the straight AB. By III I, it is independent of the order in which the sects are added. Therefore a + b = b + a. 148. This is the couuuiitative law for addition. Thus the commutative law for addition holds good,
147.

From

sum

is

68
is is

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
valid, for our

not at

all self-evident,

summation of sects. But this law and expresses no general

but a wholly definite geometric throughout not numbers, but onlysymbols for certain geometric entities, for sects. 149. The sects a and b are called less than c; in symbols: a<c, b<c; and c is called greater than a and b in symbols c>a, c>b. 150. To add to a +b a further sect c, take on
relation,

magnitude
fact
;

for a, b are

straight
sect

AB
(a

beyond
+b) +c.

the sect
this

CD =

c.

AD =

But

same

sect

Then the AD is, by

the sects

the given definition of sum, also the

sum of

AB^ and BD, that is of the sects a and (6 +c). Thus a +{b +c) = (a +b) +c, and so is verified and valid what is called the associative law for addition. 151. To define geometrically the product of a sect a by a sect b, we employ the following construction. We choose first an arbitrary sect, which remains the same for this whole theory, and designate it by i. Set off on one side of a right angle, starting from the vertex 0, first the sect i and then, likewise from the vertex O, the sect b. Then
set off

on the other
i

side the

sect a.

Join the end-points

of the sects

and

a,

and draw

a parallel to this straight through the end-point of the

sect
b.

The
is

parallel

which this determines on the

sect

other side
152.

the product ab.

To prove

for our so defined multiplication

A SECT CALCULUS.
of sects the

69

commutative law
construct in the

for multiplication,

ab

= ba,

first

defined

way

the

sect

ab.

Then take on the

first (the

horizontal) side of the right "^l angle the sect a, and on the

second (the vertical) side the sect b. Join the end of i with the end of b on the vertical side and draw a parallel to this join through the end of a on the horizontal side
Pascal)

FlG. 64.

this,

by

definition,

cuts off on the vertical side the sect ba, which (by
is identical with the previously constructed because of the parallelism of the dotted lines. 153. We emphasize that this definition is purely geometric; ab is not at all the product of two num-

ab,

bers.
154.

To prove
a

for our multiplication the associative

law for multi-

6c)

70

RATI0N/1L GEOMETRY.

To demonstrate it we construct the sects ab, ac, and a(b + c), and draw through the end-point of the
sect c (see Fig. 66) a
o(b+c)

parallel to the other side of the right angle.

The congruence of the two right-angled triangles shaded in the

_, figure
^*''

and the

appli-

cation of the theorem equality of of the

opposite sides in the parallelogram give then the

desired proof.
156. If b

and

c are

any two

sects, there is
c

always

one and only one sect a such that

c

= ab;
is

this sect

is

designated

by the
b.

notation

-r,

and

called the

quotient of c

by

Ex. 138. In r't A,/ij makes ^ s =to a and ^. Ex. 139. Always Wc <(a +6). Ex. 140. Prom point without acute ^ a, s to sides make 1^ =a. Ex. 141. The sect joining the bisection-points of the to the sides and half their non-|| sides of a trapezoid is sum. Ex. 142. The trisection-points of the sides of an equilateral A form a regular hexagon. Ex. 143. The s from A and B upon m-c are =. Ex. 144. Construct ! A from 6 and a+hb; from /3 (or hb) and perimeter. Ex. 145. The sum of the three sects from any point
|| ||

A SECT
within a A to the vertices
of the 3 sides.

CALCULUS.
is

7^

<

the

sum and >

sum

Ex. 146. Construct ir't A from b +c. Ex. 147. In a given st' find a point to which sects from 2 given points have the least sum. Ex. 148. The sum of the medians in A is < the sum and > J sum of sides. Ex. 149. Construct A from o - ^ and c; A from a, /?, r; A from a, /9, R. Ex. 150. If hb meets b at D, construct a from ht, a -AD,

c-CD.
Ex.
151.

the 4 AS

made by

quad' is a trapezoid if an opposite pair of the diagonals are =.

CHAPTER

VIII.

PROPORTION AND THE THEOREMS OF

SIMILITUDE.
of the just-given sect-cacuas proportion can in the following EucHd's theory of manner be established free from objection and with157.

With help

out the Archimedes assumption. If a, b, a', b' are any four sects, 158. Convention. then the proportion a:b=a':b' shall mean nothing

but the sect equation

159. Definition.
if

ab'

= ba'.
triangles are called similar

Two

their angles are respectively congruent.

of

Sides
cor-

between vertices
responding.
160.

congruent angles are called

Theorem.
a,

In similar
a',

triangles the sides are

proportional.

Given

and

b'

corresponding sides in two

similar triangles.

To prove
a:b=a':b'.
Proof.

the proportion

We consider first
case,

the
b
Fig. 67.

special

where

the angles included

and

a',

b'

in the

angles are right,

by a, two triand sup-

pose both triangles on the same right angle.

72

We

PROPORTION AND THE THEOREMS OF SIMILITUDE.

73

then set off from the vertex on one side the sect i, and take through the end-point of sect i the parallel to the two hypothenuses. This parallel determines on the other side the sect e. Then is, by our definition of

the sect-product, b=ca,

b'=ea'.

Consein
I,

quently

We

we have ab'=ba', that is, a:b=a': b'. pass now to the general case. Construct

each of the two similar triangles the in-center respectively /', and drop from these the three perpendiculars
ively
sides.
r',
r,

respect-

on the triangle's Designate the reof the

b^, ba,

spective sects so deter-

mined on the sides triangles by at, a^,

Ca, ct,

Fig- 68.
cj'.

respectively ui, a/, b/, ba, cj,

The

just-

proven special case of our theorem gives then the

proportions

ab:r=ab
Oc'.

b^:r

r=ac'

-.r',

ba:r

= br: = ba.':r'.
distributive law

From

these

we conclude by the
a:r=a':r',

b:r=b':r',

and consequently,

in

virtue of the commutative

law of multiplication,

a:a'=r:r'=b:b',
i6i.

and

a:b = a':b'.

From

the just-proven the'irem (i6o)

as follows

we

get

easily the

fundamental theorem of the theory of

is

proportion, which

74

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Theorem.

If

two

parallels cut off

b,

any angle the

sects a,

respectively

on the sides of a', b', then

holds good the proportion a:b=a':b'. Inversely, when four sects a, b, a', b' fulfill this proportion, if the pairs a, a' and b, b' are set off upon the respective
sides of

any

angle, then the straight joining the endis

points of a and b

parallel to that joining the end-

points of a'
Proof.

and

b'

First, since parallels

make with the

sides

of the given angle similar triangles,

therefore (by i6o) a:b

= a':b'.
parallel

Second, for the inverse. Through the end-point of

a'

draw a

to the straight joining the end-

points of a and b, and call the sect it determines on the other side b".

^y p.^g^ a:b=:a':b". But by hypothesis a:6=a': 6'. .". b"=b'. 162. Thus we have fotinded with complete rigor
theory of proportion Assumption-groups I-IV.
the
163. Corollary to

Fio.bg.

rj.^^^

on the basis
If straights are

of the

161.

cut

by

any number

of parallels the corresponding inter-

cepts are proportional.

164. Corollary

to

160.

Parallels

are

divided

proportionally

by any

three copunctal transversals.

165. Corollary to 161.

if

Two

triangles are similar

in-

they have two sides proportional and the cluded angles congruent.
166. Definition.

point P, costraight with

is

AB

but without the sect AB,

sect

said to divide the

AB externally into the

sects

PA, PB.

PROPORTION AND THE THEOREMS OF SIMILITUDE.

167.

75

Corollary to

161.

sect can

nternally or externally in proportion to

sion

be divided any two

unequal given sects. The point of internal diviis unique; likewise the point of external divi168.

sion.

Theorem.

The

bisector

of

any angle

of

triangle or of its adjacent angle divides the opposite

side in proportion to the other two sides.

[Proof.

Take

AF
A

\\

to

bisector

BD.

Then
and

BF =

c.-\

169. Definition.

sect divided internally

is

externally in proportion
monically,
range.
170.

said to be divided harcalled a harmonic

and the four points are

Theorem.

perpendicular

frcnn

the riglit
tri-

angle to the

hypothenuse divides a right-angled

to it,

angle into two oiliers similar proportional between the parts of the hypothenuse.
is
tlic

and

mean

Each
tional
its

side is

the the

mean propor-

between

hypothenuse and

adjoining part.
Proof.

The
since

r't

aABD,

4A

A ABC ~ is common.

r't

"^

'' '^'

76
171.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Theorem.

The square

of

the

hypothenuse

equals the

sum

of the squares of the two sides.

AC:AB = AB:AD,fha.%{s,AB-^=AC-AD. Same way BC^ =AC- DC. Now add AB^ +BC^=AC{AD +DC) =AC^.
Proof.
.-.

172.

Theorem.

Triangles having their sides taken

in order respectively proportional are similar.

A'

Fig. 72.

In the triangles

ABC

and A'B'C

let

AB:A'B' =
and A'B'C

AC:A'C' = BC:B'C'. To prove that the

axe similar ('~).
Proof.

triangles

ABC

Upon

AB

take
to

AF^A'B', and upon

AC
.-.

take

(by 165)

AH^A'C. aASC ~
.-.

Then

AAFH.

BC:FH. But by hypothesis AAFH ^ A A'B'C ..FH = B'C'. AABC~AA'B'C'.

.-.

AB:AF =AC:AH. AB:AF = AB:AF = BC:B'C'.

.-.

[3

sides^].

173. Definition.

Similar polygons are those of

which the angles taken in order are respectively equal [i.e., congruent], and the sides between the
equal angles proportional.
174.

Theorem.

Two

similar

polygons

can be

divided into the same

ively similar.

number

of triangles respect-

PROPORTION y4ND THE THEOREMS OF SIMILITUDE.

175-

77

In our geometrical constructions

we may

for

the scLt-carrier substitute the unit-sect carrier or

set
sect,

an instrument for setting

off

one single

fixed sect, say the unit.

176.

Problem

3.

Through a given point

to

draw

d pdralld to a given straiglit.

Construction.

Join the given point

D

with any

/\,
'

IS

Fig. 73.

and beginning at .4 on a the unit, say to B and C. Let D be any point on AP, and E the cross of PC and BD, and finally F the cross of AE and CD. Then is PF\\a. Suppose the parallel to a through P Proof. Then aDKPmeets BD at K and CD at F'. .-. A DBA, and aDKF'^^DBC. (by 160)
point
,4

of the given straight a, in succession

set off twice

DK-.KP =DB:BA,
and

DK:KF'=DB:BC. KP=KF'.
.-.

Now aKE'F'-^aBE'A, and aKEP-aBEC,

and

:.KF':BA=KE':BE', KP:BC = KE -.BE. .-. KE':BE'=KE:BE.

78

R/ITION/iL

GEOMETRY.

So E' IS, E. .'. F' is F, and PF the parallel to a through P. To set off a given sect on a given 177. Problem 2. given point toward a given side. straight from a
Construction.

Let

AB

be the sect to be

set off

and
/,

P the given point on

given
straight.

the

Draw through
parallel to
Fig, 74.

P the AB and set off

through through

on

it

the unit PC, and

on

the

iinit

PD.

cuts PC, say in Q.

The The

parallel to

AP
CD

B
Q

parallel to

cuts

in F.

Then

PF = AB.

If AB is divided harmonically by P, P', then divided harmonically by A, B. Ex. 153. If two triangles have the sides of one respectively parallel or perpendicular to the sides of the other

Ex. 152.
is

PP'

they are similar. Ex. 154. The corresponding altitudes of two similar triangles are proportional to any two corresponding sides. Ex. 155. To divide a sect into parts proportional to given
sects.

Ex. Ex.
sects.

156.

A
To

sect

can be divided into any number

of

equal parts.
157.

find the fourth proportional to three given

Ex. Ex. Ex.

st'
II

158. 159.

To find the third proportional to two given sects.

If

three non-parallel straights intercept proporparallels

tional sects
160.

on two

they are copunctal.

is

One
If
II

side of a

to either part cut off

is

by a

to the base as the other side

to the corresponding part

Ex. i6i.

tionally, it is

a straight divides two sides of a A proporto the third side.

PROPORTION AND THE THEOREMS OF SIMILITUDE.

79

Ex. 162. The bisectors of an interior and an exterior ^

A divide the opposite side harmonically. The perimeters of two ~ polygons are proportional to any two corresponding sides. Ex. 164. A median and two sides of a trapezoid are
at one vertex of a

Ex.

163.

copunctal.

Ex. 165. The hypothenuse is divided harmonically by any pair of st's through the vertex of the r't ^ making
,

-}^s,

with one of

its sides.

Ex. 166. The bisection-point of the base of a A and any point on a to the base through the vertex make a sect cut harmonically by a side and the other side produced. Ex. 167. I divides h as 6 to a +c. Ex. 168. Sects from the ends of the base of a A to the intersections of a to base with the sides intersect on a
|| ||

median. Ex. 169. A from

/3,

a/c,

R.

whose vertices are the feet of the altitudes] cut off As ~ to the original. Ex. 171. Three points being given, to determine anEx.
170.

The

sides

of the pedal [A

other, through

which

if

any

st"

two

of the former, shall together

be drawn, J.s upon it from, be equal to the J. from

the third.

Ex. 172. From two given sects to cut off two proportional to a second given pair so as to leave remainders
proportional to another given pair. Ex. 173. In A if sects from the ends of the base to the opposite sides intersect on the altitude, the joins of its foot to their ends will make equal angles with the base.
,

Ex. 174. Construct A from h, , and that tb makes segments as )" to n. Ex. 175. A from /3, vib, and ^ between b and im. Ex. 176. A from h and s on it from A and C. Ex. 177. A from /3, a-c, and difference of segments

made by

hb.

Ex. 178. R't A from a +t, and b +c. Ex. 179. A from a - ^, a:b= in:u, and a third propor-

8o

RyfTIONAL GEOMETRY.

tional to the difference of segments

lesser side.

made by

he

and

the

Ex. i8o. Ex. i8i. Ex. 182. Ex. 183. Ex. 184. = R:R'. Ex. 185.

A from, A from A from

a, a,

a +h, a +c. R, and b:c = m:n.

a, b,

ahb.

Divide a given sect harmonically as In ~ As, a:a' =ha-h'a' =ma-m'a' =

m to n.
ta:fa'

=r:r

Two

r't

As are ~

if

hypothenuse and a X are

proportional.

Ex. 186. R't A from a and the non-adjacent segment

made by

he.

Ex. 187. If 2 As have two sides of the one proportional to two sides of the other, and ^ s, one in each, opposite one corresponding pair of these sides = the ^ s opposite
,

the other pair are either

or supplemental. pro-

Ex.

188.

portional to

Ex.

189.

The altitude to hypothenuse is a fourth it and the sides. To inscribe a sq. in a given A.

CHAPTER

IX.

EQUIVALENCE.
The theory
178.
of equivalence in the plane.

We take as basis for the investigations in the

I,

and II-IV. We exclude the Archimedes assumption. Our theory of proportion and sect-calculus put us in
present chapter the Assumptions
1-3,

position to fotind the Euclidean theory of equiva-

assumptions named, that is, in the plane and independent of the Archimedes assumption. If we join two points of a 179. Convention. polygon P by any sect-train which runs wholly in the interior of the polygon we obtain two new polygons, Pi and P2, whose inner points all lie in the
lence
of the

by means

interior of P.

We

say:

is

Pi and P2
alent
if

together

separated or cut into Pi and compose P.

P2',

polygons are called equivcan be cut into a finite number of triangles congruent in pairs. 181. Definition. Two potygons are said to be
180. Definition.

Two

thej^

equivalent by completion

if it is

possible so to

annex
81

82

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

equivalent polygons to
so
182.

them that the two polygons

composed are equivalent.

We will use the sign of equality ( = ) between polygons to denote "equivalent by completion." 183. From these definitions follows immediately: By imiting equivalent polygons we get again equivalent polygons. If we take away equivalent polygons from equivalent polygons the remaining polygons are equivalent by completion. Furthermore, we have the following propositions Two polygons Pj and P2 equiv184. Theorem. alent to a third P3 are equivalent. Two polygons equivalent by completion to a third
'

are equivalent
Proof.
for P2

by

completion.
is

By

hypothesis there

as well for P^ as

an assignable partition into triangles such that each of these two partitions corresponds respectively to a partition of the polygon P3 into
congruent triangles.

EQUiyALENCE.
general be cut into polygons
to the other partition.
cient
itself

83
sects

by

which pertain
suffi-

Now we

introduce a

number

of sects to cut each of these polygons

into triangles, and then make the two corresponding partitions into triangles in P, and in P^. Then these two polygons Pj and P^ are cut into the same number of triangles congruent in pairs, and

are therefore

Again,
definition

if

by our definition equivalent. Qi^Qs and Q.^Qs, then according

to

the composite Qi + Pi is equivalent to Q3 + P1, and Q2 + P2 is equivalent to Q3-I-P2. Therefore Qi

is

+ P^ + P^

is

equivalent to O3 + P1 + P2, which

equivalent to Q2 + P2 + Pi-

'

Qi^Qi-

Parallelograms and Triangles with equal bases and

altitudes.

Theorem. bases and equal

185.
pletion.

Two

parallclogmiiis

with

equal

altitudes

are

equivalent

by com-

Proof.

Annex

aDEH^aDEH.

Then

aBCH

= A BCH, and a BAE ^ a CDF.

To prove

these parallelograms equivalent would

require here the Archimedes assumption.

84
i86.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Theorem.

Any

triangle
to

ABC
certain

is

always
half

equivalent

parallelo-

gram with
altitude.

equal

base

and

in E,

Bisect AC in D and BC and then prolong DE to F, making EF=DE. The triangles DEC and FBE are then congruent, and consequently the a ABC and
Proof.

parallelogram
187.

ABED
185
r

are equivalent.
of 184

From

and 186 follows with help

triangles of equal bases

immediately Theorem.
188.

Two

and equal

altitudes are equivalent by completion.

That two

triangles with

equal bases and

always equivalent cannot possibly be proven without using the Archimedes assumpaltitudes are
tion.

remaining theorems of elementary geometry about the equivalence by completion of polygons, and also, in particular, the Pythagoras equivalence theorem: "The square on the hypothenuse of a right triangle is equivalent to the united squares on the other two sides," are easy consequences of the theorems just set up. 190. But, nevertheless, in further working out the theory of equivalence we encormter an essen189.
tial difficulty.

The

In particular our considerations hitherto leave undecided whether perhaps all polygons are not always equivalent by completion to one another. In this case all the previously established theo-

EQUIVALENCE.

85

rems would teach nothing and be without importance.

The proven theorems about equivalence by completion

are
entirely

rigorous;

nevertheless

we

recognize on closer investigation that they

the present have no content.

all for

do not yet know whether there are polygons at all which are not
equivalent
191.

We

And

by completion. not only must we know

this,

if

we

would undertake anything with our theorems, but also we need to consider the more specific question whether two rectangles equivalent by completion, having one common side, have also necessarily their other sides congruent, that is, whether a
rectangle
sides
is uniquely determined by one of its and its equivalence by completion. 192. As the closer consideration shows, we need

for answering the questions raised the inverse of

187,

which runs as follows: Theorem. // two triangles equivalent by completion

tlicy

have equal bases then

of the first

have also equal altitudes.

is

This fundamental theorem

the thirty-ninth
I,

book

of Euclid's

Elements (Eu.
'

39).

However, to prove it Euclid invokes the general The whole is greater theorem about magnitudes which procedure than its part," a amounts to the
: '

introduction of a
is,

the tacit assumption of a

193.

new geometric assumption, that new and independent

magnitude, the "surface" or "superficial content."

Now

for the question of superficial content,

we

can, on the basis of only our old assumptions, though into them the word "content" does not in

86

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

any way enter, prove that two polygons can be compared as to content. 194. Thus the congruence and equaHty of sects
is

ftindamental or primitive, rooted immediately

195.

in assumptions.

But the equality

of

is

a constructible idea with nothing

polygons as to content new about it

but a definition. 196. We proceed

now

to establish this theorem

(Eu. I, 39) and therewith the theory of content in the way we desire, that is, merely with help of

the plane assumptions without using the Archimedes assumption. 197. It need not surprise us that the proof is not wholly simple. For that two triangles are equivalent by completion according to definition only says
that
exist
;

certain

"corresponding"

triangle-partitions

may be very great and it is not immediately evident how through these we can conclude from equality of bases
in these the

number

of the triangles

the equality of the altitudes. We begin by introducing the idea of area.

The area
198. Definition.

of triangles

and polygons.

In any triangle
sides a,

ABC
we

with the
construct

b, c, if

the two altitudes

hb

ha^AD,
from

= BE, then

follows

the similarity of the triangles BCE and ACD,

(by
P"^- 79-

159)

the
that

proportion
is,

a:h=b :ha,

aK = bh.

EQUIV/tLENCE.

87

Consequently in every triangle the product of a base and its altitude is independent of what side Half the of the triangle one chooses as base. product of base and altitude of a triangle A is called the area of the triangle A and designated
,

by

.4(A).

199. Convention.

sect

which joins a vertex

is

of a triangle

with a point of the opposite side

this cuts the triangle into
altitude,

called a transversal;

two
lie

triangles with

common

whose bases
is

on the same

straight.

Such a partition
tJie

called a

transversal partition of

triangle.

200. Theorem.

// a triangle

is

in any

way

cut

by any straights into a certain finite number of triangles A tlictt is always the area of the triangle A
J.,

equal

to the

Proof.

sum of the areas of all the triangles A From the distributive law in otir sectj..

calculus
triangle

follows

immedi-

ately that the area of

is

any

equal

to the

sum
the

of the areas of

triangles
first

which

arise

two from

by any transversal
Thus, for example,

partition.

A{A,)+A{A,)=\bJi + \bJi=\h{b, + K} = \bh=A{A). The repeated application of this fact shows that
the area of any triangle is also equal to the sum of the areas of all the triangles which arise from the first, if we make suc"^'

'

cessively

however many trans-

versal partitions.

88

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

In order now to accomplish the corresponding demonstration for any partition of the triangle a into triangles A*, we draw from one vertex A of the triangle A through each dividing-point of the partition, that is, through each vertex of the triangles A a transversal by these transversals the triangle
ft,
;

is

cut into certain triangles A,.

Each

of these

triangles

is

cut

by

the dividing-sects of the given

partition into certain triangles

If in

and

quadrilaterals.

each quadrilateral
,

we draw

a diagonal then

each triangle A

is

cut into certain triangles a ts-

We
gles

will

now show
4,

that the partition into triana^ as also for

A,s,

as well for the triangles

is

the triangles A

a chain of transversal partitions.

Fig. 82.

In fact, first is clear, that every partition of a triangle into part-triangles can always be effected by a series of transversal partitions,
if,

in the partition,

no dividing-points lie in the interior of the triangle, and besides at least one side of the triangle remains free from dividing-points.
these conditions are evident for the triangles A from the circumstance that for each of them
,

Now

EQUIVALENCB.

89

the interior and one side, that opposite the point

A, are free from dividing-points.

the partition into A^^ reducible to transversal partitions. In fact, if we consider a triangle A;t, then there is, among the transversals from A in the triangle A a certain transversal which either cuts the triangle A into
is
j.

But

also for every

a^

two triangles, or else upon which a side of A falls. For we recall that within no a ^ are there dividingj.

points.

By construction, through every vertex of a goes a transversal from A and there is always one vertex of A i for which this transversal has a second point it therefore either not in the region exterior to a interior A of or upon it is a side goes through the
j;
;

jt ;

j,

of Afc.

In this latter case this side of the triangle Aj remains altogether free from further dividing-points In the other in the partition into triangles a,j. within the triangle case the sect of that transversal A is for both the triangles thus arising a side which in the partition into triangles A tr remains surely free
fc

from further dividing-points.

From

the considerations at the beginning of this

A{a) of the triangle a sum of all areas A (a,) of the triangles A and this sum is equal to the sum of all areas A(a,j). On the other hand is also the sum of the areas A a j) of all triangles a equal to the sum of Hence, finally, the area A(a) is all areas -4(a,j). So the also equal to the sum of all areas ,4 (a.).
demonstration the area
equals the
(
^,

theorem

is

completely proven.

90

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
201. Definition.
If

we

define the area

A{P)

of

a polygon as the sum of the areas of all triangles into which it is cut in a certain partition, then the area of a polygon is independent of the way it is
cut into triangles, and consequently determined uniquely simply by the polygon itself.
Proof.

tain partition,

Suppose a ^ to be the triangles of a cerand A u those of any other partition.

Considering these two partitions simultaneously, in general is every triangle a^ cut into polygons by Now we introduce sects sects pertaining to Aj.
sufficient to cut these

polygons themselves into

tri-

angles

a j.

Then the triangles A c have (by

200) for

the

sum

of their areas the

sum

of the areas of Aj.

But
the

so also

have the triangles a k-

[This fact, that the

sum named

is

independent of

is the kernel, the essence of this whole investigation.] Equivalent polygons have 202. Corollary to 201.

way

of cutting

up the polygon,

equal area.
203. Moreover,
if

P and Q are two polygons equiv,

there must be, from the two equivalent polygons P' and Q' such that the polygon compounded of P and P' is equiv-alent to the polygon compounded of Q and Q'. From the two equations
alent
definition,

by completion, then

A{P+P')^A{Q+Q'), A{P')=A{Q'), we deduce at once A (P) = A (Q) that is, polygons

,

equivalent by completion have equal area.

204.

From

this latter fact

we

get immediately
I,

the proof of the theorem of 189 (Eu.

39).

For,

EQUIVALENCE.

91

designating the equal bases of the two triangles

by

the corresponding altitudes by Ji and li', we conclude then from the assumed equivalence by completion of the two triangles that they must
b,

also

have equal area; that

consequently,
after

is,

it

follows ^b]i=^bh',

and,

division

by

^b,

h=h';

which was to be proved.

Area and Equivalence-by-completion.
20$. In what precedes we have found that polygons equivalent-by-completion have always equal

The inverse is also true. 206. To prove the inverse, we consider first t^^'o triangles ABC and AB'C with a common The areas of these two triangles right angle at .li. are expresesd by the formulas
area.

AiABC)=]AB-AC,
A(AB'C'=IAB'-AC'. we assume that these two areas are equal, we
If

have

AB-AC=AB'AC',
or

AB:AB'=AC':AC,
this
it

FlG.

83.

and from
straights

follows

(by 161)
parallel,

that the two

BC

and B'C are

and then we

recognize (from 187) that the two triangles BC'B' and BC'C are equivalent-by-completion. By an-

nexing the triangle

triangles
pletion.

ABC
AB'C
ha^e

it

follows that the

two

ABC

and

are equivalent-by-com-

Thus we

proved that two

right-

92

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

angled triangles with equal area are also always

equivalent-by-completion
207.

Take now any

triangle,

with base b and

then this is (by 187) equivalent-bycompletion to a right-angled triangle with the two perpendicular sides b and h; and since the original
altitude h,
triangle evidently has the

same area

as the right-

angled triangle, so

it

follows that in the preced-

ing article the limitation to right-angled triangles

was not necessary.

any two
208.

Thus we have shown that

triangles with equal area are also always

equivalent-by-completion.

Now
b^,
.

let

Let

be cut into
.

be any polygon with area b. n triangles with the respective

then
is

areas 6

.bn',

6=6i-|-&2 +

+ ^n.

with the base AB =b and the altitude h = i and mark on the base the points A.^, A^, An, such that b^=AAi, bz^A^A^, Smcc bn-iAn-i,An-u bn=An-iB.
Construct a triangle
.
. .

now

ABC

61 Aj 62

Ajbs A3

A_, 6 B

Fig. 84.

the triangles within the polygon P have respectively the same area as the triangles AA^C, A^AjO,
. .

An-iAn-iC, An-JBC, SO they are, by what has just been proven, equivalent-by-completion to these.

EQUiyALENCE.

93

Consequently the polygon P is equivalent-bycompletion to a triangle with the base b and the altitude h = i. Hence follows, with help of theorem 207, that two polygons of equal area are always equivalentby-completion. 209. We may combine the two results found in this article 208 and in 203 into the following theorem: Two polygons equivalent-by-completion have always the same area ; and inversely, two polygons with equal area are always equivalent-bycompletion.
210. In particular two rectangles equivalent-bycompletion which have one side in common must

also

have their other

follows

sides congruent.

we cut a rectangle by straights into several triangles and leave out even one of these triangles, then we cannot with the
211. Also

the

theorem:

If

remaining triangles fill out the rectangle. In what precedes is shown that this theorem is completely independent of the Archimedes assumpMoreover, without the application of the tion. Archimedes assumption, this theorem 211 does not sufifice of itself for demonstrating Eu. I, 39.
212. Definition.
call

Of two polygons
(respectively,

and

Q,

we
of

of lesser content

of equal,

greater content)
is less

than Q, according as the area A{P) (equal, greater) than A{Q).

213.

From what

precedes

it

is

clear that the

concepts of equal content, of lesser content, of

greater content are mutually exclusive.
214. Further,

we

see that a

polygon which

lies

94

RATION/IL GEOMETRY.

wholly within another polygon must always be of lesser content than this latter. 215. Herewith we have established the essential theorems of the theory of superficial content, wholly upon considerations of the congruence of sects and angles, and without assuming superficial content to be a magnitude. 216. Theorem. The area of any parallelogram is
the product of the base by the altitude.

217. Corollary to 216.

The area

of

any

rect-

angle or square
sides.

is

the product of two consecutive

is

218.

square whose side

tinit sect,

the unit sect has for

area this
since

1X1=1.
has for area as

Any polygon
unit sect.
will thus

many

sects as the polygon contains such squares

such unit on the

The number expressing the area be the same in terms of our

of a polygon
\m.it sect

or in

terms of a square on this sect considered as a new kind of tmit, a unit surface, or unit of content. Such units, though traditional, are unnecessary and sometimes exceedingly awkward, as, for example, the acre.

number expressing the area of a by the number expressing the base, the quotient is the number expressing the altitude. Ex. 191. One side of a triangle is 35-74, and the altiEx. 190.
If

twice the

triangle be divided

tude on
219.

it is

6-3.

Find the area.

If two triangles (or parallelograms)

Theorem.

EQUIl^ALcNCE.

95
to
to

have one angle of tlie one congruent other, their areas are proportional

one angle of

the

the products of

their sides about the congruent angles.

Let then

^C=^C',
lAC-BD
hA'C'-B'D'
B'C'D',

Area a ABC Area aA'B'C

in
s

AC-BD
A'C'-B'D'-

But

BCD and

-^-^.

Area a ABC Area A A'B'C

2 20.

AC-BC
A'C'-E'C'
of similar tri-

Corollary to 219.

The areas

angles are proportional to the squares of correspond-

ing sides.
221. Problem.

To construct a
sides.

rectangle, given

two consecutive
Construction.
ular to
it.

Take a

straight

and a perpendic-

From

the ^'ertex of

the right angle take one given sect on the straight, the other

on the perpendicular.
their

second

end-points

Through draw

Fig. S6.

perpendiculars.

These (by 77) meet.

is

They

inter-

sect in the foui'th vertex of the rectangle required.

Proof.

By

construction the figure

right angle;
.".

a parallelo-

gram with one

a rectangle.

96

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
22 2. Corollary to 221.

So we

may

construct a

square on any given

sect.

The square on the hypothenuse of 223. Theorem. any right-angled triangle is equivalent to the sum of the
.squares on the other two sides.

Hypothesis.

/^

ABC,

r't-

angled at C.
Conclusion.
is

Square on

equivalent to sq. on

AB AC

+ sq. on BC. Proof. On

Fig. 87.
~

hypothenuse
its vertices

AB, on

side opposite C, con-

struct (by 222) the sq.

ABDF. From
.-.
||

D,

drop

DH, FGLCA, and

.".
||

BC.

Drop BK,

FLlDH, and

^ABC^^.DBK ^ABK). Also ^BDK=7fDFL (complements of Also ^DFL = ^AFG (complements of :!fLDF). (by 44), aABC = (complements of ^AFL). BCHK is sq. on BC, aDBK= aFDL= a fag. sq. on AB = AFLKB + and FGHL = sq. on AC. = 2 A ABC sq. on BC + sq. on AC.
AC.

Then

.-.

.-.

224. Problem. on a given sect.

To construct an

equilateral triangle

Construction.

On

the

st.

AB

from

take the

given sect AB.

At B

erect to

AB

a perpendicular. On this perpendicular, from B take BC, the given

sect.

straight

Join AC. At C erect to the AC the perpendicular CD.

On CD from C
sect.

take CD, the given

Bisect

Join

AD.

and

AB

at F.

Erect

AD at E, at F to AB

EQUiy/ILENCE.
the

97

ABG
AB\

perpendicular FG. From F take is the required equilateral triangle.

AG''

FG=AE.

_J'roof.
225.
side

= .'\F'' + FG'' = {\ABy + {\7,{ABy =

the square of

opposite

Theorem. In any triangle, any acute angle is

the snin of the

less tlian

squares

/T^.
"/
\h
I

of the other

two

sides

by twiee

^\^
^
^

the product of either of those sides

L C

^\
A

and a

sect

from

the foot of that

side's altitude to the vertex of the

acute angle.

Proof.

Let
,4

a, b, c

denote the

sides,
its

and

/;

denote

b's altitude,

and

the sect from

foot to the

acute angle
a^ -ir-

= {b -jy =b^ -2bi + j' =b^- 2bj + a^ = b^-2b]' + c\

.-.

c''

-/j^

226. Theorem. In an obtuse-angled triangle the square of the side opposite the obtuse angle is greater than the sum of the squares of the other

two

sides

by twice the product

tlie

of either of those

sides and a sect from

foot of that side's altitude

to the vertex of the obtuse angle.

Ex. 192. Find the area of an isosceles triangle whose is 60 and each of the equal sides 50. Ex. 193. If two triangles (or parallelograms) have an angle of one supplemental to an angle of the other, their
base
areas are as the products of the sides including the supple-

mentary

angles.

Ex. 194. To
Multiply the
their

find

the

area

of

trapezoid.

Rule:

sum of the parallel sides (its common perpendicular (its altitude).

bases)
'

by

half

98

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
Ex. 195. The area of a trapezoid equals the product of

its altitude

by

its

median

(the sect joining the bisection-

points of the non-parallel sides)

227.

To

find the altitudes of

a triangle in terms
is

of

its sides.

Either -^A or ^ C
h c^
b
.

acute.

Suppose 4 c acute,

= a'' + b^-2bj
.'.

(by 305).

Fig. go.

a^ + b^-c
2b

h^=a^-f=a^
{2ab

^p

^p

+ a' + b^ -c')(2ab --a^ -b^ + c^)

[(a

+ by-c'][c'-{a-by]

(a

+ b + c)(a + b-c)(c + a-b)(c-a + b)

4b'
(a

Put

+ b + c)
.

=2S.
2

Then a + bc = 2S 2C.
{s-c)(s -b){s-a)

^*

= 45
To

b^

228.

(Heron.)
its sides.

find the area of a

triangle in

terms of

a'

= (^bhy=[sis -a){s -b)(s -<:)].

.-. .-. .-.

Ex.196. Iia'=b'+c\

Iia^>b'+c\
Iia'<b'+c',

i^A^T't ^. :^^>r't :if. TfAKr't ^.

Ex. 197. Given for the three sides of a triangle numerical expressions in terms of a unit, compute the three
altitudes.

EQUiyALENCE.

99

Ex. 198. The sum of the squares of two sides of a triangle is equal to twice the square of half the third side increased by twice the square of the median upon that side. [a^ +c^ i6' =2W6^]. Ex. 199. The difference of the squares of two sides of a triangle is equal to twice the product of the third side by the sect from the foot of that side's altitude to the
foot of its median.

a^ ~c'^~\

Ex. 200. Given numerical expressions for the sides of a triangle, compute the medians.

CHAPTER
THE
229. Definition.
If

X.

CIRCLE.
is

any point

in a plane a,

then the aggregate of all points A in a, for which the sects CA are congruent to one another, is called
a
circle.

[qC{CA).'\
called the center of the circle,

is

and

CA

the

radius.
230.
circle

Theorem.

and

in its

ray from the center of a plane a cuts the circle in one, and

Any

only one, point.

231.

Theorem.

Any

straight through its center

circle in two,

and

in its plane

a cuts the

and only
its

two, points, and these are on opposite sides of

center.

this straight

each of the two rays determined in center there is (by III i) one, and only one, sect congruent to the radius of the
Proof.

On

by the

circle.

232. Definition.

sect

whose end-points are on

the circle

is

called a chord.

233. Definition.
is

Any

chord through the center

called a diameter.
234.

Theorem.

Every diameter is bisected by the

xoo

center of the circle.

THE CIRCLE.
235.

loi

Theorem.
If it

No

circle

can have more than one

center.

had two, the diameter through them would have two bisection-points, which (by 82) is
Proof.

impossible.
236. Theorem. The straight through the bisectionpoint of a chord, and the center of the circle, is perpendicular to the chord.

Proof.
3

^ACO = aBCO,
=
are

[As with

sides

=];

.-.

:^ACO =

^BCO.
.".

But they are adjacent;

by
is

definition

C0

to

237. Corollary to 236.

cle
Fig, 91.

AB. The

cir-

symmetrical with regard to any one of its diameters as

axis.

238. Corollary to 236.

If

with

the end-points of a sect each of the

two points gives congruent sects two determine its perpen239. Corollary to 238.
If two have two points in comis

dicular bisector.

circles

mon

their center-straight

the

Fig. 92.

perpendicular bisector of their

240.

common

chord.

Theorem.
a chord

chord contains the

the center to

The perpendicular bisecting any center. The perpendicular from

bisects
it.

Proof.

By

236 the three properties pertain to

one straight.
straight.

But any two

suffice to

determine that

241. Corollary to 240.

Every point which taken

102

R/tTlONAL GEOMETRY.
is

with two points gives congruent sects

pendictdar bisector of their sect.
242.

on the per-

Theorem,
a
sect
sects.

Every point on
taken with
its

the perpendicular

bisector of

end-points gives con-

gruent

A straight cannot have more than 243. Theorem. two points in common with a circle. Proof. If it had a third, then, since (by 237) the perpendicular bisecting any chord contains the center, there would be two perpendiculars from the center to the same straight, which (by 47) is impossible.
244.

Theorem.

Chords which mutually bisect are

bisector of each con-

diameters.
Proof.

The perpendicular

tains the center.

245.

Theorem.

Circles with three points in com-

mon

are identical.

Proof.

The center

is

on the perpendicular

bi-

sectors of the chords.

Theorem. termine a circle.

246.

Any

three points not costraight de-

Proof.

By

107.

247. Corollary to

246 and 243.

same

circle are called concyclic]

[Points on the Every three points

are costraight or concyclic.

costraight

No

three points are

and

concyclic.

248. Definition.

The

circle

through the vertices

of a triangle

is

called its circumcircle,

is

O0(R), and

the center
radius.

of the circumcircle
triangle;
its

called the circum-

center of the

radius,

R, the circum-

THE CIRCLE
249.

03

Theorem.

The

bisectors of adjacent angles

make

a right angle.
'wi

Oo

Fig. 93.

Extend one of the bisectors, as I, through the vertex 0. Then y^ Q', h) = ^ {I, h') [vertical ^s are ^]. .'. (by III s)i-{l',h) ^^-{1, k). But .". by hypothesis, -t^Qi, m) = ^{k, m). (by 49) .'. = m) ^(l', m). by definition (Z, ^ ^ (/, m) is
Proof.
right.

Ex. 201.
conditions
1.

If
it

a straight satisfy any two of the following

also satisfies the others:

2.

3.

4.

Passing through the center. Perpendicular to the chord. Bisecting the chord. Bisecting the angle at the center.
circle contains

Ex. 202. Every axis of symmetry for a

the center.

Ex. 203. Where are the bisection-points of a

parallel chords?

set

of

Ex. 204. Where are the bisection-points of a

equal chords?

set

of

Ex. 205.

If

from any point three

is

sects

drawn to a

circle

are congruent, that point

the center.

104

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
on a an and said to be upon the chord beis

250. Definition.
circle of

An

angle whose vertex

which

its sides

contain chords

is

called

inscribed angle,

tween
251.

its sides.

Theorem.
I St.

Inscribed angles

upon

the

same

chord

and the same

If

side of it are congruent.

Proof.

the chord

straight through the vertex

BC be A of

a diameter the

any inscribed angle and the cenmakes two isosceles triter

angles.
.'.

bisecting

^BOF we
In
.-.

get

WOF = ^BAO.
is right.

same
(by (by
FiG. 94.

way ^HOF^^CAO. 49) tBAC = WOH, which

130)
2d. If the vertex

be on the same

straight

then

BC sect OA

side of the the center 0, (by 21) cannot cut

as

BC, and (by is between

point
straight

III i) the center

A' of the

and the other circle on the

AO. If now ray OA be costraight with a side of Fig. 95. ifBOC, then aAOC being isosceles, the bisector OF of ^ BOC makes ^F0C = 4-BAC. Again if ray OA' is within ^BOC, then the bisectors OF
and

OH make ^A'OF^^OAB
iA'OH^^OAC. ^BAC ^iFOH.

and
.-.(by 49)
Fig. 96.

THE CIRCLE.
If,

105

however, ray OA'

is

without '^BOC, then the

bisector

OD of A'OB makes ^A'0D=40AB, and the bisector OE of ^A'OC makes ^A'OE^ i^OAC. (by 49) ^BAC=i.DOE.
.-.

*c

Fig. 97.

3d. If the

vertex

and the center

opposite sides of the straight BC.

be on Let A' be the

other point of the circle on the straight

AO.

Then
toist,

the six angles of the two triangles

gether form
four right angles.

ABC, A'BC

But by case

the two angles at

form a right angle, likewise

is

the two at B.
252.

:.

i-BAC

the

supplement of '4-BA'C.
Corollary to 251.
inscribed angle
is right.

The upon a diameter

polygon whose sides are congruent and whose angles are congruent is called regular. A polygon whose vertices are 254. Definition.
253.

Definition.

concyclic
255.

is

called cyclic.

CoroUaiy to 251.

In a cyclic quadrilateral

the opposite angles are supplemental. 256. Theorem. // a straight have one point in conunon -with a circle and be not perpendicular to the
radius
to that

point,

it

has also a second point in com-

mon

with the

circle.

io6

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
in com-

Let the straight a have with the OC[CP] and be not _L to CP. From C drop 1. to a. From on o set off MP'

mon

CM

= MP.
:.CP' = CP. 0C[CP].
257.

.-.P'ison
FlG. 99.

Definition
in

straight

which
is

has

two
a

points
secant.

common with

circle

called

258.
eter at

Theorem. A straight perpendicular to a diaman end-point has only this end-point in common
circle.

with the
Proof.

Any chord is (by 240) bisected perpendicular from the center.

259. Definition.

by the

straight

which has only one

is

point in

common with

a circle
is

called a tangent to

the

circle,

and the point

called the

point of

contact.

260.

Theorem.

If two triangles have a side in com-

mon and
congruent,
the

the

angles opposite
vertices

it

and with
it,

on

same

side of

the four ver-

tices are concyclic.

Proof. If the circle through A, B, C did not contain D, then (by 138) it would have a second
Fig. 100.

point
or

in

common

with

the

straight

AD

CD, or

else

we would have OCCD

and 251) contradict the

and 0A1.AD.
hypothesis

All (by 79

^B = :^D.

THE CIRCLE.
261.

io7

Theorem

If tivo opposite angles of a quadit

rilateral are

supplemental

is eyelic.

Given the i-CDA is supplement of ^ B. On the circle determined by A, B, C take a point D' on the same side of AC as D. Then ^D'^^D, being each the supplement of
Proof.
tlie -4-B.
.'.

with

ACD',

(by 145) D that

is

concyclic
is,

with

ABC.
262. Corollary to 261.
if

quadrilateral

is

cyclic

an angle
opposite.

is

congruent to the angle adjacent to

its

Ex. 206. Defining a tanchord angle as one between a tangent to a circle and a chord from the point of contact, prove it congruent to an inscribed angle on this chord. Ex. 207. An angle made bj' two chords is how related to the angles at the center on chords joining the endpoints of the given chords? Ex. 208. The vertices of all right-angled triangles on the same h}-pothenuse are concyclic. Ex. 209. Tangents to a circle from the same external point are congruent, and make congruent angles with the straight through that point and the center. Ex. 210. Two congruent coinitial chords are sj^mmetric with respect to the coinitial diameter. Ex. 211. If triangles on the same base and on the same side of it have the angles opposite it equal, the bisectors
of these angles are copunctal.

Ex. 212. The end-points of two congruent chords of a a sjTumetrical trapezoid. Ex. 213. The chord which joins the points of contact of parallel tangents to a circle is a diameter.
circle are the vertices of

io8

Ry4TIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 214. A parallelogram inscribed in a circle must have diameters for diagonals. Ex. 215. Of the vertices of a triangle and its orthocenter, each is the orthocenter of the other three. Ex. 216. At every point on the circle can be taken one, and only one, tangent, namely, the perpendicular to the radius at the point. Ex. 217. The perpendicular to a tangent from the center of the circle cuts it in the point of contact. Ex. 218. The perpendicular to a tangent at the point of contact contains the center. Ex. 219. The radius to the point of contact is perpendicular to the tangent. Ex. 220. An inscribed ||g'm is a rectangle. Ex. 221. The bisector of any if of an inscribed quad' intersects the bisector of the opposite exterior ^ on the O
Ex. 222. The O with one of the = sides of a a as diameter bisects the base. Ex. 223. The radius is = to the side of a regular inscribed hexagon. Ex. 224. If the opposite sides of an inscribed quad' be produced to meet, the bisectors of the ^s so formed are X. Ex. 225. The circles on 2 sides of a A as diameters in!

tersect

on the third

side (in the foot of its altitude).

if

Ex. 226. The altitudes of a a are the

bisectors of its

pedal A (the feet of the altitudes). any chord; Ex. 227. a diameter;

AB

AC

CD

tangent;

BDiCD,

meets AC on eB(BA). Ex. 228. Find a point from which the three rays to three

given points

make = ^ s.
,

Ex. 229. The circumGs of 3 as made by 3 points on the sides of a A 2 with their vertex, are copunctal.

THE
263. Problem.

CIRCLE.

109

To

join two points by

an arc con-

taining a given angle.

he the two points, a the given angle. BAC supplemental to a. Erect the perpendicular to AC at A, and to AB at the bisection-point. Their point of in-

Let A,

Make an

angle

tersection

is

the center

of

the
Fig. 102.

required
Proof.

circle.

^AFB = a.
supplements

Their

^AOD = i.BAC
264. Problem.

(complements

of

^OAD).

To

describe a circle touching three

Jiot

given intersecting but

copunctal straights.

Construction.
points of

At the intersection draw

the angle-bisectors.

From

the cross of any two of

these bisectors, the perpendicular

upon
circle

either of the
is

three straights
of
Fig. 103.

the radius
all

touching

three.

265. Definition.

The

cointersection-point of the
/,

three bisectors of the internal angles of a triangle,

is

called the triangle's in-ccnicr

[r,

the in-radins];

/(/-)

the

ill-circle.

touching one side of a triangle and the other two sides produced is called an escribed circle, or cv-O. The three centers I^,
266. Definition.
circle

L,

I3 of

the escribed circles 0/,(rj), Ol^ir^), Olsira)

of a triangle are called its cx-ccntcrs.

110

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 230. Construct a circle containing two given points with center on a given straight.
center on given

Ex. 231. Describe O through two given points with with given radius. st'
;

which shall pass through a Ex. 232. To describe a given point and touch a given st' at a given point.

Ex. 233. AB,

II

AC, BD, CE,

\\

are

chords.

BD

||

AC,

CE AB. Then AF DE
side of a r't

is

a tangent.

Ex. 234. To describe a O whose center shall be in one A while the O goes through the vertex of the r't ^ and touches the hypothenuse. Ex. 235. To describe a O of given radius with center in one side of a given ^ and tangent to the other side.

Ex. 236. The -L. from the circumcenter to a side is half the sect from the opposite vertex to the orthocenter. Ex. 237. The centroid is the trisection point of the sect from orthocenter to circumcenter remote from the orthocenter.

267. Definition.

If

AB

is

a diameter of a circle

with center C, then the two points of the circle on any other diameter, being on opposite sides of C, are (by 25) on opposite sides of the straight AB. Hence the points of the circle other than the points A, B, are separated by AB into two One of these classes of points uniquely paired. classes together with the point A is called a semicircle. The other, with B, is the associated semicircle; A and B are called end- points of each
semicircle.

268. Definition,
circle

li A, D are two points on the with center C, then, since (by 142) the end of

THE CIRCLE.
the perpendicular from

m
AD
falls
all

to the straight

within a radius, therefore the

points of the circle are not

on the same side

of the secant of the

AD.
circle
,

Hence the points

other than the points

A D are separated by AD into

two
Fig. 104.

classes of points.

One

of

these classes, the point A,

is

together with
other,

called

an

arc.

The

with the

point D,
.4

is

called the associated or explcmental arc.

and D are called end-points of each arc. Of these two arcs the arc on the side of AD remote from the center is called the iiiiiior arc. The arc on the same side of AD as the center is called the juajor arc. The chord AD is said to be the chord of each of the two arcs. Thus to every arc pertains a chord, and to every chord pertain two
arcs.

Fig. 105.

269. Definition.

Two

arcs

AB, A'B',

are called

congruent when, the end-points being mated, to every point C of the first arc corresponds one, and of the second, such that AC=A'C' onh^ one, point

and BC^B'C.

112

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

270. Corollary to 269.

Congruent arcs have conangle having

called
its

gruent chords.
271. Definition.

An

vertex at

an angle at the center, and is said to intercept the arc and chord, whose end- points are on the angle's sides and whose other
the center of the circle
is

points are within the angle.

272.

Theorem.

In a

circle or

in circles with con-

gruent radii, congruent angles at the center intercept

congruent arcs.

Given iACB^iA'C'B'. To prove the minor arc >15 = minor arc A'B'. Since (by 43) aACB= aA'C'B'; ..AB = Proof.
A'B'.
is any point within arc AB then Moreover, if ^ACB. Hence (by 48) there is within is CD ray within ^ A'C'B' a ray CD' meeting arc A'B' in D',

which makes i-A'C'D'=^ACD and ^B'C'D' = tBCD. :. (by 43) A'D'^AD and B'D'^BD. Also any point D" of the minor arc A'B' such that A'D" = AD would (by 58) be on the ray making ^A'C'D"= ^ACD= 4A'C'D', and hence identical with D'.

THE
273. Corollary. 274.

CIRCLE.

"3
con-

Theorem.

Any arc may be bisected. Any two congruent arcs have

gruent radii.

Given arc .4il/5 = arc A'M'B'.

To prove CA = C'A'.

Fig. 107.

Proof.

The
il/

bisector of 4

ACB

cuts arc

AMB

in

a point
.-.

such that, (by 43)

a point
il/'

d.ACM=ABCM.
From hypoth-

AM=BM and ^ BMC= i AMC.

there
is

esis

aA'M'B'=aAMB.
.-.

A'M'B' such that .-.A'M'^B'M'.

of arc

(by 58)

aA'M'C'^^B'M'C.

:. :.
.
.

^A'AL'C'^iB'M'C.
(by 48 and 84) i.A'M'C'= i-AMC. (by 44) the two isosceles triangles
.

aAMC =

aA'M'C.
intercepted
Proof.

AC = A'C'.
Congruent minor arcs are
angles at the center.

275. Inverse of 273

by congruent

Since from hypothesis chord

AB = c\iord

A'B',
.-.

.-.

(by 274 and 58)

aACB=

aA'C'B'.

i-ACB^^A'C'B'.
Theorem. In a
circle or in circles ivitJi con-

276.

griicni radii, congruent chords

have congriioit minor

arcs.

114

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

For the angles at the center on the congruent chords are congruent (by 58) [As with 3 sides =]. .'. (by 272) the minor arcs they intercept are congruent.

Given a minor arc and a circle of There are on the circle two and congruent radius. only two arcs with a given end-point, congruent to the
277.

Theorem.

given arc.
Proof.

An

angle at the center which intercepts

the given arc can be set off (by III 4) once and only once on each side of the radius to the given
point.

Theorem. From any point of a circle there more than two congruent chords, and the chords are congruent in pairs, one on each side of the diameter from that point.
278.

are not

Proof.

If

AB

is

any chord,

take at center C on the other side of AC, the ^ACB'=4ACB;

:.

by 43, i^ACB'= aACB. :.AB' = AB.

Moreover, were

B"

the end-

point of a third chord from

congruent to AB and to AB' then B, B' B" would be at once on (DC{CA) and
,

p^^

^^g

OA{AB), which, by
279. Definition.

122, is impossible.

If all

the points of one arc are

points of a second, but the second has also points

not on the first, then the second is said to be greater than the first and any arc congruent to the second is said to be greater than any arc congruent to the
first.

THE
280.

CIRCLE.
circle or

iiS

Theorem.

In a

in circles with con-

gritcnt radii, of two angles at the center, the greater &

intercepts tJw greater arc

and

chord.

Hypothesis.
Conclusion.

CA=C'A'. iACD> Arc AD > arc A' B'.

i-A'C'B'.

Fig. 109.

Proof.

From C

against

CA

take i.ACB^:ifA'C'B'. ray CB is within ^ ACD. : B is within arc AD.

.

toward D, (by III 4) Then from hjrpothesis

:.

(by 192)

arc

^Z?>arc AB.
.'.

But (by
arc

185)

arc A'B' = axc AB.

(by

192)

AD> arc

A'B'.

CD

Moreover hA'C'B' has two sides CA', C'B'^CA, of A ACD, but -^-ACDy ^A'C'B', :. (by 179)
Inverse of 280.

ADyA'B'.
In a circle or in circles with congruent radii the greater chord has the greater angle at the center and the greater minor
281.
arc.

For (by ter, and .".

140) it has the greater angle at the cen,

by

193, the greater

minor

arc.

282. Inverse of 280.

with congruent

radii,

In a circle or in circles the greater minor arc has

"6

RATION/IL GEOMETRY.

the greater angle at the center and the greater

chord.
283.

Theorem.
radii,

gruent

In a circle or in circles with concongruent chords have congruent perpen-

diculars from the center,

greater perpendicular.

and

the lesser chord

has the
side of

Proof.

Of two chords from

on the same
(by III
4)

the diameter AC, one, say

the

angle

AD, is CAB made by the

without

and hence its end-point Z?ison the minor arc A5. Hence (by 282) ^ACB> 4.ACD and
other,

AB>AD.
Moreover, the sect from the
center to the bisection-point of

AD,
of

since

AD is
C

D and so every point on the opposite side of

AB
and
.'.

AB

from C, crosses

the straight

is

>

the perpendicular

from

to

AB.

Moreover, congruent chords anywhere have congruent perpendiculars (by 138). In a circle or in circles with 284. Inverse of 283. congruent radii, chords having congruent perpendiculars from the center are congruent, and the

chord with the greater perpendicular is the lesser. For (by 283) it cannot be greater nor congruent.

Two
285.

Circles.

A figure formed by two circles is symmetrical

axis.

with regard to their center-straight as

IHE CIRCLE.

117

Every chord perpendicular to

this axis

is

bisected

by

it.

If the circles have a common point on this straight they cannot have any other point in common, for any point in each has in that its symmetrical point with regard to this axis, and circles with three points

in

common are identical. Two circles with one and only one point in common are called tangent, are said to touch, and the common point is called the point of tangency
286.

or contact.
287. If

two

circles touch, then, since there is

only

one

common

point, this point of contact

is

on the

center-straight,

and a perpendicular to the centeris

straight through the point of contact

common

tangent to the two

circles.

Ex. 238. Two circles cannot mutually bisect. Ex. 239. The chord of half a minor arc is greater than half the chord of the arc. Ex. 240. In a circle, two chords which are not both diameters do not mutually bisect each other. Ex. 241. All points in a chord are within the circle. Ex. 242. Through a given point within a circle draw the
smallest chord.

Ex. 243. Rays from center to intersection points

tangent with
||

Ex.
passes

Ex. Ex. Ex.

of a tangents are . 244. A circle on one side of a triangle as diameter through the feet of two of its altitudes. j^ABCiiD on ^S =BC, prove CD>AD. 245. In circumscribed parallelogram is a rhombus. 246. 247. In aABC, having AB>BC, the median
I-

BD

makes ifBDA
Ex. 248.
to D, then
If

obtuse.

AB,

a side of

a reg^ar A, be produced

AD>CD> BC.
If SZ? is bisector
fe,

Ex. 249.

and A5>SC", then

SO

CZ?.

ii8

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 250.

How must
of

a straight

common points

two intersecting

that the two circles

may

through one of the be drawn in order intercept congruent chords on it ?

circles

Ex. 251. Through one of the points of intersection of two circles draw the straight on which the two circles
intercept the greatest sect.

Ex. 252. If any two straights be drawn through the point of contact of two circles, the chords joining their second intersections with each circle will be on parallels. Ex. 253. To describe a which shall pass through a given point, and touch a given in another given
point.

Ex.
point.

254.

To

describe a

which

0, and touch a given

st' [or

shall touch a given another given ] at a given

Ex.

255.

The

foot of

an altitude

bisects a sect

from

orthocenter to circum-. Ex. 256. If from the end-points of any diameter of a given Xs be drawn to any secant, their feet give with the center = sects. Ex. 257. A, B, I, Ic axe concylic.

Ex. 258. If tb meets circum- in D, then DA ^DC =DI. Ex. 259. The Xs at the extremities of any chord make = sects on any diameter. Ex. 260. If in any 2 given tangent s be taken any 2 diameters, an extremity of each diameter, and the point of contact shall be costraight. Ex. 261. If 2 s touch internally, on any chord of one tangent to the other the point of contact makes sects which subtend = :^s at the point of tangency of the s. Ex. 262. 2ma> = <a according as if A acute, r't,
II

obtuse.

Ex. 263. Chords joining the end-points of

are =.

||

chords

through point of tangency meets O at A, Prove AO A'O'. with regard to their Ex. 265. Intersecting s are with regard to their common center-st' and if = are

Ex. 264.

St'

QO'

at A'.

\\

-I-

chord.

THE CIRCLE.
Ex. Ex.
266. 267.

1I9

Find the bi' of an ^ without using its vertex. and the others = is quad' with 2 sides either a ||g'm or a symtra.

||

The Sum
288. Definition.
If

of Arcs.

a and b are two arcs with

equal radii, their sum, a + b, is the arc obtained by taking together as one arc the arc a and an arc congruent to b having as one of its end-points an
end-point of a and
289. Theorem.
its points'

taken as outside of
a'

a.

In the same circle or in circles

with equal

radii, if

minor arc a = minor arc

B'

and

Fig. III.

minor arc
(a'

&

= minor

arc

b',

then arc

(a

+ b)=aTC

+ b').

Let minor arc AB=a and minor arc BD=b, minor arc A'B'=a' and minor arc B'D'^b'. To prove arc ABD=a.TC A'B'D'.
Proof.

cluded

aCBF^aC'B'F' (two :. ^CBF=iC'B'F'. :f)

iC'B'H'.
:.

sides

and

in-

In same

way

(by 49) ^H'B'F'. .'. (two =ch.oTd sides and included ^) chord .'. (by 189) minor arc .4Z) = minor arc A'D' A'D'. and if a -1-6 is minor, so (by inverse of 133) is a' + b'. But if a + b be not a minor arc, then if P be any
point on the semicircle or major arc a -1-6, take ^D'C'P'^^DCP with P' on the same side of

^CBH=

^HBF^ AD

120

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
with reference to A' as

D'C

of

DC with reference
^DPA^^D'P'A'

to A.

Thus D'P'=DP,

also

Fig. 112.

and iDAP= ifD'A'P', since same side of DP and D'P'.

290. Definition.
If

A
:
.

and A' axe on the

aAPD= aA'P'D'.
is

an angle at the center

is

right the arc

it

intercepts

called a quadrant.

291. Corollary to 217.

with equal radii the sum congruent to the sum of any other two, and
semicircles are congruent.

In a circle or in circles of any two quadrants is

all

circle is

the

sum

of

two semicircles or four

of

quadrants.

Congruent major arcs are the sums

con-

gruent semicircles and congruent minor arcs. We may look upon a semi292. Convention. circle as an arc whose chord is a diameter, and we may look upon a whole circle as a major arc

whose two end-points coincide. The explemental minor arc will then be one single point. We may even think of arcs on a circle greater than the whole circle. In such a case certain points on the circle are considered more than once. 293. Any arc may now be expressed as a sum of a niunber of quadrants and a minor arc.

THE CIRCLE.
The Sum
294. Definition.
or of a right angle
of Angles.

121

The sum of two acute angles and an acute angle is the angle
off

obtained by setting
its

one against the other from

vertex with no interior point in common, and then omitting the common ray.

The sum

of

any two or more angles

is

an aggre-

gate of right angles and one acute angle such that,

taken as angles at the center of any one circle, the sum of the intercepted quadrants and the arc intercepted by the acute angle equals the sum of the arcs intercepted by the angles to be added together.

The sum of the three angles of any rectilineal triangle is two right angles. The sum of two supplemental angles is two right
295. Corollary

to

79.

angles.

296. In

the

familiar

terminology
to coincide

of

circles with equal radii are called congruent,

motion and

we say they can be made

of

if

the center

one be placed on the center of the other. Since, in their congruence, any one given point of the one can be mated with any point of the other, we say, after comcidence the second circle may be turned about its center, and still coincide with the first. Hence also a circle can be made to slide along itself by being turned about its center. This expresses a fundamental characteristic of the circle. It allcws us to turn any figtire connected with the circle about the center without changing its relation to the circle. Such displacement is called a rotation. A displacement of a figure connected with a

122
straight, in
is

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

which the straight

slides

on

its

trace,

called translation.

That translation can be effected without rotation an assumption about equivalent to the parallel Assumption IV. The diameter perpendicular to a 297. Theorem. chord bisects the angle at the center, and the two arcs, minor and major, made by the chord.
is

Parallel secants or parallel 298. Convention. chords are said to intercept the two arcs whose points are between the parallels.

299. Theorem.
arcs.

Parallel chords intercept congruent

Given AB\\A'B'. To prove minor .AA' = minor arc BB'. Proof. If CD _L AB then also
(by 74) CD1.A'B'.
117

Then (by

and

58)

iACD^^BCD
.-.

and
49)
272)

^A'CD^ 4 B'CD. .".(by ^ACA'^^BCB'. (by minor arc ^ A' = minor arc
Theorem.
//

300.

into triangles

BB'. a simple plane polygon be cut by diagonals within the polygon the sum
twice as m-any right angles as the

of their angles, together with four right angles, equals

polygon has
Proof.

sides.

a diagonal within the polygon cut off a triangle. This diminishes the niimber of Pig. 114. sides by one and the sum of the angles by two right angles. So reduce the sides

By

THE
to three.

CIRCLE.

123
sides

We

have

left

two more

than pairs

of right angles. 301. Definition.

The

exterior angle at

any ver-

tex of a polygon

ray

made by

the angle between a side and the producing the other side through the
is

vertex.
302. Theorem.

In any convex plane polygon

the

sum

of the exterior angles, one at each vertex, is four

right angles.

the supplement of the adjacent angle in the polygon. This pair gives a pair of right angles for every side. But (by 228)
Proof.
exterior angle
is

The

the angles of the polygon give a pair of right angles for e\'ery side except two.
Ex. whose
of
268.

How many
)^s,

interior

is

sides has a polygon, the sum of double the sum of its exterior ^s?

Ex. 269. How many sides has a regular polygon, four whose ^s are together 7 r't 4Cs?
Ex. 270. Find the sum of
3

non-consecutive ^s of an

inscribed hexagon.

Ex. 271. The sum of 2 opposite sides of a circumscribed quad' is half the perimeter. The sum of the ys they subtend at the center is 2 r't ^s.

+2r =2/? +2r. Ex. 273. From the vertices of A as centers find 3 radii which give Os tangent, two and two. Ex. 274. If H is orthocenter, the 4 circum-Os of A, B,
In
r't

Ex.272.

A, o

+6

=(7

C,

H are
3,

=.
/, 7i, Jj, /a,

Ex. 275. Of
other

each

is

the orthocenter of the

and the 4 circum-0s are =.

If,

Ex. 276.
the

of

a pentagon, the sides produced meet,

is 2 r't

sum

of the

^s formed

^s.

124

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

303. Corollary

to

170.

The

from any point diameter is the the in a circle to mean proportional between the
perpendicular
parts of the diameter.
Fig. 115.

Theorem. The product of the sects which a given point divides chords of a given
304.
is constant.

into
circle

Fig. 116.

Hypothesis,
in P.

Let chords

AB

and

CD

intersect

Conclusion.
Proof.

AP-PB=CP-PD.
(by 133), and
.-.

iPAC=^PDB
4APC=^BPD;

aAPC-aBPD.

305. Corollary to 304. From a point taken on a tangent the square on the sect to the point of contact equals the product of the sects made on any
secant.

THE

CIRCLE.
Section.
sect so that the

125

The Golden
306. Problem.
of
the

To divide a

product

whole and one part equals the square of the

other part.

Required on

AB

to find

such that

AB-PB =
On

AP\
Construction.

Draw

BCBA

and

=iAB

the straight

beyond C and AP'=AE. P and P' divide AB and externally in the golden section.
Proof.

take D between A and C, and such that CD=CB=CE. Take

AC

AP=AD

internally

By

249,

AB''

= AD AE = AP {AP + AB) = AP^-\-AP-AB.

..AB{AB-AP)=AP\ :.AB-PB=AP\ Again, AB-' = AE-AD=P'A{AE-DE)

= P'A{P'A~AB)=P'A'-AB-P'A. :.AB{AB + P'A)=P'A\ ..AB-P'B=P'A\

307. Corollary to 306.

If

is

any

sect divided

in the golden section, its greater part

^=-[(5)* i J.
^^'

For (by 171)

.-.

AC'=AB^-VBC^=a'+-^'

AP=AD^AC-CD=\a{s)^--.

126

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

308.

Theorem.

The products
of a

of

opposite

sides

non-cyclic quadrilateral

are together greater than the

^D

product of Proof.

its

diagonals.

Make
and

yfCAD,

^BAF= ^ABF^

^ACD.

Fig. ii8.

Join FD. Then aABF~/^ACD,

:.BA:AC=FA:AD.
shows
(since

But

this

4BAC = ^^.FAD),

ABAC-AFAD. From A ABF~ aACD,

From
.-.

.-.

AB -CD =BF -AC.

.-.

BC-AD =FD-AC. AB-CD+BC-AD=BF-AC+FD-AC>BD-AC.

aBAC'>-aFAD,
(Ptolemy).

309. Corollary to 308

The product

of the diagonals of a cyclic quadrilateral equals

the

sum

of

the products of

the opposite sides.

(For then
310.
it is

F falls

on BD.)
If

Theorem.

a cyclic polygon be equilateral

regular.

Ex. 277. Every equiangular polygon circumscribed about a circle is regular. Ex. 278. Every equilateral polygon circumscribed about a circle is regular if it has an odd number of sides. Ex. 279. Every equiangular polygon inscribed in a circle is regular if it has an odd number of sides. Ex. 280. The chords on a sf through a contact-point
of

two Os

common

are proportional to their diameters; and a tangent is a mean proportional between their
of

diameters.

Ex. 281. The sum of the squares of the segments

2

chords equals the sq' of the diameter. Ex. 282. On the piece of a tangent between two

||

tan-

THE

CIRCLE.

127

gents the contact-point makes segments whose product is the square of the radius.

Ex.

283.

To

inscribe in

and circumscribe about a given

O a A~

to a given A

Ex. 284. Rr\ac=b:2{a+b+c). Ex. 285. In a r't A the sides are as the in-radii of As made by he. Ex. 286. A quad' is cycHc if diagonals cut so that product of segments of one equals product of segments
of the other.

Ex. 287. If one chord bisect another, and tangents from the extremities of each meet, the st' of their intersection points is to the bisected chord.
II

Ex. 288. The diagonals of a regular pentagon cut one another in the golden section, and the larger segments
equal the sides.

Ex. 289. From the vertex of an inscribed a a sect to the base to a tangent at either end of the base is a fourth proportional to the base and two sides. Ex. 290. Straights from the vertices of any a to the contact-points of the in-O are copunctal.
||

Ex. 291.

If

ment

of the first

a chord is bisected by another, either segis a mean proportional between the seg-

ments of the other. is a mean proportional Ex. 292. The diameter of a between the sides of the circumscribed regular a and
hexagon.

Ex. 293. From the center of a given to draw a

st'

cutting off from a given tangent a sect any multiple of the segment between and tangent.

Ex. 294. The vertices of all as on the same base with on a o with center costraight with base and radius a mean proportional between the sects from its center to the ends of base.
sides proportional are

CHAPTER
Theorem.
equals
the

XI.

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF THE

311.
triangle

CIRCLE,

The product

of

two sides of a

product of two sects from thai vertex making equal angles with the two sides and
extending, one
to

the base, the other to the circle cir-

cumscribing the triangle.

Proof.

aCBD~aABE.
I

312. Corollary

to

311.

If

i^f,BD and BE coincide they bisect the angle B ..AB-BC=BD-BE = BD{BD +DE) = BD' +BD-DE =BD' +CD -DA (hy 248).
Fig no.

Therefore the square of a bisector together with the product of the sects
side equals the product of the other two
If

it

makes on a

sides.

313. Corollary II to 311.

BD

be an altitude,

BE

a diameter, for then i^BAE is r't; therefore in any triangle the product of two sides equah the
is

product of the diameter of the circumscribed circle by

the altitude

upon

the third side.

tri-

Ex. 296. To find the bisectors of the angles of a

angle, given the sides.

4=
a

+0

-[abs{s 6)1^.
28

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF THE

CIRCLE.

129

Ex. 297. To find the radius of the O circumscribing a triRule: Divide the product of the three sides by four times the area of the triangle. R=abc/4A. Ex. 298. The in-radius. equals area over half sum of sides. [r=A/s]. Ex. 299. The side of an equilateral triangle is
angle.

6=i?(3)* =

2r(3)*-

The radius of circle circumscribing triangle The in-radius is 2. Ex. 301. To find the radius of an escribed circle. Rule: Divide the area of the triangle bv the difference between half the sum of its sides and the tangent side.
Ex. 300.
7,

15, 20, is 12J.

[r, = A /(s -a)]. Ex. 302. A =(rrir2rs)i. Ex.303. i/ri+i/r2 + i/rs = i/r. Ex. 304. The sum of the four squares on the four sides of any. quadrilateral is greater than the sum of the squares on the diagonals by four times the square on the sect joining the mid-points of the diagonals. Ex. 305. The sum of the squares on the four sides of a parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squares on the

diagonals.

made on one

Ex. 306. The product of the external segments (sects) side by the bisector of an external angle of a triangle equals the square of the bisector together with the product of the other two sides. Ex. 307. Find r,, r^, r,, when a = 7, 6 = 15, c = 2o.
314.
for
is

Here Assumption

the

first

time

the

Archimedes

admitted, in so far as this chapter

needs continuity.
313. Definition.

chords
316.

is

'inscribed,'

polygon whose sides are whose sides are tangents is

is

'circumscribed.'

We assume

that with every arc

connected

'

130

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

one,

and only
if

one,

sect greater
less

and,
sects

the arc be minor,

than the chord, than the siim of the

on the tangents from the extremities of the arc to their intersection, and such that if an arc be cut into two arcs, this sect is the sum of their sects.
This sect

we

call the length of the arc.

There

is

one,

and only

one, sect greater than the

perimeter of any inscribed polygon and less than the perimeter of any circumscribed polygon, namely,
the length of the
circle.

317. In practical science, every sect is expressed

by the unit sect preceded by a number. From our knowledge of the number and imit sect it multiplies, we get knowledge of the to be expressed, and we can always construct
expression.

the
sect
this

For science, the unit sect is the centimeter ["""J, which is the hundredth part of the sect called a meter, two marked points on a special bar of platinum at Paris, when the bar is at the temperature of melting
If
ice.

an equilateral triangle be taken at the center of a circle, the chord it intercepts

an angle

of

equals the radius.

circle is greater

Therefore the length of a semi-

than three times its radius. Again, taking any diameter, then the diameter perpendicular to this, then perpendiculars at the four extremities of these, we have a square of tangents equal to
8r.
is less

Therefore the length of a semicircle

four times
its radius.

than

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF THE

318.

CIRCLE.

131

Theorem.

The

lengths of circles are propor-

tional to their radii.

Let c and c' be the lengths of the circles O0(r), O0'(/). To prove c:c' =r:r'. Proof. Let / be the fourth proportional such that r-y =c:f. Inscribe in O (}'(/) any polygon of perimeter p', and in O0(r) the similar polygon of perimeter p.

Then p:p'=r:r'.
[The perimeters of two similar inscribed polygons are as the radii.]
.-.

c-.f^p-.p'.

:.

c:p=f:p'.
.-.

ButO^,
Hence

/ is

f>p'. greater than the perimeter of

any

polygon inscribed in O0'(/). In the same way / is less than the perimeter of any polygon circumscribed to OO'(r').
../=c'.
319. Corollary to 318.

The lengths

of

two arcs

of

two

different circles,

but intercepted by equal

central angles, are as the radii.

.'. the number of its radii circle is always the same any in the length Hence the length of constant, designated by 2n. any circle is 27cr.

320. Since c:r=c':r',

of

I3

RATlON/tL GEOMETRY.

Historical

Note on

it.

have proved that n is greater than 3 and less than 4, but the Talmud says: "What is three handbreadths around is one handbreadth through," and oitr Bible also gives this value 3. [I Kings vii. 23; II Chronicles iv. 2.] Ahmes (about 1700 B.C.) gave [4/3]* = 3 -16. Archimedes placed it between 34-f and 3I. Ptolemyused 3tVVThe Hindoo Aryabhatta (b. 476) gave 3-1416; the Arab Alkhovarizmi (flourished 813-833) gave 3-1416; Adriaan Anthoniszoon, father of Adriaan Metius [in 1585] gave 355/113=3-1415929; Ludolf van Ceulen [i 540-1610] gave the equivalent of over
320a.

We

30 decimal places
[tt

= 3-141592653589793238462643383279 +

(the decimal fraction

wished it cut on his 140 decimal places; Dase, 200; Richter, 500. In 1873 Wm. Shanks gave 707 places of decimals. The symbol Tt is first used for this number in Jones's "Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos," London, 1706.
inexpressible

was not yet invented), and tomb at Ley den. Vega gave

In 1770 Lambert proved n irrational, that is, as. a fraction. In 1882 Lindemann
is,

proved n transcendent, that

not a root of any

arid

algebraic equation with rational coefficients,

hence geometrically inconstructable.

LENGTH

/iND

CONTENT OF THE
gave
the

CIRCLE.

133

Kochansky

(1685)

following simple

construction for the length of the semicircle

Fig. 120.

At the end-point A of the diameter BA draw the tangent to the circle OC{CA). Take ^ACE =
half the angle of

an equilateral triangle =4

r't

On

the tangent, take

EF =

2,r.

the semicircle.
for radius
is

with great exactitude the length of In fact BF =r[i2,\ 2(3)*]* = 3-141 5^The circle with the unit sect 321. Definition.
is

Then

BF

called the unit

circle.

The length of the arc of unit circle intercepted by an angle with vertex at center is called the size
of the angle.

The angle whose

a radian. 322. Theorem.
If
/(

size is the unit sect is called

radian intercepts on any circle

is

an arc whose length

that circle's radius.

denote the number of radians in an angle and I the length of the arc it intercepts on circle of radius r, then
323. Definition.

An

arc with the radii

to its

end-points

is

called a sector.

324. In content, an inscribed regular polygon of

211

sides equals a triangle with altitude the radius

134

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

and base the perimeter of an inscribed regular polygon of n sides; these sides being diagonals
of deltoids with the radius for the other diagonal.]

In content, a circumscribed regular polygon of n sides equals a triangle with altitude r and base the
polygon's perimeter.

and only one, triangle intermediate between the series of inscribed regular polygons and the series of circumscribed regular polygons, namely, that with altitude r and base
There
is

one,

in content

the circle's length.

The content
area of the

of this triangle is called the content

or surface of the circle,

circle.

and

its

area, \rc=r'^T:, the

So the areas of circles are proportional to the areas of squares on their radii. From analogous considerations, 325. Definition. the surface of a sector is defined as the content of a triangle with the arc's radius for altitude and the
arc's length for base.

326.

The area
its arc,

of a sector is the

product of the

length of

by

half the radius.

Ex. 308. The areas of similar polygons are as the squares of corresponding sides. Ex. 309. Find the length of the circle when r = 14 units. Ex. 310. Find the diameter of a wheel which in a street 19,635 meters long makes 3125 revolutions. Ex. 311. Find the length and area of a circle when
r

-].

Ex. 312.
of arc

If
its

we

call

one-ninetieth of a quadrant a degree

and

angle at the center a degree of angle, find the

(size of 2(^1).

size of this

Ex. 313. How many degrees in a radian? Ex. 314. The angles of a triangle are as 1:2:3.
the size of each.

Find

Find the number

of degrees in each.

Ex. 315. The angles of a quadrilateral are as 2:3:4:7.

Find each in degrees and ra

LENGTH

/tND

CONTENT OF THE
is

CIRCLE.

13S

Ex, 316. In what regular polygon Ex. 317.

If

every angle i68j?

a r't^ be divided into

congruent parts,

how many

of

them would a radian contain?

Ex. 318. Find the length of the arc pertaining to a central angle of 78 when r=i-5 meters. Ex. 319. Find an arc of 112 which is 4 meters longer

than its radius. Ex. 320. Calling n=~i^-, find r when 64 are 70-4 meters. Ex. 321. Find the inscribed angle cutting out one-tenth
of the circle.

Ex. 322. An angle made by two tangents is the difference between 180 and the smaller intercepted arc. Make this statement exact. Ex. 323. Find the size of half a right angle. Ex. 324. Find the size of 30; 45; 60. Ex. 325. How many radians in 7r? in 240? Ex. 326. Express the size of seven-sixteenths of a right
angle.

hands
3:

Ex. 327. How many radians in the angle made by the of a watch at 5: 15 o'clock? at quarter to 8? at
30? at 6: 05?

Ex. 328. The length of half a quadrant in one circle Find equals that of two-thirds of a quadrant in another. how many radians would be subtended at the center of the first by an arc of it equal in length to the radius of
the second.

Ex. 329. Find the number of degrees in an angle whose

size is i;
is

is

|; is i}; is

fjr.

Ex. 330. The

size of
is

the
17;

sum

of

two angles

is

-Tt

and

their difference

Ex. 331.
triangle

How many
is

which

find the angles. times is the angle of an isosceles half each angle at the base contained

in a radian?

wheels with fixed centers roll upon each through which one turns gives the number of degrees through which the other

Ex. 332.

Two

other,

and the

size of the angle

136

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
In what proportion are the radii
is

turns in the same time. of the wheels?

radius.

Ex. 333. The length of an arc of 60

36!;
is

find the

by

Ex. 334. Find the circle where ^30 arc 4 meters long. Ex. 335. If be area of circle, prove

subtended

I /[0/i(n)> + 1 /[0/.(r,)]*+ 1 /[O/sWJi = I /[0/(r)]i. Ex. 336. The perimeters of an equilateral triangle, a square, and a circle are each of them 12 meters. Find the area of each of these figures to the nearest hundredth. Ex. 337. An equilateral triangle and a regular hexagon have the same perimeter; show that the areas of their

inscribed circles are as 4 to 9. Ex. 338. Find the number of degrees in the arc of a sector whose area equals the square of its radius.

Ex. 339. Find area of sector whose radius equals 25 and the size of whose angle is f Ex. 340. The length of the arc of a sector is 16 meters, Find area of sector. of a r't ^ the angle is
-J.

Ex. 341. If 2 As have a common base, their areas are as the segments into which the join of the vertices is divided by the common base. Ex. 342. The area of a circum-polygon is half perimeter

by
its

in-radius

\_\pr].

Ex. 343. The area of a rhombus

diagonals.
If

is

half the product of

until

Ex. 344.
tripled,

we magnify a quad'
of its area?

a diagonal

is

what
If

on the three sides median the A is r't-angled. Ex. 346. Lengthening through A the side 6 of a A by c and c by 6, they become diagonals of a symtra whose area is to that of the A as {h + cY to be. Ex. 347. If upon the three sides of a r't A as corresponding sides similar polygons are constructed that on the hypothenuse =the sum of those on the Is.
Ex. 345.
the
of the squares

sum

of a

A =

8 times the square of a

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF THE

CIRCLE.

137

Ex. 348. The area of any r'tA =the sum of the areas of the two lunes or crescent-shaped figures made by describing semi- OS outwardly on the s and a semi-o on
the hypothenuse through the vertex of the r't ^ [called the lunes of Hippocrates of Chios (about 450 b.c.)]Ex. 349. (Pappus.) Any two ||g'ms on two sides of a A are together =to a ||g'm on the third side whose consecutive side is = and to the sect joining the common vertex of the other ||g'ms to the intersection of their sides to those of the A (produced)
|1 ||

Ex. 350. If all the sides of a quad' are unequal, it is impossible to divide it into = as by straights from a point' within to its vertices. Ex. 351. The joins of the centroid and vertices of a a
trisect
it.

Ex. 352. Make a symtra triple a given symtra. Ex. 353. On each side of a quad' describe a sq' outwardly. Of the four as made by joining their neighboring comers, two opposite =the other two and = the quad'. Ex. 354. If from an ^ a we cut two = as, one i the sq' of one of the = sides of the a equals the product of the sides of the other a on the arms of the ^ a. Ex. 355. If any point within a Ijg'm be joined to the four vertices, one pair of as with bases = the other. Ex. 356. One median of a trapezoid cuts it into =parts. Ex. 357. Transform a given a into an = | a. Ex. 358. Transform a given a into a regular a. Ex. 359. Construct a polygon ~ to two given ~ polygons and = to their sum. Ex, 360. If a vertex of a a moves on a X to the opposite side, the difference of the squares of the other sides
,

-I-

||

-I-

is

constant.

Ex. 361. The ^ bi's of a rectangle make a sq', which is half the sq' on the difference of the sides of the rectangle. Ex. 362. The bisectors of the exterior ^ s of a rectangle make a sq' which is half the sq' of the sum of the sides of the rectangle. Ex. 363. The sum of the squares made by the bisectors

138
of the interior
sq'

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
and exterior ^
s

of a rectangle equals the

of its

diagonal;

their difference is double the rect-

angle.

Ex. 364. If on the hypothenuse we lay off from each end its consecutive side, the sq' of the mid sect is double the product of the others. Ex.365. In aABC, BD-a = BF-c. Ex. 366. In a trapezoid, the sum of the sq's on the diagonals equals the sum of the sq's on the non-|| sides sides. plus twice the product of the Ex. 367. Prove ri+r2-\-r, = r+/^R. Ex. 368. To bisect a a by a st' through a given point in a side; by a st' to a side; _L to a side. Ex. 369. Trisect a ] A by ||s. Ex. 370. A quad' equals a a with its diagonals and
||
||

their

as sides

and included ^

Ex. 371. The areas of as inscribed in a are as the products of their sides. Ex. 372. Construct an equilateral a, given the altitude. Ex. 373. a from ^s and area. Ex. 374. Triple the squares of the sides of a A is quadruple the sq's of the medians. Ex. 375. Any quad' is divided by its diagonals into four AS whose areas form a proportion. Ex. 376. AH-HD =BH-HE. r't a is -J-c^. Ex. 377. The area of a Ex. 378. Construct a =given a with same b and hb. Ex. 379. Bisect any quad' by a st' from any vertex from
-I-I;

any point
Ex. 380.

in a side.

Any

st'

through the bisection-point of a diag-

onal bisects the ||gm.

Ex. 381. ^ia' + b' + c') =4(ma'' + inb' + mc'). Ex. 382. Upon any st' the sum of the s from the
vertices of a

is

thrice the

i from

its

centroid.

Ex.383. Ex. 384. Ex. 385. side m and

A, 50^ = 4{ma' + nic') Trisect a quad'.

In

r't

Find A

adjoining

=aABC, but with sides ^ S; and opposite ^ d.

m, n;

with

LENGTH AND CONTENT OF THE

Ex.386.
side
in.

CIRCLE.

I3Q

Find

= aABC", but with

base m;

with

Ex. 387. Find a =given polygon. Ex. 388. From any point in an equilateral a the three s on the sides together ==the altitude. Ex. 389. Sects from the bisection-point of a non-|| side of a trape^.oid to oppsite vertices bisect it. Ex. 390. If the products of the segments of two intersecting sects are=, their ends are concyclic. Ex. 391. Area of r't A = product of the segments of the hypothenuse made by X from I. Ex. 392. In r't A, areas of as made by he are proportional to areas of their in-s.

Ex.393. I /ha+i/hb+i/hc = i/r. Ex.394. hahbhc=ia+b + c)^r'/abc. Ex. 395. If ha', hb', he' be the perpendiculars from any
point within a a, upon the sides, prove ha /ha+hb'/hb + hc'/he-l.

Ex.396, Ex. 397. Ex. 3 98 h^c). Ex. 399. Ex. 400. Ex. 401.
.

= \AI -BI -Clia+h + c) /abc.

abc =a{Aiy + h{Biy + c{CI)\ {Aiy-\- (BI) ' + (CI) '= ab + ac

i?-fr

+ bc-

babe I {a

= s from O on
A,
if

sides.
|fo

In

-I-

6 =hb,

then

=R.

R=2R

of

hDEF

Ex. 402. Area of a J,, /;, I^^ahc/2r. Ex. 403. If ga, qb, qe be the sides of the 3 sq's inscribed i/gc i/gt = i//f6+i/6; in a A, then i/gu = i/Aa+ i/a;

I /lie

+ I /c.

i/r, = i//t<i+ i/hb Ex. 404. i/r= i/ha+'i./hb+i/hr\ + i/hc; i/r.i = i/ha-i/hb+i/he; i/r3= i/ha+i/hb-i/hc. 2/hb = i/r -i/r^ Ex.405. 2/lia = i/r-i/ri = i/r.,+ i/r3;

i/r,+ i/r,] 2 /he = I /r - 1 /rj = I /r, + i /r^. Ex. 406. ha/2 =rrj{r^-r) =i\rj{r^ + r,). Ex.407. R'={I0y-V2rR = {ipy-2r,R. Ex. 408. Find the segments of b made by fe. Ex, 409. The base of a a is 32 feet and its height 20 feet;

14

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
is

the area of the a formed by drawing a st' H b from B ? Where must a st' b be drawn so as to divide the a into 2 parts of = area?

what

5 feet

||

Ex. 410.
circles

Upon each

side a of a sq' as diameter semi-

are described within the sq',

forming 4 leaves;

find the area of a leaf.

CHAPTER

XII.

GEOMETRY OF PLANES.
326.

Theorem.

Two

parallels dctcniu'ne a plane.

they are coplanar. Any plane on these parallels Vi-ould be on three noncostraight points of this given plane, hence (by I 4)
Proof.
definition

By

identical with

it.

327. Corollary to 326.

If

a plane contains one

two parallels and any point of the other, it contains both parallels. Three planes which do not con328. Theorem. tain the same straight cannot liave more than- one point in common. If they had two points in common Proof. (by I 5) the straight determined by those two points would be in each.
of
329. Corollary to 328.
If

three planes not conin

pairs,

taining the

same

straight intersect

the

three straights of intersection [common sceiions, or

meets] are either copunctal or parallel in pairs.

a plane on one of two parallels meet a plane on the other [neither that
330. Corollary to 329.
If

of the

||s],

the meet

is

parallel to each of the

two

parallels.

For (by

9)

the three planes can have no point

141

142 in

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
since a point

common,

common to

the three woUld

be

common
If

to the
a
st'

two

parallels.
st's,

Ex. 411.

cross three copunctal

the four

are copunctal or coplanar.

Ex. 412. If each of three st's crosses the others, the three are coplanar or copunctal.

Ex
of st's of a

413.

The meet
is

of planes

determined by two pairs

on

on ^.
a, it is

Ex. 414. If A is on a and with planes on a.

331.

on the intersections

Problem.
to

Through a given point

of a given

plane a

pass straights a and b in a.

Pig. 122.

Solution.
least

There are (by

I 7)

in the plane at

three non-costraight points, A, B,

C.

But

(by

I s)

So do
332.

and B determine a straight in the plane a. and C. Problem. To put two planes on the straight a.

Fig. 123.

Solution.

On

a (by

I 2)

are at least
I 7)

two

points,

and B.

There are (by

at least four non-

GEOMETRY OF

PLANES.

143

costraight non-coplanar points, A, B, C, D.

fore A,

There-

B, and C are not costraight, otherwise (by 11) A, B, C, D would be coplanar. Therefore (by I 3) A, B, C detemiine a plane which (by I 5) contains a. Just so A, B,
333.
to

determine a plane on
//

a.

Theorem.
of
tic'o

straiglit

be

perpendicular
it
ivill

cacJi

vitersectiiig straiglits,

he per-

pendicular
oil their

to

every other straight

their

plane and

point of intersection.

Hypothesis.

Let

BD

Let be in plane

BP

be

J_

to

BA

and BC.

Conclusion.

ABC. BPA_BD.

Fig. 124.

Take A and C on the sides of the angle 5 in which BD lies. Let D be the point where AC crosses BD. Take BP' =BP Then (by 43), aPBA = ^.P'BA. and aPBC^aP'BC.
Proof. at

144
:.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

PA =P'A and PC = P'C;

. .

(by 58)

aPAC =

aP'AC.
:.

^PCD^^P'CD;
.-.

.-.

(by 43)

aPCD=aP'CD.

:.PD=P'D;
:.

(by 58)

aPBD= aP'DB.
to be perit is

iPBD=^P'BD; ..BPBD. A straight is said 334. Definition.

pendicular
to

a plane

when

perpendicular to

its joot,

every straight in that plane which passes through that is, the point it has in common with

the plane, called also their pass.

Then

also the plane is said to

be perpendicular

to the straight.
335. Definition.

A straight is said to be ^ara^Z^Z to a

plane

when it has no point in common with the plane. Then also the plane is said to be parallel to the

straight.

A straight neither on the plane, 336. Definition. nor parallel nor perpendicular to the plane, is said to be oblique to the plane. A sect from a point to a
plane,
if it

be not perpendicular,

is

called

an

oblique.

Fig. 125.

337.
to

Problem.

To

construct a plane perpendicular

a given straight a at a given point A.

GEOMETRY OF
Solution.

PLANES.

145

Put (by 332) through a two

planes.

(by 161) erect a perpendicular to a. The plane of these perpendiculars is (by 333 and 334) perpendicular to a at yl.
338.
to

In each of them at

Problem. To construct a plane perpendicular a given straight a througJi a given point P not on a.
Solution.

drop PAa. 332 and 161, erect another perpendicular ^S to a at ^. Then (by 333 and 334) plane PABa. To erect a perpendicular to a given 339. Problem. plane y at a given point A. Solution. Take (by 331) through A two straights, a, b, in the plane j-. Find (by 337) a plane a which
160,

By

By

at

is J_

to a

also a plane ^

which at

is J. b.

Fig. 126.

These two planes (by 329) intersect in a straight through A.

Since c
is is

in a, in p,

.".
.-.

(by 334)
c is J. 6.

c is _L a.

Since c
'

(by 333 and 334) cj-

146

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

340. Corollary to 339.

Through a given point

in

a plane there
plane.

is

only one perpendictilar to that

Fig. 127.

Else each would be

_L

to

BC, the meet

to

of their

with the given plane a. To drop a perpendicular 341. Problem. plane a from a given point P.
plane
/?

a given

Construction.

In a take any straight

a.

Fig. 128.

From P
erect 6j_a.

(by 160) drop

PAa.
PBjJ).

In a (by 161)

From P drop

Then P5j.a.

GEOMETRY OF PLANES.
Proof.

147

PB through B, taking BP' =BP. (by 43) aPBA = aP'BA; .-.PA^P'A. Further, since aAP and aAB, also (by 333)
Produce

Then

.'.

aAP'.
.-.r't

Thus

if

be a second

point on

a,

^PAM=4P'AM. (by 43) aPAM^aP'AM; :.PM=P'M. ..(by 58) aPBM^aP'BM; r.^PBM is r't. But by construction ^PBA is r't, (by 333
.".

and 334) PB_a.

From a point P without 342. Corollary to 341. a plane a, there is only one perpendicular to the plane a. Take (by 341) PBLa. Then if A be any other point of a, the r't aPBA has (by 79) the ifPAB
acute.
343. Corollary to 342.

From

a point to a plane,

the perpendicular is less than any oblique. Equal obliques meet the plane in a circle, whose center
is

the foot of the perpendicular.

If

through the

center of a circle a perpendicular to its plane be taken, then sects from a point of this perpendicular
to the circle are equal.
344.

Theorem.

7/ a straight is perpendicular to
it,

each of three straights copuiictal with are coplanar.

the

three

Hypothesis.
Conclusion.
Proof.

PBBA, BD, BC.

BC in plane BDA[a]. Let plane PBC[fi] meet plane a in BC. Then (by 333) PBBC'. By hypothesis PBLBC. But (by 52) in /? is only one perpendicular to PB .'. is identical with BC. at B. Through a given point to 344. Corollary 345.

BC

148

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
one plane perpendicular

in a straight there is only

to that straight.

Fig. 129.

346.

Theorem.

All points,

A, which with two

fixed points B,

given equal sects, AB=AC, are at right angles the sect bisecting a plane the in EC, and inversely every point A' in the plane a

bisecting

at

right

angles

the

sect

BC

gives

A'B =

A'C.
Proof.

For the straight

to

from
point
is

A
-D of

the

bisection

BC makes a ADB
.".(by

= aADC and
in a.
Fig. 130.

344)

Inversely

every

straight
..

A'D

is

BC

and

makes

aA'DB^aA'DC, and
347. Corollary to

338.

.-.A'B^A'C. Through a given point

is

without a given straight there plane perpendicular to that straight. Take (by 338) a through P and

only

one

j_

to a at B.

GEOMETRY OF PLANES.

149

Then
has

if

is

any other point

of a, the r't

aPBA

the ^PAB acute. So plane /? through P and X to a could not pass through A, and so, (by
79)

passing through S,
348.

it is

(by

34S) identical with a.

Theorem. If P5_Land BA_AC, then PAa^AC.

BAC

Proof. (by

Make AC=BP.
43)
.-.

Fig. 131.

aCAS =
.-.

aPSA.
.-.

C"5=PA,

(by 58)

aCBP^aPAC,

^CBP^^PAC.

Fig. 132.

But by hypothesis ^CBP is right. Ex. 415. If PB-LBAC and PAj,AC, then 5.AAC.
Ex. 416.
points in
to
If

PBXBAC
go to ^.

and S.4j.^C,

all

to

AC

from

PB
If

Ex.417.

PHABC
Tkv

(H

is

orthocenter), then

PA

AK
349.

II

BC.

Theorem.

pcrpoidicidars

to

a plane

are coplanar.

ISO

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Hypothesis.
Conclusion.
Proof.
.-.

PB, P'A_a
P'
is

at B, A.

in the plane

ABP.
hypothesis

In a erect
348)

(by

ACAB. ACAP. But by

ACl_AP'.
'

O^y 344) ^i P'> P>

are coplanar.

Fig. 133.

350. Corollary

to

349
If

and
the

342.

Two
two
is

perpenparallels

diculars to a plane are parallel.

351. Inverse of 350.
is

first of

perpendicular to a plane, the second

also per-

pendicular to that plane.

For the perpendicular erected to the plane from

the foot of the second
first
is

(by 350) parallel to the

to

and so (by IV) identical with the second. 352. Theorem. // one plane he perpendicular one of two intersecting straights, and a second
to

plane perpendicular
their

the

second,
to

they

meet and

meet

is

perpendicular

the

plane of the two

straights.

Hypothesis.

Let a be _[jCA at

and ^ be

CB

at B.

The meet (by 334) \_AC, and

Proof.

AD

of a with plane

ACB

is

likewise

BDBC;

.'.

(by 77)

GEOMETRY OF

PLANES.

151

Thus the planes a and /?, having meet in DP, and (by 351) their meet PD is _L to a straight through D to AC, and also _L to a straight through D to BC.
\\

AD meets BD. D in common,

||

Fig. 134.

353.
till-

Theorem. Two straights, each parallel to same straight, are parallel to one aiiotlicr, even
be
}iot

thoiigJi tlic tJircc

coplanar.

For a plane
Ex. 418. Are
to the same
st'

J_ to

the third will

/.

(by 351) be
||.

J.

to each of the others;

st's
||?
|| ||

(by 350) they are to the same plane ||? Are planes

||

Ex. 419.

plane

to the meet of two planes meets

them

in

||s.

354. Definition.

The

projection of a point

upon

a plane is the foot of the perpendicular from the point to the plane. The projection of a straigJit upon a plane is the

assemblage of the projections of

straight.
355.

all

points of the a

Theorem.

The projection

of

straiglit

a plane

is tlie straight throiigit

the projections of

on any

tico of its points.

IS2

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
P',

Given A',

B'

the projections of ^, P, B,

points of the straight

AB, on the plane

B'
are

a.

To prove P'
Proof.

in the straight A'B'.

A, A', B,
I 5) in

(by
P',

349)
.".

coplanar.

is

(by
is

this
..

same
9)

plane,

327) so

PP'

(by

A\

(by 350 and B' are costraight.

Fig. 135.

356. Corollary to

355.

straight

and
If

its

pro-

jection

on a given plane are coplanar.

a straight

intersects a plane, its projection passes through the

point of intersection.
is

straight parallel to a plane

parallel to its projection

357.

Theorem.

straight

on that plane. makes with

its

own

Fig. 136.

projection

upon a plane a

less

angle than with any

other straight in the plane.

GEOMETRY OF PLANES.
Hypothesis.
of

153

Let A' and BA' be the projection

a,

and

BA

on

and

BC any other
2^

straight in a,

through B.
Conclusion.
Proof.

t^ABA' <
is

ABC.
(The

Take

BC = BA'. Then AA'<AC.

perpendicular
straight.)
.-.

the least sect from a point to a

i.ABA'<i^ABC.
two
A's,

(In

a =a',b

= b',

c<c',

then^C< ^C.)
straight

358. Definition.

The angle between a

is

and

its

projection on a plane

called the inclina-

tion of the straight to the plane.

Ex. 420. One of three copunctal st's makes = ^s with the others if its projection on their plane bisects their ^. Ex. 421. An obhque makes with some st' in the plane through its foot any given 2^ < the supplement of its
inclination

and >

its inclination.

Ex. 422. Equal obliques from a point to a plane are equally inclined to it.
359. Definition.

Parallel

planes

are

such
the

as

nowhere meet. 360. Theorem.

Proof.

Planes perpendicular
345

to

same

straiglit are parallel.

point in
Ex. 423.
361.

They cannot (by common.

and 347) have a

are

A St'
is
||

and a plane to the same

st'

||.

Theorem.

Every

plan-e through

only one of

two parallels

parallel to the other.

Given

AB CD in a,
CD
\\

and

/?

another plane through

AB. To prove

^.

154

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Since

^S

is

in

every point

common

a and in ^, it contains (by to the two planes.

9)

Fig. 137.

But CD is wholly in a. So to meet /? it must have a point in common with a and /?, that is, it must meet AB. But by hypothesis AB^CD.
Ex. 424. Through a given point to draw a st' to two given planes. Ex. 425. If a a, and b the meet of a with p, ^ on a, then a b. Ex. 426. Through A determine a to cut b and c.
|1
II

\\

362.

Problem.
to

Through

either of two straights not

to the other.

coplanar

pass a plane parallel

Pig. 138.

If

AB

CF\\AB.

and CD are the given straights, take Then (by 361) DCF\\AB.

GEOMETRY OF
Determination.
For, through
in

PL/tNES.

iSS

There

is
||

only one such plane.

DC

any plane

the parallel to

AB

AB meets plane ABC through C, .". is identical

with

CDF.
of st's
||

Ex. 427. Through a point without a plane pass any

number

to that plane.
st'

Ex. 428. Through a point without a

of planes
||

pass any

number

to that

st'.
1|

Ex. 429. Planes on a a meet a in ||s. Ex. 430. If a and a p, then a to the meet
ffl
II || ||

a/3.

Through any given point P to 363. Problem. pass a plane parallel to any two given straights,

Fig. 139.

[The plane determined by the parallel to a through P, and the parallel to b through P.] [There is only one such plane.]
a,
b.

Ex. 431. Through two non-coplanar straights one and only one pair of planes can be passed.
jj

364.

Theorem.

The

intersections

of two

parallel

planes with a third plane are parallel. They cannot meet, being in Proof.
planes;
plane.

two

parallel

yet they are coplanar, being in the third

156

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
to
364.

365. Corollary

Parallel sects

included

between
Ex. meets Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex.
a'
II

parallel planes are equal.

432. If
are
||.

two

II

planes meet two

||

planes, the four

433. If o 434. If a 435. 436.

If,
\\

II

to the meet ap, then a

p,

||

a and a

||

/?.

II

aA-a

is /9.
||

Through
in
/?.

A
A

draw a
a',

p.
/9,

[Solution unique.]
b cross
b',

a,

a cross

in

and a

||

b,

b',

then a
437. 438. 439.

Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex. Ex.

Through

all st's
||

||

a are coplanar.
||.

Two
The

planes
oc
II

to a third are

intercepts

on

||s

440. If 441. If

AB

and

BC
||.

\\

three sects .are

between a and o a are =. a, then plane ABC a. = and the as of their

||
\\

||,

adjoining ends are = and Ex. 442. If ^ in a a,

II

AB

||

is

in a.

366.

Theorem.

If

two

angles
the

have

their

sides
of
the

respectively

parallel

and on

same

side

straight through their vertices, they are equal.

Fig. 140.

Hypothesis.

same side of on same side

AB\\A'B' with A and A' on the BB' also CB C'B' with C and
;
\\

of BB'.

GEOMETRY OF
Proof.

PL/iNES.

157

From A take (by 66) AA'\\BB'; : (by AA' = BB' and A'B'=AB. In same way CC and = BB' and B'C = BC. But then AA' = CC' and (by 353) AA'WCC; :. (by 100) AC=A'C'; (by
.

95)

\\

.-.

58)

A ABC = A A' B'C.

Parallels intersecting the
it.

367. Corollary to 366.

same plane

are equally inclined to

Let two planes, a, /?, intersect in the straight a. Let A and A' be points on a. Erect now at A and A' perpendiculars to a in one hemiplane a' of , and also in hemiplane /?' of ^. Then (by 366) the angle of the perpendiculars at A is equal to the angle of the perpendiculars at A'.
368. Definition.

Fig. 141.

We

call this

angle

ilic

iiicliiutioii of the

hvo hcmi-

plciiics a'

and

,3'.

When

the inclination

is

a right angle the planes

to

are said to be perpendicular to each other. If a straight is perpendicular 369. Theorem.

a given plane,
Proof.

any plane

containi)ig

this

straight

is perpoidijcnlar to the given pla>ic.

At the

foot of the given perpendicular

erect in the given plane a perpendicular to the

158

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
of

meet

the

planes.

From the
;

definition

of

perpendicular to a plane (334) the given perpendicular makes with this a r't ^ but this angle
is

(by 368) the inclination of the planes.

Ex. 443.

plane

the meet of two planes

a.

is

JL

to

each; and inversely.

Ex. 444. Through a in a draw /3

369

(6).

Corollary to 369.

straight

and

its

pro-

jection

to

on a determine a plane perpendicular to a. // two planes are perpendicular 370. Theorem. each other, any straight in one, perpendicular to
371. Corollary to

their ineet, is perpendicular to the other.

370.

pendicular to each other,

other.

two planes are pera straight from any point

If

in their meet, perpendicular to either, lies in the

For the perpendicular to their meet in one

perpendicular to the other, and (by 340) there only one perpendicular to a plane at a point.
Ex. 445. Ex. 446.
is X.

is is

If
If

A
a

in
st'

ffXA from A, a/? is in a. be to a plane, a plane J. to the

||

st'

to the plane.
If each of two inter371. perpendicular to a given plane, perpendicular to that plane.

372. Corollary

to

secting planes
their

is

meet

is

The perpendicular to this third plane from the foot of the meet of the others is (by 371)
Proof. in both of them.
a to pass p Ex. 447. Through a st' Ex. 448. Through a draw a /?. Ex. 449. Through A draw aX/? and x|| ||

a.

GEOMETRY OF
373.

PLANES.

159

Theorem.

If two

straights

be cut by three

parallel planes the corresponding sects are proportional.

Fig. 142.

Let AB,
/?,

r in A, E,

To prove
Proof.

CD be cut by the B and C, F, D. AE:EB=CF: FD.

parallel planes

a,

If
II

AD

cut ^ in G, then (by 364)

EG BD
\\

and
.-.

AC

GF.

(by 235)

AE:EB=AG:GD

and

AG:GD=

CF:FD.

..AE:EB=CF:FD.
Ex. 450. Investigate the inverse of 373.

one,

Theorem. Two straights not coplanar have and only one, common perpendicular. Given a and b not coplanar. To prove there is one, and only one, straight
374.

perpendicular to both.
Proof.

Through any point

A
\\

oi

a take

\\

b.

Then

(by 361) the plane ac or a

b.

The

projection

i6o
b'

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

of 6

on a
||

is
\\

were a

h'

b.

(by 356) b and cuts a, say in B' else Then, in plane b'b, B'B drawn Lb' is
||

Fig. 143.

(by 370) _La and (by 74) also Ub.

It is the only

common perpendicular to a and b. For any common perpendicular meeting a at B" is Ub" through a, hence B" is a point B" h, which is in a, and
.'.
II

of

b'

the projection of 6 on a;
b'

.".

identical with B',

the cross of
dicular
is

with

a.

375. Corollary to

Their common perpen374. the smallest sect between two straights

not coplanar.

For (by 142) BB' =B,B/ <B,A.

Ex. 451. No st's joining points in two non-coplanar can be Ex. 452. From A, B, C, costraight, are dropped to a non-coplanar st' -is AD, BE, CF. Prove AB:BC
st's
||.

=DE:EF.
Ex. 453.
other.

plane

to the

common 1

to two
st'

st's at

its bisection-point, bisects

every sect from one

to the

we may

When any figure is given construct a dual figure by taking planes instead of points, and points instead of planes, but straights where
Ex. 454. Principle of Duality.
to four non-coplanar points is four non-copunctal planes. State the dual of the following: Two planes determine a straight.

we had straights. The figure dual

GEOMETRY OF PLANES.

i6i

Three non-costraight planes determine a point. A straight and a plane not on it determine a point. Two straights through a point determine a plane. Ex. 455. A polygon whose vertices are always necessarily coplanar is what? Ex. 456. From each point in a plane costraight with and equally inclined to two others the two _Ls to them are =. Ex. 457. If two planes are respectively J_ to two others and the intersection of the first pair to that of the second
|1

pair, the inclinations are

or supplemental. as projections

Ex. 458. Parallels have

parallels or points.

on any plane

Ex. 459. Parallel sects jections on a plane.

are proportional to their pro-

^ s

Ex. 460. From a point, J_s to two planes make an or supplemental to the inclination of the planes. Ex. 461. A st' has the same inclination to planes. the sum Ex. 462. If three meets of three planes are
||

||,

of the three inclinations is

II

two

r't

^s.

to each of two planes, any plane Ex. 463. If a st' is on it cuts them in ||s. Ex. 464. Through a point without two non-coplanar st's passes, in general, a sin^.le
st' cutting both. does each foot of a three-legged stool meet the floor while one foot of a four-legged chair may be above the floor? Ex. 466. If a, b non-coplanar, a a meets /? _L 6 in c JL

Ex. 465.

Why

;II

a and b. Ex. 467.

If

two projections
planes
give

of a trio of points
trios,

on two
original

intersecting

costraight

the

State the exception. three are costraight. Ex. 468. No oblique to a plane makes equal angles with
three straights in the plane.

Ex. 469. Draw a plane with the same inclination to two given planes. Ex. 470. Draw a straight that shall cross three straights,

no two coplanar.

62

R/4TIONAL GEOMETRY.

st's

Ex. 471. Draw a st' to cross two given non-coplanar and to another given st'. [Show solution, in general,
||

unique.]

Ex. 472. In a plane find a point which joined with three given points without the plane gives equal sects.

Ex. 473. The projection on a of

a\\a.

r't

^ (a, 6)

is

r't

if

Ex. 474. If a perpendicular to a plane be projected on any second plane this projection is at right angles to the meet or intersection of the planes. Ex. 475. From a point without a plane, if there be drawn the perpendicular to the plane and also a perpendicular to a straight in the plane, the join of the feet of
these perpendiculars
is at right angles to the straight. planes being given perpendicular to each other, draw a third perpendicular to both.

Ex. 476.

Two

Ex. 477. Three planes, no two parallel, either intersect in one point (are copunctal) or in one straight (are costraight) or
parallel.

have their three intersection-straights (meets)

If

Ex. 478.

two

straights be at right angles either is

in the plane through their point of intersection (cross)

perpendicular to the other. Ex. 479. If three planes have two of their intersection-straights parallel, the third is parallel to both.

Ex. 480. All straights on two intersecting straights, but not on their cross, are coplanar. Ex. 481. If the vertices of a triangle give equal sects when joined to a point without their plane, the foot of the perpendicular from this point to the plane is the triangle's circumcenter.

Ex. 482. All points which joined to three given points

give three equal sects are where?

Ex. 483. All coplanar points which joined to a given point give equal sects are where? Ex. 484. If a plane contains one straight perpendicular
to a second plane, every straight in the
first

plane per-

GEOMETRY OF

PLy4NES.

163

pendicular to the intersection-straight (the meet) of the planes is also perpendicular to the second. Ex. 485. Any plane is equally inclined to two parallel
planes.

Ex. 486. If xs from a point to two intersecting planes be = it determines with their meet a plane equally inclined to them. Ex. 487. Construct a plane containing a given straight and perpendicular to a given plane. Ex. 488. Two perpendiculars from a point to two intersecting planes determine a plane perpendicular to the

meet

of the

two
If

planes.

each of three planes be perpendicular to the other two, their three meets are also perpendicular to the planes and to one another. Ex. 490. If any number of planes perpendicular to a given plane have a common point, they have a common

Ex. 489.

meet

(intersection-straight).

If the meets of several planes are parallel, the perpendiculars to them from any given point are coplanar. Ex. 492. Perpendiculars from two vertices of a parallelogram to a plane through the other two are equal. Ex. 493. Two sides of an equilateral triangle are equally inclined to any plane through the third. Ex. 494. If two straights be not coplanar, find a point in one which, joined to two given points in the other,

Ex. 491.

gives equal sects.

a /9 and j-. and the meet ap ay, then ^ ||/-. four sides of a quadrilateral be not cothe If planar it is called skew. No three sides of a skew quadrilateral are coplanar, nor can its four ^s.h& r't. Ex. 497. If a sect divide one pair of opposite sides of a skew quadrilateral proportionally, and another divide

Ex. 495. Ex. 496.

If

||

the other pair in another proportion, these two sects will and each cut the other as it cuts the sides. Ex. 498. Find that point in a given plane from which the sum of the sects to two given points on the same side is least.
cross

i64

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 499. If A and a are in a, and B not, find the point in a from which the sum of sects to A and B is least.

number of the sides of a skew quad' even number externally.

Ex. 500. Every plane not on a vertex cuts an even internally and an

Ex. 501. If non-coplanar as ABC, A'B'C have AA' BB', copunctal, then the three pairs of sides AB, A'B'; AC, A'C; BC, B'C intersect in three costraight

CC

points.

Ex. 502.

If

two

st's

in one plane

to another plane they

tion of these planes.

make =

4^3

be equally inclined with the common sec-

Ex. 503. If three planes be each to the other two, the sq' of the sect from their common intersection to another point equals the sum of the sq's of the three s from that point to the planes. Ex. 504. If three st's be each _L to the other two, twice the sq' of the sect from their common intersection to another point equals the sum of the sq's of the three s from that point to the st's.

Ex. 505.
st's

Draw a

st'

to cut three given non-intersecting

may be as two given sects. Ex. 506. If a plane cut a tetrahedron in a ||g'm, the plane is to two opposite edges. Ex. 507. The aggregate of all points is divided by four
so that the intercepts
|]

planes into (in general) fifteen regions. Ex. 508. The medians of a skew quadrilateral bisect one another.

Ex. 509.
rimeter.

If

diagonals are

two medians of a skew quadrilateral be x the = and sections to them are llg'ms of = pe, ||

CHAPTER

XIII.

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

Polyhedrons.
376. Definition.

tetrahedron

is

the figure con-

stituted

by

four non-coplanar points, their sects

called its summits, the six

and triangles. The four points are

sects its edges, the four triangles its faces.

Every

summit

is

said to be opposite to the face

the other three; every edge opposite to by the two remaining summits.

made by that made

within

A
any
its

point
sect

is

within the tetrahedron

if it is

made by any summit and

a point within

opposite face.

Points not within or on are

without.

The

faces taken together, are called the surface

of the tetrahedron.
377. A polyhedron is the figure formed by n plane polygons such that each side is common to two. The polygons are called its faces, and taken Their sects are its edges; together, its surface. their vertices its summits. A convex polyhedron is one through no edge of which pass more than two faces, and which has no stmunits on different sides of the plane of a face.
165

i66

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
polyhedron of
five,
six,

eight, twelve,

faces is called a pentahedron,

twenty hexahedron, octa-

hedron, dodecahedron, icosahedron.

A pyramid is a polyhedron of which all the except faces, one, are copvinctal. This one face is called the base, and the summit not on it the
378.

apex.

lateral faces,

which meet at the apex are called and together the lateral sinface; the edges meeting at the apex are called lateral edges. The perpendicular from the apex to the plane
faces
of the base is called the altitude of the pyramid.
379. Euler's
the

The

Theorem.

number

of faces increased by the

mits exceeds by two the

In any convex polyhedron number of sumnumber of edges.

To prove
Proof.

F + S = E-\-2.
e

Let

A,

and the faces alone. If a and

be any edge joining the summits a, /?. Replace e, A, and B by

/?

are neither of

them

triangles,

they both remain, though reduced iji rank and no longer collateral, and the polyhedron has lost one edge e and one summit B. If /? is a triangle and a no triangle, ^ vanishes with e into an edge through A, but a remains. The polyhedron has lost two edges of ^, one face /?, and one summit B. If /? and a are both triangles, ^ and a both vanish with e, five edges forming those triangles are reduced to two through A, and the polyhedron has lost three edges, two faces, and the summit B. In any one of these cases, whether one edge and one siunmit vanish, or two edges disappear with

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

167

a face and a summit, or three edges with a summit and two faces, the truth or falsehood of the equation

F+S=E+2
remains unaltered. By causing all the edges which do not meet any face to vanish,* we reduce the polyhedron to a pyramid upon that face. Now the relation is true of the pyramid therefore it is true of the imdiminished polyhedron. TJie sum of the face angles of 380. Theorem.
;

any convex polyJicdron

taken as

is

equal

to

four right angles

many

times, less two, as the polyhedron

has

summits.

To prove J = (5 2)4
Proof.

r't 7f

Since

2E

is

the

number

denotes the number of edges, of sides of the faces.

Taking an exterior angle at each vertex, the sum of the interior and exterior angles is 2E2 r't ^ But the exterior angles of each face or E4 r't ^
.

make 4 r't ^ make F4 r't :^

.-.

.".

the exterior angles of

F
yf

faces

J:

=4

r't

4 -F4

r't

i-

={E -F)4 r't

But (by 379)

F+S = E+2;
..E-F=S-2;
.-.

2'

= (5-2)4r't^.
of

Ex. 510. The number of face angles in the stirface any polyhedron is twice the number of its edges.
Ex. 511If

a polyhedron has for faces only potygons

if

* Prove

this alwaj's possible

the polyhedron be convex.

i68

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

with an odd number of sides, it must have an even number of faces. Ex. 512. If the faces of a polyhedron are partly of an even, partly of an odd, number of sides, there must be an even number of odd-sided faces. Ex. 513. The number of face angles on a polyhedron can never be less than thrice the number of faces. Ex. 514. In every polyhedron |5<. Ex. 515. In any polyhedron +6<35. Ex. 516. In any polyhedron E +6<^F. Ex. 517. In every polyhedron <35. Ex. 518. In every polyhedron E<2,F. Ex. 519. In a polyhedron, not all the summits are more than five sided; nor have all the faces more than
five sides.

Ex. 520. There is no seven-edged polyhedron. Ex. 521. For every convex polyhedron the sum of the face
angles
is

four times as

many

right angles as the difference

between the number of edges and faces. Ex. 522. How many regular convex polyhedrons are
possible ?

Ex. 523. In no polyhedron can triangles and threefaced summits both be absent; together are present at
least eight.

Ex. 524. A polyhedron without triangular and quadrangular faces has at least twelve pentagons; a polyhedron without three-faced and four-faced summits has at least twelve five-faced.

The volume
381.

of tetrahedrons

and polyhedrons.
of

Theorem.

The product
its

an

altitude of a

tetrahedron by the area of

what summit
Proof.

base is independent of one chooses as apex.

From H and H', feet of altitudes from and C, drop perpendiculars HK, and H'K' to

AB.

POLYHEDRONS AND yOLUMES.

169

Then KDLAB.
are at
r't
if 's,

[If

two planes
st'

ABC
one

and

HKD

then a

AK

in

to their

Fig. 144.

intersection
.-.

RH

is

also

to the other

HDK

and

.4A:_l/vI?.]

In same

way AK'K'C.

.(by 366) ^A-^^A-. the r't triangles

HKD

and H'K'C are

similar.

DK-.CK' =DH:CH'.

.DKCH' =CK'-DH. \A B DK TH' = iA B

382. Definition.

CK' DH.

One-third the product of base tetrahedron altitude of a T is called the volume and of tetrahedron T and designated by V{T).
^\ plane through an edge of 383. Con\-ention. a tetrahedron and a point of the opposite edge this cuts the tetrais called a transversal plane;

hedron into two tetrahedra with common altitude Such a partition is whose bases are coplanar. called a transversal partition of the tetralicdron.

70
384.'

RATION/I L GEOMETRY.
Theorem.

The volume
of the

of

any

tetrahedron

volumes of all the tetrahedra the by making successively a first arise from which
is equal to the
set of transversal partitions.

sum

From the distributive law in our sectProof. calculus follows immediately that the volume of any tetrahedron is equal to the siun of the volumes
of

two tetrahedra which come from the first by any transversal partition. Thus if the given tetrahedron ABCD is cut by c

4
^
^'''-

the transversal plane ACE passing through the edge AC, the two tetrahedra

so

obtained,

AEBC
in

and

AEDC, have
.

common
from C.

y^
E

the

altitude h^

triangle

Moreover, the area of the is equal to

ABD

the

sum

of the areas of

AEB and AED. Thus V{T,) + V{T,) = ^h^.A{A;) +\h^.A{A,) =

Now
our theorem follows merely by repeated

'^^-

\h,[A{A,)+A{A,)]=lK-A{A)=V{T).
application of this single result.

However a tetrahedron is cut by 385. Theorem. a plane, this partition can be obtained in a set of transversal partitions using not more than two other
planes.*

Proof.

Passing the case in which

the plane

*See G. Veronese, Atti

1894-95.

del R. Istituto Veneto,

t.

vi,

s.

vii;

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

itself

171

goes

through an edge of the tetrahedron

A BCD,
I.

there remain three cases:

single summit, A, thus cutting the tetrahedron A BCD into the tetrahedron and the pyramid with quadrilateral base AXYCD. for example,

The plane passes through a

ABXY

Fig. 146.

But
planes
II.

this partition

is

in the

set

of transversal

partitions

obtained

by taking

successively

the

ADY

and

AYX.
cuts

the three edges copunctal A, thus cutting the example, in a summit, the tetrahedron tetrahedron A BCD into

The plane

for

AXYZ

and the convex polyhedron

partition
is

XYZBCD.

But

this

the set of transversal partitions successively the planes BDY, taking obtained by
in

BYZ, YZX.
III.

for example,

The plane cuts two pairs of opposite AB, CD, and AC, BD.
is

edges,

Thus the tetrahedron

cut into the two poly-

172

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

hedrons

ADWXYZ
BDX

two planes

and BCWXYZ. and ACZ. By these

Draw
at the

the

same

time the polyhedron

ADWXYZ

is

cut into the

Fig. 148.

three

tetrahedra

XZAY, XZAD, XZDW, and

the

polyhedron

BCWXYZ

cut

into

the

three

tetrahedra

XZBY,XZBC, XZCW.

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

173

But that these six tetrahedra form a set obby trans^'ersal partitions is seen by taking first the plane BDX, and then in the tetrahedron IWXC successively the planes CXZ and ZA'IT';
tainable
in the tetrahedron

BDX A
-finite

successively the planes

AXZ
cut

and YZX. 386. Theorem.

.nto
is

// a tctraJicdroii

is

in

any

luay

certain
the

miniber of tetrahedra Tk,

tetraliedron
all

then

always
tlic

equal

to

sunt of the

volume of the volumes of

the

tetra-

hedra Tk.
Proof. The plane a of any one face of any one of the tetrahedra Tk, say, T^, makes in T a partition which, by 385, can be obtained in a set
of transversal partitions of T made by introducing two other planes i3, y, cutting T into T,. When a cuts any tetrahedron Tk, say T^, add in this 7^2 the two planes d, s, making the corresponding set of transversal partitions in this Tj.

When
say
T.,a,

/?

cuts

one

of

these

new

tetrahedra,
ij.

add in it the requisite two planes ^, So do for any tetrahedron T^ met by /3. Then in the same way successiveh' for y.

Now
Add

produce a second face of

T^,

say
is

d,

to cut

those tetrahedra T, in which this face

in each of these T, the

situated.

two planes to make

plane cuts

the transversal partition.

When any

a tetrahedron already existing, add the requisite

two

planes.

produce a third face of Tj to the nearest tetrahedron transversally obtained from T. Finally take in the fotuth face of T^. Then Tj appears

Now

174

RATIONy^L GEOMETRY.
T;
while
if

in a set of transversal partitions of

cut

itself,

it

is

of Tj.

In the

reach

Thus after by a set

by a set of transversal partitions same way for every other Tka finite number of constructions we
of transversal partitions of
7"

final

set of tetrahedra Tf,

which are at the same time

also reached by transversal partitions of the tetrahedra Tk. 387. Theorem. If a polyhedron P is cut into

tetrahedra in two different ways, then the

sum

of the

volumes of
Proof.
ti,
.
.

the tetrahedra of the first partition equals

that of the second.

t^,
i^n

tm,

Suppose P divided into m tetrahedra and again into n tetrahedra i/, t^',

T which contains the polyhedron P, and cut the polyhedron bounded by the surface of P, and that of T in any definite
Construct a tetrahedron

way

into tetrahedra 7/, T^',.

Thus we obtain two partitions of the dron T and (by 386) the equations

tetrahe-

F(r)=F(0 + F(0 +

+ F(u + F(r/) + F(r/) + ... V{T)=V{t,') + V{t,') + ... + V{tJ) + V{T,') + V{T,') + ...
whence

388.

Definition.

the

sum

of the
it is

The volume of a polyhedron is volumes of any set of tetrahedra

into which

cut.

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

390. Corollary.
If

175

hedra, the

sum
if

a polyhedron be cut into polyof their volumes equals its volume.

If a polyhedron be cut into one of these be omitted it is not possible with the others, however arranged, to

391. Corollary.

polyhedra,

make up

the original polyhedron.

The Prismatoid Formula.

A prismatoid is a polyhedron 392. Definition. having for base and top any two polygons in parallel
planes, and whose lateral faces are triangles determined by the vertices so that each lateral edge

with the succeeding forms a triangle with one side of the base or of the top. The altitude of a prismatoid is the perpendicular from top to base. A number of different prismatoids thus have
the same base, top, and altitude.

A
If
is

prismatoid with a point as top is a pyramid. both base and top of a prismatoid are sects, it

a tetrahedron. a side of the base and a side of the top which form with the same lateral edge two sides of two adjoining faces are parallel, then these two triIf

angular faces

fall in

the same plane, and together

form a trapezoid.
a prismatoid whose base and top have the same number of sides, and every
393.

prisinoid

is

corresponding pair parallel. 394. A frnstuin of a pyramid

is

a prismoid with

base and top similar.

176

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

395. Corollary.

Every prismoid with

triangular

base

is

the frustum of a pyramid.

396. A section of a prismatoid is the polygon determined by a plane perpendicular to the alti-

tude.
397.

Theorem.

The area

of

section of a

pyramid

is to the

area of the base as the square of the perpendicular on it, from the apex, is to the square of the altitude of the pyramid.

To prove S:B=p^:a'. The section and base Proof.

are similar, since corresponding

diagonals

cut

them

into

tri-

angles similar in pairs because

having

all

their

sides

respec-

tively proportional, each corre-

sponding pair being as a lateral edge to the sect on it made by apex and section, which in turn
are as altitude to perpendicular on section.

But

(by 300) the areas are as the squares of these. 398. To find the volume of any pyramid. Rule, llultiply one-third its altitude by the area
of its base.

Formula,

Y =-B.
3

Cutting this base into triangles by planes through the apex, we have a partition of the given
Proof.

pyramid into triangular pyramids (tetrahedra) of the same altitude whose bases together make the
polygonal base.
399.

To

find the voltome of

any prismatoid.

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

Rule,

177

multiply
tlic

oiic-fanriJi
tlircc

its

altitude

by

the

sum

of

base

and
from

times a section at two-

thirds the altitude

the base.

Formula, >=-(S + 35). 4

Fig. 150.

Proof.

Any
all

prismatoid
of the

may

be divided into

tetrahedra,

same

altitude as the pris-

matoid; some, as CFGO, having their apex ia the top of the prismatoid and their base T\ithin its some, as OABC, ha\4ng three stimmits base; within the top and the fotuth in the base of the

Fig. 151.

78

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

prismatoid, thus having for base a point

and

for

top a triangle;
for base

and the

others, as

ACOG, having

and top a pair

of opposite edges, a sect

in the plane of the base

sect in the plane of the top of the prismatoid, as OG and AC. Therefore if the formula holds good for tetra-

and a

hedra in these three positions, it holds for the prismatoid, their sum. In (i) call 5i the section at two-thirds the altitude from the base 5, then 5j is Ja from the apex. Therefore (by 397) the areas
;

:.

A =^(5, + 35.) =^(5,4-^5,) ^\aB

Y^, the

which (by 382) equals

hedron.

volume

of this tetra-

In
this

(2)

the base B^

is

a point, and S^
of

is

point,

which

is

the apex

an

fa from inverted

pyramid. (by 397) the areas52:T2

= (fa)2:o=';

:.S.,

= \T2\

In
areas

(3)

let

KLMN

be the section

S^.

Now

the

AANK:AAGO=AN^^AG^ = {lay:a^ = i:<);

AGNM:AGAC = GN':GA' = i^ay:a^ = 4:g.

POLYHEDRONS AND yOLUMES.

179

But the whole tetrahedron D^ and the pyramid

CANK may
in the

be considered as having their bases

plane,

same

AGO, and

the same altitude,

a perpendicular from C:

..CANK:D^= A ANK: A AGO = i:g;

.-.CANK^^D,.
In the same

way
:

OGXM
.-.

D, = A

GNM AGAC = 4:9;

:

:.OGNM=iD,; CANK + OGNM ^^D, CKLMX + OKLMiX = ^D,.

;

But

by

(398)

CKLMX + OKL]\IN = ^-iaSs +

4
since here the area 53

= 0.
Since, in a
..

400. Corollary to 399.

pyramid, B and sponding edges,

are similar;

if

fc

frustum of a and 5 be corre-

B:S = b^:s';

.-.

the voltime

F^-B(i + ^j.
a prismoid whose
lateral

401. Definition.

prism

is

base and top are congruent. A right prism is one whose

perpendicular to
its base.

edges are

i8o

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
parallelepiped
is

prism whose bases are

faces

prallelograms.

A
A

cuboid cube

is

a parallelopiped whose six

are rectangles.
is

402. Corollary to 400.

a cuboid whose six faces are squares. To find the volume of

its base.

any prism.
Multiply its altitude by the area of Rule. Formula, V{P)=a-B. .. To find the volume of a cuboid.
Rule.

Multiply together any three copunctal edges, that is, its length, breadth, and thickness. 403. A cube whose edge is the unit sect has for

volume

this unit sect, since

1X1X1 = 1.

polyhedron has for volume as many such unit sects as the polyhedron contains such cubes

Any

on the unit

sect.

The number expressing the volume hedron will thus be the same in terms
sect,

of a polyof our unit

or in terms of a cube on this sect, considered Such units, as a new kind of imit, a unit solid. tmnecessary. are traditional, though

Ex. 525.
is

If the altitude of the highest Egyptian pyramid 138 meters, and a side of its square base 228 meters,

find its volume.

Ex. 526. The pyramid of Memphis has an altitude of the base is a square whose side is 116 Toises. If a Toise is 1-95 meters, find the volume of this pyramid. Ex. 527. A pyramid of volume 15 has an altitude of Find the area of its base. 9 units. Ex. 528. Find the volume of a rectangular prismoid of 12 meters altitude whose section at two-thirds the
73 Toises;

POLYHEDRONS AND VOLUMES.

i8i

attitude is s meters long and 2 meters broad, and base 7 meters long and 4 meters broad. Ex. 529. In a prismoid 15 meters tall, whose base is 36 square meters, each basal edge is to the top edge as Find the volume. 3 to 2. Ex. S30. Every regular octahedron is a prismatoid whose bases and lateral faces are all congruent equilateral triangles.

Ex. S3 1. The bases of a prismatoid are congruent squares of side h, whose sides are not parallel. What are the lateral faces? Ex. 532. If from a regular icosahedron we take off

two

five-sided

pyramids

whose

vertices

are

opposite

summits, there remains a prismatoid bounded by two congruent regular pentagons and ten equilateral triangles. Ex. 533 Both faces of a prismatoid of altitude a are
.

squares;

the lateral faces isosceles triangles. The sides of the upper base are parallel to the diagonals of the lower base, and half as long as these diagonals; and b is a side of the lower base. Find the volume. Ans. \ab^.

Ex. S34- The top of a prismatoid of altitude a =6 a square of side b =10; the section at one-third the Find volume. altitude from base is 10. Ex. 535. Every prismatoid is equal in volume to three pyramids of the same altitude with it, of which one has for base half the sum of the prismatoid's bases, and each
is

of the others its mid-cross section;

D^la i^^^ + 2il/) = MB, +4M +B,).

Ex. S36.
If

a prismatoid have bases with angles re-

spectively equal

and

their sides parallel,

in

volume

it

equals a prism plus a pyramid, both of the same altitude with it, whose bases have the same angles as the bases of the prismatoid, but the basal edges of the prism are half the sum, and of the pyramid half the difference, of the

corresponding sides of both the prismatoid's bases. Ex. S3 7. If the bases of a prismatoid are trapezoids whose mid-sects are b^ and b^, and whose altitudes are

82

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
1

a, '

and

a,, '

the volume

.1

/cii = o(-^

\2

+cf2 61+62 ^^

frustum of a square pyramid is 25 meters, a side of the top is 9 meters, and the height is 240 meters. Required the volume of the
side of the base of a

Ex. 538.

+^ 2322/
I a,
^

a, 6, ^-

6,\

^"l

frustum. Ex. 539. The sides of the square bases of a frustum are 50 and 40 centimeters. Each lateral edge is 30 centimeters. How many liters would it contain? Ex. 540. In the frustum of a pyramid whose base is 50 and altitude 6, the basal edge is to the corresponding top edge as 5 to 3. Find volume. Ex. 541. Near Memphis stands a frustum whose height is 142-85 meters, and bases are squares on edges of 185-5 and 3-714 meters. Find its volume. Ex. 542. In the frustum of a regular tetrahedron, given a basal edge, a top edge, and the volume. Find the altitude. Ex. 543. A wedge of 10 centimeters altitude, 4 centimeters edge, has a square base of 36 centimeters perimeter. Find volume. Ex. 544. The diagonal of a cube is n. Find its volume. Ex. 545. The edge of a cube is n. Approximate to the edge of a cube twice as large. Ex. 546. Find the cube whose volume equals its superficial area.

Ex. 547. Find the edge of a cube equal to three whose

edges are
a,
b,
I.

Ex. 548. If a cubical block of marble, of which the edge is i meter, costs one dollar, what costs a cubical block whose edge is equal to the diagonal of the first block? Ex. 549. If the altitude, breadth, and length of a cuboid be a, 6, I, and its volume V, (i) Given a, 6, and superficial area; find V. (2) Given a, b, V; find I. (3) Given V, (ab), (bl); find I and b.
(4)

Given V,

l-r)

(-r

find a

and

6.

POLYHEDRONS AND t^OLUMES.

183

(5) Given (ab), (al), (bl); find a and b. Ex. 550. If 97 centimeters is the diagonal of a cuboid with square base of 43 centimeters side, find its volume. Ex. 551. The volume of a cuboid whose basal edges are 12 and 4 meters is equal to the superficial area. Find
its altitude.

Ex. 552. In a cuboid of 360 superficial area, the base a square of edge 6. Find the volume. Ex. 553. A cuboid of volume 864 has a square base equal in area to the area of two adjacent sides. Find
is

its

three dimensions.

Ex. 554. In a cuboid of altitude 8 and superficial area 160 the base is square. Find the volume. Ex. 555. The volume of a cuboid is 144, its diagonal Find its three dimensions. 13, the diagonal of its base 5. Ex. 556. In a cuboid of surface 108, the base, a square, equals in area the area of the fotir sides. Find volume. Ex. 557. What is the area of the sheet of metal required to construct a rectangular tank (open at top) 12 meters long, 10 meters broad, and 8 meters deep? Ex. 558. The base of a prism 10 meters tall is an isosceles right triangle of 6 meters hjrpothenuse. Find volume. Ex. 559. In a prism the area of whose base is 210 the three sides are rectangles of area 336, 300, 204. Find volume. Ex. 560. A right prism whose volume is 480 stands upon an isosceles triangle whose base is 10 and side 13. Find altitude. Ex. 561. In a right prism whose volume is 54. the lateral area is four times the area of the base, an equilateral triangle. Find basal edge. Ex. 562. The vertical ends of a hollow trough are parallel equilateral triangles with i meter in each side, a pair of sides being horizontal. If the length between the triangular ends be 6 meters, find the volume of water the trough will contain.

CHAPTER

XIV.

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.
404. Definition.
If
all

is

the aggregate of

points

any given point, then A for which the sects

CA are congruent to one another is called a sphere. C is called the center of the sphere, and CA the
radius.

Every point B, such that

within the sphere.
If

CA > CB is said to be CA < CD, then D is without

the sphere.

ray from the center of a sphere cuts the sphere in one, and only one, point. Any straight through its center 406. Theorem. cuts the sphere in two, and only two, points.
405.

Theorem.

Any

407. Definition.

sect

whose end-points are

on the sphere
is

is

called a chord.

408. Definition.

Any

chord through the center

Its

called

diameter.

end-points

are

called

opposite points of the sphere.

409.

Theorem.

Every diameter
and 409.

is

bisected

by

the center.
410. Corollary to 106
its

plane through
circle is called

center meets the sphere in a circle with radius

equal to that of the sphere. a great circle of the sphere.

Such a

184

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.

185

411. Corollary to 410. All great circles of the sphere are congruent, since each has for its radius the radius of the sphere.
412.
bisect

Theorem.
each
otlicr.

Any

two great circles of a sphere

Proof.

Since the planes of these circles both

center of the sphere, therefore

pass through the

on their intersection is a diameter of the sphere which is a diameter of each circle. 413. Theorem. If any number of great circles pass
through a given point, they will also pass through the
opposite point.

Proof.

The given point and the center

of the

sphere determine the same diameter for each of

the
circles.

Through opposite points an indefmite number of great circles can be passed. Through any two non-opposite 415. Theorem. points on a sphere, one, and only one, great circle
414. Corollary to 413.

can be passed.
Proof.

For the two given points and the center

of the sphere determine its plane.

416. Definition.

straight
it

tangent to

a sphere when

or plane is called has one point, and

only one, in common \\4th the sphere. Two spheres are called tangent to each other when they have one point, and only one, in com-

mon.
417.

Theorem.
tlie

.4

straigJit
it

or

plane

liaving

the

foot of the perpendicular to

from

the center in

com-

mon

with

sphere

is

tangent.
is

Proof.

This perpendicular, a radius,

(by 142)

i86
less

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

than any other sect from the center to this Therefore every point of the straight or plane. straight or plane is without the sphere except the
foot of this radius.
418.

Theorem.

If a straight has a given point not

the foot of the perpendicular to it from the center in common with a sphere, it has a second point on the sphere.
is the other end-point of the sect given point bisected by this perpen-

Proof.

This

from the
dicular.

419.

Theorem.

If a plane has a
foot

point

not
to

the
it

of

the

perpendicular

from

the center in
it

common

with a

sphere,
circle.

cuts the

sphere in a

Proof.

If

point
Fig. 152.

and

A be C the

the
foot

common
of

the

perpendicular, the circle

is

OC{CA)
through

on the sphere.
419.

420. Corollary

to

The

straight

of a sphere perpendicular to its plane passes through the center of the sphere. The two opposite points in 421. Definition.

the center of

any

circle

which the perpendicular to

its

plane, through the

center of a circle of the sphere, meets the sphere,

are called the poles of that circle,

and the diameter

between them its axis. Any three points on a sphere deter422. Theorem. mine a circle on the sphere (I 3 and 419). The radius of any circle of the 423. Theorem. sphere whose plane does not contain the center

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.
of the sphere
circle.
is

187

less

than the radius of a great

142) is

Proof.

The hj^othenuse (by

>

side.

A circle on the sphere whose 424. Definition. plane does not contain the center of the sphere is
called a small circle of the sphere.
425. Inverse
of

417.

Every
is

straight

or plane
to

tangent

to

the

sphere

perpendicular

the

radius at the point of contact.

For if not it would have (by 418) another point on it. 426. Theorem. // tico spheres have two points
in

common

they cut in

circle

ivJiose

center is

in

their center-straight
to

and

wliose plane is perpendicular

that straight.

Let C and the spheres having the points

Hypothesis.
Conclusion.

.4

be the centers of and B in common.

all

They have
on a
circle

in

common

points,

and only
plane
J_

those,

mth

center on

OC and

to OC.

Fig. 153.

Proof.

Since,
-4

by

diculars from

i\ACO=^BCO, and B upon OC are

58,

.-.perpen-

equal and

meet
of

OC

at the
.4

points like

same point, D. and B, in a plane

Thus
_L

all,

but only,

to OC, and points

qD{DA),

are on both spheres.

RylTIONAL GEOMETRY.
427. Corollary to 426.
If

two spheres

are tan-

gent, either internally or externally, their centers

and point of contact are costraight. 428. Theorem. Four points, not coplanar, mine a sphere.

deter-

Proof. Let A, B, C, D be the four given points.

Then (by 352) the plane a to and bisecting AB meets /? to and bisecting

BC

in

EH ABC,

and

d to and BD in FOABD.
meets

bisecting

:.EHl_EG, and FOlFG, and (by 77) EH and FO

meet, say,
Pig. 154.

at

0;

.'.

(by

346)

is

one,

and the

only center of a sphere containing A, B, C, D. The four perpendiculars 429. Corollary to 428. to the faces of a tetrahedron through their circumcenters,

and the

six planes bisecting at right angles

the edges, are copunctal in its circumcenter. To inscribe a sphere in a given 430. Problem.
tetrahedron.

Construction. Through any edge and any point from which perpendiculars to its two faces are
equal,

take

plane.

Likewise

with

the

other
of

edges in the
431.

same
is

face.

The

cointersection

these three planes

the incenter required.

sects joining its pole to points

Theorem.

The

on any circle of Proof (343).

the sphere are equal.

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.
43'2. Corollary to 431. congi'uent minor arcs,

189

.'

Since equal chords have the great-circle-arcs join-

ing

a
is

pole

to

points

on

its

circle
if

are

congruent,

Hence
of
all

any point

in a sphere

n,

then the aggregate

points

A
to

in

a,

for

which the
are

great-circle-arcs

CA

conis

gruent
circle.

one

another

a
Fig. 155.

433.

Theorem.
a great

The

great-circle-arc

joining

any

point

ill

circle ivith its pole is

a quadrant.

Proof

The angle at the center

//
.4,
tlic

is right.

434. Theorem.
iion-oppositc,

point

B are P is a
great-

pole of their great circle iclicn the

arcs

PA, PB

are

both

circle -quadrants.

POB

For each of the angles POA, is right and .-. POl^OAB.

435. Definition.

The

angle

FiG. 156.

between two great-circle-arcs on a sphere, called a spherical angle, is the angle between tangents
to those arcs at their point of meeting.
436.

spherical angle

is

the inclination of the

pole

two hemiplanes containing the arcs. Any great circle tli rough a 437. Theorem.
of

a given great
circle.

circle is

perpendicular

to

the given

great

Their planes (by 369) are at right angles. 438. Inverse of 437. Any great circle perpenProof.

190

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

dicular to a given great circle will pass through

its poles.

439.
allel

Theorem.

// a sphere be tangent to the par-

dron,

planes containing opposite edges of a tetraheand sections made in the sphere and tetrato

hedron by one plane parallel

area, so are sections

these are

of equal

made by any

parallel plane.

i^/

Cr'

'

"^

Pig. 157.

Hypothesis.

Let

KJ be
||

EF
DT,

and GE. in the

the diameter.

the sect J. to the edges tangent planes. Then KJ =

Let Ol{IP) =M0, sections made by the plane DT at / and KJ at R, where KR =DI. Let ABCLSN be any parallel plane through a
point

of the sphere.

Conculsion.
Proof.

LN = QCiCA).

Since

A LEU- A MEW,
.-.

and A LHV~ A MHZ, MW:LU =EM -.EL =JR :JS (by 373). MZ -.LV = HM :HL=KR:KS.

But (by 366)

.: (by 299) area

^ZMW = ^ VLU. LN = WM-MZ:UL-LV MO

-.area.

=JR-RK:JS-SK.

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.

191

But (by 325)

area o/(/P) :area (DC{CA)

=PI^:AC^

= TI-ID:TC-CD
..

(hy24rS);

area

LA/'

= area oC{CA).
asstimption.
If

440. Cavalieri's

the

two

sec-

made in two solids between two parallel planes by any parallel plane are of equal area,
tions

then the solids are of equal volume. The volume of a sphere 441. Theorem.
r is f Trr*.

of radius

Proof. A tetrahedi-on on edge, and a sphere with this tetrahedron's altitude for diameter, have (by 439) all their corresponding sections of equal area, if any one pair are of equal area. Hence (by 440) they are of equal volume. ' (by 399) vol. sphere = faS. But a = 2r, and (by 245) S = -^r ^r -a. 2;- lr-\r 7v = ^nr^. : Vol. sphere = The area of a sphere is the 442. Definition.

^J

quotient of its volume by one-third its radius. Area of sphere = 4-?'-. The area of a sphere 443. Corollary to 324.

is

quadruple the area of

444. Definition.

its

great

circle.
is

spherical segment

the piece
If

of a sphere of

between two

parallel planes.

one

the parallel planes is tangent to the sphere, the segment is called a segment of one base.
445. Corollary to 439

and

440.

The volume
r^ is

of a

spherical segment

is

--0\' + 3r/), where

the

192

RATIONAL GEOMBTRY.

radius of the section two-thirds the altitude from the base whose radius is r-^. If the segment is of one base its volume is lanr^^] which in terms
of
r,

the radius of the sphere,

is

na'^i.r

j,

and

equals J7rafr2^

j.

If

we

eliminate

r^hy

intro-

ducing

rj,

the radius of the top, the volume of the

segment

is InalTiir^^

+ r^^)

-\-a^].

447- Corollary to 305.

^^ =
Ex. 563.
has
its

2DP

^^^^'^'
'

^^^T-

circle on a sphere of 10 centimeters radius center 8 centimeters from the center of the sphere.

Find its radius. Ex. 564. The sects from the centers of circles of equal area on a sphere to the center of the sphere are equal. Ex. 565. Where are the centers of spheres through
three given points?

Ex. 566. Find the volume of a sphere whose area is 20. Ex. 567. Find the radius of a globe equal to the sum
of

two globes whose

Ex. 568.

radii are 3

and

6 centimeters.

section parallel to the base of a hemisphere,

radius
part.

i,

bisects its altitude.

Find the volume

of each

cut

Ex. 569. The areas of the parts into which a sphere is by a plane are as 5 to 7. To what numbers are the

volumes of these parts proportional? Ex. 570. The volume of a spherical segment of one base and height 8 is 1200. Find radius of the sphere. Ex. 571. Find the volume of a segment of 12 centimeters altitude, the radius of whose single base is 24
centimeters.

TRIDIMENSIONAL SPHERICS.

I93

Ex, 572. In terms of sphere radius, find the altitude segment n times its base. Ex. 573. Find volume of a spherical segment of one base whose area is 15 and base 2 from sphere center. Ex. 574. In a sphere of lo centimeters radius find the radii r^ and r, of the base and top of a segment whose altitude is 6 centimeters and base 2 centimeters from the
of a spherical

sphere center. Ex. 575. Out of a sphere of 12 centimeters radius is cut a segment whose volume is one-third that of the sphere and whose bases are congruent. Find the radius of the bases. Ex. 576. Find the radius of a sphere whose area equals the length of a great circle. Ex. S77- Find the volume of a sphere the length of

whose great circle is n. Ex. 578. Find the radius of a sphere whose volume
equals the length of a great circle. Ex. 579. The volume of a sphere
is

to that of the

cir-

cumscribing cube as ;t to 6. Ex. 580. Find altitude of a spherical segment of one

base if its area is -4 and the volume of the sphere V. Ex. 581. The radii of the bases of a spherical segment are 5 and 4; its altitude 3. Find volume.

CHAPTER XV.
CONE AND CYLINDER.
448. Definition.

The aggregate

of straights de-

termined by pairing the points of a circle each with the same point not in their plane is called a
circular cone of two nappes.

This point
straight
is

is

called the apex of the cone.

Each
the

an

element.

The
center

straight determined
is

by the apex and

called the axis of the cone.

The rays of the cone on the same side of a plane through the apex perpendicular to the axis are one nappe of the cone. The sects from the apex to the circle are often
and are meant when we speak of the area or the volume of the cone. The altitude is the perpendicular from the apex to
called the cone,

the plane of the

When
the axis,
equal,
449.

circle, the 'base.' each element makes the same angle with the cone is called a right cone.

In a right cone

all sects from apex to circle are and each is called the slant height. Theorem. Every section of a circular cone

by a plane parallel to the base is a circle. Let the section D'H'B'F' of the circular cone A-DHBF be parallel to the base.

To prove D'H'B'F' a

circle.
194

CONE AND CYLINDER.

Proof.

I9S

Let

of the base, and the point of the axis AC in the plane D'H'B'. The plane

be the center

through

and any element AB CB, CD, and parallel to them the sects C'B', CD'. .-.(by 7s)aASC~a^5'C' and
gives radii

AC

aACD-aAC'D'.
.-.

(by

234)

C'B'

CB=AC':

Fig. 158.

AC = C'D':CD.
..C'B'=C'D'.

But

CB=CD.

450. Corollary to 449. The axis of a circular cone passes through the

center of every section parallel to the base. // a circular cone and a 451. Theorem.

tetra-

hedron have equal altitudes and bases of equal area and in the same plane, sections by a plane parallel
to the bases

are of equal area.

Fig. 159.

Proof.

BC B'C =AC AC =AL AL'

: :

= 1T
.-.

BC^

YT =VH VH' =GH CH\ WC'^ = GH- CH"

: :

But (by 325)

area

qC{CB)

area

qC{C'B')

ip^

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

=BC^ WC'^^GH^ G^" = area aFGH area aF'G'H'

:

(by 300).

But by hypothesis area OC{CB) =area aFGH. .-. Area oC'CC'S') -area aF'G'H'.
is (by 440) = volume of tetrahedron of equal altitude and base =|a;rr^ The lateral area of a right cir453. Theorem. cular cone is half the product of the slant height by

CoroUary to 451. Volume of circular cone

452.

the length of the circle taken as base.

Proof.

Its

lateral

surface

is

intermediate be-

tween those of the inscribed and those of the circumscribed pyramids. .'. =^ch=nrh. A truncated pyramid or cone is 454. Definition. portion included the between the base and a plane meeting all the elements.

frustum of a cone

is

the portion included be-

tween the base and a plane parallel to the base. The lateral area of a frustum 455. Theorem.
of a right circular cone is half the product of its slant

height by the

sum

of the lengths of its bases.

..F = ih{c,+c,) = Tzh{r^+r^).

456. Corollary to 451 and 399. The volume of the frustum of a circular cone,

V-F^\a7z{r,' + ^r^),

where

r^ is

the radius of 5.

457. Definition.

circular cylinder

is

the assem-

CONE AND CYLINDER.

197

blage of straights each through a point of a given

and all parallel. The portion of this assemblage included between, two planes parallel to the circle is also called a circular cylinder. The sects the planes cut out
circle

but not in

its plane,

are called the elements of the cylinder.

The two

circles in

these planes are called the

called the axis.
is

bases of the cylinder.

The

sect joining their centers

is

A
If

sect perpendicular to the

two planes

the

altitude of the cylinder.

it is

the elements are perpendicular to the planes, a right cylinder; otherwise an oblique cylinder. A section whose plane is perpendicular to the axis Any two is called a rigl'.t section of the cylinder. elements, being equal and parallel, are opposite sides of a parallelogram; hence the bases and all
sections parallel to

them

are equal circles.

A
der

truncated cylinder is the portion between a

base and a non-parallel section. Tlie volume of a circular cylin458. Theorem.

product of its base by its altitude. Proof. If a prism and cylinder have equal altitudes and bases of equal area, any sections parallel to the bases are of equal area.
is the
..

(by 402)

V-C = a7:r\
is

459.

The

lateral area of a circular cylinder

the
sec-

product of an element by the length of a right

tion:

C = 2r.ra.
Proof.
Its

lateral

surface

is

intermediate be-

198

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
cir-

tween those of the inscribed and those of the

ctunscribed prisms.
460. Corollary

to

459.

The

lateral

area

of

truncated circular cylinder is the product of the intercepted axis by the

length of a right section. For substituting an oblique Proof.
section for the right section through the same point of the axis changes

,^-x-c/

7^:

neither the area nor the volume, since

the

portion between

the

sections

is

Fig. i6o.

the same above as below either.

461. Corollary to

460.

The volume

of a trun-

cated circular cylinder is the product of the intercepted axis by the area of the right section. The volume of a 462. Archimedes' Theorem. sphere equals two-thirds the volume of the circumscribed cylinder.

Proof.

The volume

of the circumscribed cylin-

Ex. 582. In
call
(i) (2) (3) (4) (5)

the lateral area

a right circular cylinder of altitude C and the area of the base B. Given a and C; find r. Given B and C; find a. Given C and a = 2r; find C + 2B. Given C +2B and a=^r; find C.

a,

Given a and

B +C;

find

r.

Ex. 583. The lateral area of a right circular cylinder is equal to the area of a circle whose radius is a mean proportional between the altitude of the cylinder and the diameter of its base. Ex. 584. In area, the bases of a right circular cylinder together are to the lateral surface as radius to altitude. Ex. 585. If the altitude of a right circular cylinder

CONE
is

y4ND CYLINDER.
its

199

equal to the diameter of four times that of the base.

base, the lateral area is

Ex. 586.

How much must

cular cylinder be prolonged to inci-ease

the altitude of a right cirits lateral area by

is

the area of a base?

Ex. 587. The lateral area of a right circular cone

t\\'ice

the area of the base; find the vertical angle. Ex. 588. Call the lateral area of a right circular cone K, its altitude a, the basal radius r, the slant height /;.
(i) (2) (3)

Given a and r; find K. Given a and Ii; find 7v. Given K and find r.
/;
;

Ex. 589.

How much

canvas

is

required

to

make a

conical tent 20 meters in diameter

and

12 meters high?

Ex. 590. How far from the vertex is the cross-section which halves the lateral area of a right circular cone? Ex. 591. Given the volume and lateral area of a right
circular cylinder;

find radius.

Ex. 592. Given lateral area and altitude of a right circular c3-linder; find volume. Ex. 593. A right cylinder of volume 50 has a circumference of 9; find lateral area. Ex. 594. In a right circular c^-linder of volume
lateral ai-ea equals the
8,

the

sum

of the bases;

find altitude.

Ex. 595.
radius
is

If in

is

the

sum

three cylinders of the same height one of the other two, then one lateral area

the simi of the others, but contains a greater volume. Ex. 596. What is the relation between the volumes of two cylidei-s when the radius of one equals the alti-

tude of the other?

CHAPTER

XVI.

PURE SPHERICS.
463.
If,

instead of the plane and straight,

we

take the sphere and its great circle, that is, its geodesic or straightest, then much of our plane

geometry holds good as spherics, and can be read Deducing spherics from a set of off as spherics. assumptions which give no parallels, no similar figures, we get a two-dimensional non-Euclidean geometry, yet one whose results are also part of threedimensional Euclidean.
I.

Assumptions of association on the sphere.

i'.

For every point

of

the

sphere

there

is

and only one other point which with the

always

one

first

does

not

straightest.

determine a This second point

we

will call the opposite of the

first.

Two
Fig. 161.

points,

not

each

the

other's opposite, always deter-

mine a straightest. Such points are said to be on or of the straightest, and the straightest is said to be through them. I 2'. Every straightest through a point is also through its opposite.

PURE SPHERICS.
1 3'.

Any two
not
opposite,

points of a

straightest,

other's
this

siraigJitcst;

each the determine and on every

straightest
1 4'

there are at least

opposites.

two points not

There

are

at

least

three points not on the

straightest.
464.

same
Fig. i6i.
tJien

Theorem.
If
is

// 0' is the opposite of 0,

is the opposite of 0'.

not the opposite of 0', they deterThere is a point P not on this straightest (by 1 4'), and this point is not the .'. 0, opposite of O, since it is not 0' P determine (by I i') a straightest which (by I 2') goes through O'. .". 0, 0' do not determine a straightest.
Proof.

mine a

straightest.

465.

Theorem.

Two

distinct

straightests

can6.]

not have three points in common.

II.

[Proved as ia

Assumption of betweenness on the sphere.

These assumptions specify how "between" may be used of points in a straightest on a sphere. II i'. No point, is between

two
II

opposites.
2'.

Between any two points

is

not opposites there

third point.
II
3'.

always a

If

is

C, then
Fig. 163.

B
is

is

also

between .4 and between C and

A, and
II
4'.

neither

nor

.4.

If -4

and

B are not
sucJ>

op-

posites, then.there is
is

always a point

that

between

and C.

202

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

II 5'. Of any three points, not more than one can be between the other two. II 6'. If 5 is between A and C, and C is between A and D, then B is between A and D. II 7'. Between no two points are there two opposites. No point is between its opposite 466. Theorem. and any third point. If A' is the opposite of A, then it is not Proof. For since A and B are not between B and A.

opposites, there

is

(by II

4')

a point

such that

between B and C. But then we would have (by II 6') A' between B and C. But A and A'cannot (by II 7O both be between the same two points. Two points A and B, not oppo467. Definition. straightest a, we call a sect and desigsites, upon a nate it with AB or BA. The points between A and -B are said to be points of the sect AB or
is

also situated within the sect

AB.

The remaining

points of the straightest a are said to be situated without the sect AB. The points A, B are called
end-points of the sect
II
8'.

AB.

(Pasch's
^^,^

assumption.)
let

On

the

sphere,

A, B, C he three points, /^ \. not all on a straightest, and /^^' ^'^ ^^ opposites, and let a be a ~~"""A straightest on which are none \ I Kv^^^ / L3-W ^ ^^^ points A, B, C; if then \ ^~"^^~~~y / the straightest a goes through ^ point within the sect AB, ty'^ \,^__^ must always go either it Pj(, jg^ through a point of the sect BC or through a point of the sect AC; but it cannot go through both.

PURE SPHERICS.
468.

203

Theorem.
following
.4

Every

straightest

separates
regions,

the other points of the sphere into

of

two

the

character:

every point
gion

of the

point

determines B of the other region, not its opposite, a sect .46 within which lies a point of the straightest a on the contrary,
;

one rewith every

any two points. A and A' of Fig. 165. one and the same region always determine a sect AA' which contains no point
of a.

[Proved as in

22.5

Points in the same one of these two regions are said to be on the same sid^ of a. The points of a straightest a 469. Theorem.
other than two opposites, 0, 0', are separated by or 0' is between 0, O' into two classes such that

any point
of the

of the one

of the other, but neither

and any non-opposite point nor 0' is between two

straightest
.-.

Proof.

same class. Take any other and

regions.

h
0'.

through

through It (by

468) cuts the sphere into two

Now (by II 4') a is not wholly in either of these regions; but all its points other than and 0' are in
these
regions.

Two

in

the

Fig. 166.

same region have no point of b between them. But and 0' are points of b. Two

204

R/ITlON/tL

GEOMETRY.

not opposites in different regions have a point of or 0'. b between them; .'. either
470. Definition.

The

parts
it

of

^a

straightest

determined by a point of are called rays from 0.

(with its opposite 0')

and 0' are

II
9'.

called end-points of the rays.

If

is

a point of ray PP', every other

is

point of the ray

471.

between

C and P

or

C*

and

P'.

Theorem.
II
2',

Two
II 9'

opposites cannot both be

on the same ray.

Proof.

and

466.

Every straightest has a point 472. Theorem. in common with any other.
Proof.
If

not,

consider the

straightest

deter-

mined by any point of the one and a point of the This would have on one ra,y a pair of other.
opposites, contrary to 471.
473. Definition.
sects,
train,

On
.

the
.
.

sphere,

system of

AB, BC, CD,

which

KL
A

is

called

joins the points

and

a sectwith one

another.

The points within these

their

sects

together
are
all

with
toof

end-points
called

gether

the

points

the sect-train.

In particular,

if

the point

is

identical with the point

A, then the sect-train is called a spherical polygon. The sects

are
'P'^^-'^^i-

called

the sides

of

the

spherical polygon;, their end-

points

its vertices.

PURE SPHERICS.

205

Polygons with three vertices are called spherical

triangles.

Fig. 168.

Fig. 169.

474.

Theorem.

Every
two

spherical

triangle

sepa-

rates the points of the sphere not pertaining to

its

sect-train into

regions,

an inner and an

outer.

[As in

29.]

On a given straightest OA, the two rays 00', from to its opposite 0', are distinguished as of opposite sense. This distinc475. Convention.

tion
signs

may be indicated by a + and (plus and

sect

qualitative use of the

minus), as in writing

and negative numbers. PO' or ray from P through 0', or any sect PB where B is between P and 0', has the sense of that ray 00' on which is P. Then also BP is of sense opposite that of PB.
positive

Any

III.

Assumptions of congruence on the sphere.

If

two points, not opposite, and A' a point on the same or another straightest a', then we can find on a given ray of the straightest a' from A' always one and
Ill
i'.

A,

are

on a straightest

a,

2o6

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

only one point B', such that the sect

AB

is

con-

gruent to the sect A'B'.

Always
Ill
2'.

If

AB = AB = BA. AB = A'B' and AB^A"B",

the straightest a let

then

is

also A'B'
Ill
3'.

= A"B".
On

and BC be two sects without common points, and fiuthermore A'B' and B'C two sects on the same or
another
points;
is

AS

straightest,
if

likewise

without

common
then

then

AB = A'B'
On

and

BC = B'C',
let h,

also

AC = A'C'.
from a point
k be any which pertain to different straightests. These two rays h, k from we call a spherical angle, and desigthe sphere,
0,

476. Definition.

two

distinct rays

nate

it by ^ {h, k) or :^ {k, h). The rays /j, k, together with

the point

separate the other

points of the sphere into two regions, the interior of the angle
Fig. 170.

and the
h,

exterior.

|A.s

in 35.]

The rays
sides

are

called

of

the angle,

and the

point
Ill
4'.

the

vertex.

On

the sphere, given

-^ Qi,

a spherical angle a
straightest
a',

k),

and
de-

also

termined side of a'. Designate by h' a ray of the straightest

a' starting

then

is

from the point 0' there one and only one ray
:

Fig. 171.
k'

such that the

PURE SPHERICS.
^(ft,

207

k) is

congruent
all

to

the
points

angle '^ih',
of

k'),

and
4. (h',

likewise
k') lie

inner

the

angle

on the given

side of a'.

Always

III
ill",

5'.

If

? {h, k)^^ {h, k)^^ {k, h). ? {h, k)^4 ih', k') and ?
is

Qi,

k)^
be

k"), then

also '?

{h', k')

= ? ih",
let

k").

477- Convention.

On

the

sphere

ABC

an assigned spherical triangle; we designate the two rays going out from A through B and C by Ji and k respectively.
is

Then the angle

the
angle

^ {h, k)
of

called

the

triangle

the

and AC, opposite the side BC.

ABC sides AB

included

by
or
'^*"
'

It contains in its interior all the inner points

of the spherical triangle

and
or

is

designated

by

ABC ^BAC
if

^A.
Ill
6'.

On

the sphere,

for

two

triangles

ABC

and A'B'C

we have the congruences AB^A'B', AC^A'C, '^BAC

Fig. 173-

= ^ B'A'C,
are
fulfilled

'i

ABC = ^ A'B'C
478. Convention.

and

^ ACB =^

then also always the congruences A' B'

When

the sect

AB

is

set off

on a ray from A, if the point B falls within the sect AC, then the sect AB\^ said to be less than the sect AC.
starting

2o8

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

In symbols,

AB<AC.
is

Then
greater

also

AC

said to be

than AB.

AC>AB. E between A AB > CD = and B gives AE CD or BE =

In symbols,

when
for

CD, using =
Fig. 174.

479.

Convention.
is

When
off

^AOB
rays of

set

from

vertex 0' against one of the

^A'O'C toward the

if

other ray,
falls

its

second side

within 4^A'0'C, then the

is

'^AOB

said to be less than

Fig. 175.

the ^A'O'C.

In symbols,

'^AOBK^A'O'C.
Then '^AOB.
also

:!fA'0'C

is

said to be greater than

In symbols,

'^A'0'C>^AOB.
480. Definition.
ical

Two spher-

which have the vertex and one side in common and whose not-common sides
angles,

make
Fig. 176.

a straightest are called

adjacent angles.

PURE SPHERICS.

20g

481. Definition.
ical

angles

vertex

Two sphercommon and whose sides make

with
a

two

straightests are called verti-

cal angles.

Pig. 177.

482. Definition.

A spherical

angle which

one of

its

congruent to adjacent angles is

is

called a right angle.

Two make a
to
Fig. 178.

straightests

which
to

right

angle are said

be

perpendicular

one

another.

If ^, 5 are points which deterthen we may designate one of the regions or hemispheres it makes as right from the straightest AB taken in the sense of the sect AB (and the same hemisphere as left from BA taken in the sense from B to A). If now C is any point in the right hemisphere from AB, then we designate that hemisphere of AC in which B lies as the left hemisphere of AC. So we can finally fix for each straightest which hemisphere is right from this straightest taken in

483. Convention.

mine a

straightest,

a given sense. Of the sides of any angle, that

is

designated as

the right which Kes on the right hemisphere of

2IO

RATION/I L GEOMETRY.
is

that straightest which

determined

(also,

in sense)

by the
on the

other side^ while the

left

left side is

that lying

of the straightest

which
all

is

determined

(also in sense)

by the other

side.

Two
if

spherical triangles with

their sides

and

angles respectively congruent are called congruent

the right side of one angle

is

congruent to the

right side of the congruent angle,

to that angle's left;

and

its left side

but

if

the right side of one

angle be congruent to the left side of the congruent angle, and its left side to that angle's right, the triangles are called symmetric.

484.

Theorem.
are

Two

spheri-

cal triangles

either
if

gruent or symmetric

conthey
in-

have two sides and the

cluded angle congruent. [Proved as in 43.]
Fig. 179.

485.
cal

Theorem.
are

Two

spheri-

triangles

either

con-

gruent or symmetric if a side and the two adjoining angles

are respectively congruent.

[Proved as in

44.]
Fig.
1 80.

PURE SPHERICS.

211

486. Theorem. If two spherical angies are congruent, so are also their adjacent angles.

487.

[Proved as in 45.] Theorem. Vertical

46.]

spherical

angles

are

congruent.

[Proved as in

488.

Theorem.

All right an-

gles are congruent.

[Proved as in

50.]

Fig. 181.

489.

Theorem.

At a point

of a straightest
a.

there

is not more than one perpendicular to [Proved as in 52.]

490. Definition.

When any two

spherical angles

congruent to two adjacent spherical angles each is said to be the sitppleiuoit of the other.
are

491. Definition.
ical

If

a spher-

angle can be set off against

one of the rays of a right angle so that its second side lies within the right angle, it is
called
Fig. 182.

an acute angle.

492. Definition.

spherical angle neither right

angle.

nor acute

is

called

an obtuse

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

493. Definition.
cal

spheri-

triangle
is

with two sides

called isosceles.

congruent

Fig. 183.

Theorem. ent sides, of an

494.

The angles opposite the congruisosceles

triangle are congruent.

[Proved as in
495.

57.]
tri-

Theorem. If two angles of a spherical angle be congruent, it is isosceles.

[Proved as in 485.]
496.

Theorem.

Two

spher-

ical triangles are either con-

gruent or symmetric
gruent,
respectively,

if

the

three sides of the one are conto

the

three sides of the other.

gProved as in

58.1]

Fig. 184.

497.

Theorem.

Any

two

straightests perpendicular to

given straightest intersect point from which

ular
Fig. 185.

a in a

all sects to the

given straightest are perpendicto it

and congruent.

PURE SPHERICS. Given r't ^A=:^C. To prove PA = PC = PD,

213

and and
.-. .-.

^D
(by

rt.

Proof.

By

(by 484) (by 488)

P^= PC PA = P'A. ^PDA^^P'DA;

495,

485)

^PDA=

'^PAD;
Fig. 186.

.-.(by 495)

PD^PA.

498. Definition. The two opposite points at which two perpendiculars to a given straightest intersect are called its poles, and it the polar of either pole. A sect from a pole to its polar is called a quadrant. All quadrants are congruent. 499. Theorem. ^ Let AB and A'B' be two

quadrants.

To prove
Proof.

AB = A'B'. At A take a

r't?

BAC, and
take

also at A'.

On AC

take a sect AC, and on

A'C

At C" and take straightests 1.AC and Fig. 187. A'C. These contain B and
B'.
.
.

A'C = AC.

(by 485)

AB = A'B'.

A point 500 Theorem. ivhich is a quadrant from two

points of a straightest not opposites is its pole.

Let

PA

and

PC
and

be two

quadrants.
Proof.

At

erect

Fig. 188.

214

R/ITIONAL GEOMETRY.

perpendiculars intersecting at P'.

Then (by 499

a point
to

and 496) '^PAC = 'iP'AC. 501. Theorem. // three

Proof.
triangles,

sects front

straightest be equal, they are quadrants.

They

are sides of

two adjacent

isosceles

and hence perpendiculars. Contranominal of 501. If three equal sects from a point be not quadrants, their three other endpoints are not on a straightest. Through a point A, no' on a 503. Theorem. straightest a, there is to a always a perpendicular
502.
straightest which, if

be not

a pole

of a, is unique.

Proof.

on

a.

Take any sect QR Take on the other side

of a from A, '^BQR^'^AQR, and QB = QA. Then (by 484) AB a at

5.

Moreover, if there were a second straightest perpendicular to a from A, then A would (by 4 )8) be a pole
Fig. 189.

of a.

A point B of a given ray 00' BO = BO' will be called the bisection-point A point B between A and C such that of the ray. AB = BC is called the bisection-point of the sect
504. Definition.

such that

AC.
505.

Problem.

To

bisect

given

ray

00'.
Construction.

At two

points of the given ray not

PURE SPHERICS.
both end-points erect perpendiculars [take (by III
gles
4')

2IS

an-

to

^5

in 503], inter-

secting at p.

ray from 0,

Take another not on the same

of it not

straightest as the given ray,

and at two points

diculars

both end-points erect perpenintersecting

at
0.
Fig. 190.

The

straightest

PO bisects the
P
and
//
Qi, k)

given ray 00'.

Proof.
r't

Since
.-.

are

poles,

.'.

^B =

'^D.

(by 485)

OB = BO'.
and Q' are
opposiics, then
{h, k) ivith

506.

Theorem.
4-

ivith vertex

=^

vertex 0'

Proof.

Bisect (by 505) ray h at

and ray k at C.
0, a ray h with-

Then (by 496)

in

?AOC=
^
To
(/?,

^AO'C.
b)= ^{b,
k) will

507. Definition.

From the vertex

{h, k).

^{h, k)

making

be called

the bisector of ^
308. Problem.
^

bisect a given spherical angle.

Construction.
sect

By
of

505, bi-

the
at

rays

the

angle

H and F ^5 between H and B

F

Take A and from

Fig. 191-

on FB' take FC^HA. Then AC intersects HF at D, and BD bisects ^HBF. By 496, ?.4rB^ Proof. '^ CAB' by 485 HD^FD; .-. by 496, ^ HBD = 4 FBD.
;
.

2l6
509.

R/tTION/tL

GEOMETRY,
a

Problem.

To

bisect

given

sect.

Construction.

At the end4')

points

erect

perpendiculars
angles

[by taking (by III

= ?5 in

503].

^
^
be-

Bisect (by 508) the

tween them.
F'^. 192. 497 and 484. In an isosceles triangle the bi510. Corollary. sector of the angle between equal sides bisects at

Proof.

By

right angles the third side.

Theorem. If two spherical triangles have two sides of the one equal respectively to two sides of the other, and the angles opposite one pair of equal sides equal, then the
511.

angles opposite the other pair

are
FiG. 193.

either

equal or supple-

mental.

[Proved as in 175.] 512. Definition. In any spherical triangle the sect having as end-points a vertex and the bisection-point of the opposite side is called a median. An angle adjacent to an angle of 513. Theorem. a spherical triangle is greater than, equal to, or less
than either of the interior non-adjacent angles, according as the median from the other interior non-adjacent angle is less than, equal to, or greater than a quadrant.

And

inversely.

Proof.

Let

^ACD be an angle adjacent to '^ACB

PURE SPHERICS.
of

217

aACB.

Bisect

AC
.

at F.

On

straightest

BF
.

beyond
If

take

FH = FB.
BF

(by 484)

'^BAF= ^HCF.
median

now the

be a quadrant BFH is a ray and is on BCD. If the median 5F be less than a quadrant, H' is

Fig. 194.

within ^ACZ?.
If

..^H'CA<^DCA. 5C be greater than

a quadrant,

.-.^DCAy^BAC. H" is without

^ACD. ..iH"CF>'^DCF. Two 514. Definition.

ent to two
515.

.-.^DCAk^BAC.
sects respectively congru-

made by

a point on a ray with its endof

points are called supplcincntal.

Theorem.

The supplements
sums or

congruent

sects are congruent.

Proof.

They

are

differences of quadrants

and congruent
499)
all

sects less than quadrants; and (by quadrants are congruent. 516. Theorem. // a median be a quadrant, it is an anglebisector,

and

the

sides

of

the

bisected angle are supplcniental.

Let median BD in /\ABC be a quadrant.

Proof.

In
(by

^ABD

and

2CB'D
CB' and
Fig. 195.

AB = 484) ^ABD^^CB'D^

^CBD

(by 506).

2t8
517. Inverse.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
If

two
!

sides of a triangle are sup-

plemental, the median

Proof.
.-.

is

a quadrant.
496).
.-.

^ ABC = or 2AB'C (by 2ABD = or 2CB'D (by 484).

-I-

BD=DB'.

518. Corollary.

If

two

sides of a triangle are sup-

plemental, the opposite angles are supplemental.

519.

Theorem.

Two
to

spherical triangles are either

if

congruent or symmetric

they have two angles of the

one respectively equal

site

two of the other, the sides oppo-

one pair equal, and those opposite the other pair

not supplemental.

Given

'^B=^E; '^C^'^F; AB = DE.; AC

not supplemental to FD. Proof. On ray BC take = BG EF. G must be C, else would we have a 'aACG with
adjacent
terior

^^GB =

:^ACG
and

in..

non-adjacent

with median a quadrant (by 513) and .-. (by 516) with AC supplemental to AG, that is,
Fig. 196.

to
520.

FD.

Theorem.

Two

spheri-

cal triangles are either congru-

ent or symmetric if they have

in

each

one,

and only

one,

right angle, equal hypothenuses

and another
gruent.

side or angle con-

Given

^C^'^H=r\
.-.

197. = h. li a=f, then if BD=h = c, and (by sio)the AC>g, takeCD=g.

?,

and

Fig.

PURE SPHERICS.
bisector of

219
.-.

4 DBA

is

to
is

CDA.
r't.

i^by

498)

is

pole to

^
is

If

CDA. ?A = ?F,

.-.'^A

also

then

if

'i-G-

..{hy4Ss)'^BDA =

4 ABC >?(7, take ^ABD = = T't^. .-.B

^H=^C

pole to
521.

CDA
tlie

Theorem. The straightpoles

of

est

ihroiigli

two

straiglitcsis is tlic

polar of their

intersect ion- points.

Let A and B be poles of a and h, which intersect in P To prove AB the polar of P. AP and EP are Proof.
Fig.

quadrants.
522. Corollary to 521.

The

straightest through
is

the poles of two straightests

both.
523. Corollary to 521.
If

perpendicular to

three straightests are

copunctal, their poles are on a straightest.

524. Definition.
a, b, c

If

A, B,

are the vertices

and

the opposite sides of a spherical triangle, and A' that pole of a on the same side of a as ^4, B' of of c as C, then A'B'C is called the polar b as B,

triangle of

ABC.
Of a spherical triangle A, B, C, where A' is that pole

525. Definition.

the polar triangle is A', B',

of

BC
526.

or a on the

same

side oi a as A, B' of b as B,

C of c as C.
Theorem.
7/ of two
spherical
triangles
the

second

is the polar of the first, then the first is the polar

cf the second.

Let

ABC

be the polar of A'B'C.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

To prove A'B'C the

Proof.

polar of

ABC.

Since

is

pole of

A'C, .-. BA' is a quadrant; and since C is pole of A'B', .-. CA' is a quadrant;

(by 500) A' is pole of BC. In like manner, B' is pole of of ^5. ^C", and Moreover, since by hypothesis A and A' are on the same side
'

of
Fig. igg.

B'C and A
same and

is

pole of S'C,

.. sect

AA' is less than a quadside of

.'.A and which A' is pole. 527. Theorem.

rant.

are on the

BC, of

And

so for B'

In a pair of polar triangles, any angle of either intercepts, on the side of the other which lies opposite it, a sect which is the supplement of that Let

side.

ABC

and A'B'C be

two

polar triangles.
Call

Proof.

and

re-

spectively the

points where

ray A'B' and ray

A'C meet
A'C,
is

BC.
. .

Since

is

pole of

BE is
is

a quadrant, and since

pole of A'B', .

CD

a
Fig. 200.

quadrant.

But

BE + CD=BC + CE + CB + BD = BC+iEC + CB + BD) =BC + DE.

Theorem.

528.

Two

spherical triangles are either

if

congruent or symmetric
the

they have three angles of

one respectively equal

to three

angles of the other.

PURE SPHERICS.
Proof.

221

Since the gi\'en triangles are respectively

equiangular, their polars are respectively equilateral.

For (by 484) equal angles at the poles of straightests intercept equal sects on those straightests; and
these equal sects are the supplements of correspond-

ing sides of the polars

three
are
sides

Hence these
equal,

polars,

having

respectively

are

respectively
triangles

equiangular.

Therefore

the

original

respectively

equilateral,

which was
spherical
if

to

be

proved.
529. Corollary

to 511.

Two

triangles

are either congruent or symmetric

sides of the

they have two

one respecti\'ely equal to two of the

other, the angles opposite one pair equal,

and those

opposite the other pair not supplemental.

530.

Theorem.

// hvo sides of a splicrical triangle

arc each less than a quadrant,

any

sect

from

the third

side to the opposite vertex is less than a quadrant.

Let

AB and BC be each less than a quadrant.

To prove SZ? < quadrant.

Let FG, the polar of were If B, meet BD at H. between B and D, then GHF
Proof.

would (by II 9') meet CA, and so have a point on each

of the three sides of

aAB'C,
impossi-

which (by
ble.

II 9')
is

is

Hence D That H. and

is

between B 51) < quad-

^ riG.

20T

rant.
531. Corollary to 530

and

513.

If

two

sides of a

spherical triangle are each less than a quadrant, the

222

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
is less

angle opposite either

than the supplement

of

the angle opposite the other.

532.

he each less than

Theorem. // two sides of a spherical triangle a quadrant, as the third side is greater
it

or less than one of these, so is

with the opposite angles.

And

inversely.

Let in "aABC, BC and another side, AB, be each less than a quadrant, and

ACyAB.

? C.
533.

^ABO'^ACB. D making AD=AB. Then (by i;^o) DB is less than a quad^^ FiG. 202. - .^ rant. (by 531) ^ADB> But 2ABC > '^ABD = ^ADB > ?C".
To prove
Proof.

Within .4C take

.-.

Theorem.

// the three sides of a spherical

tri-

angle are each less than a quadrant,

together greater than the third.

any two are

[Proved as in 174.]
534. Definition.

On

the sphere, the assemblage

of points
sects
is

which with a given point give congruent

called a circle.

The given point

is

called a

pole of the circle.

is

Any
is

one of the congruent sects

called a spherical radius of the circle.

Thus a

straightest

a circle with a quadrant for

for convenience,

spherical radius.

But henceforth,

by

circle

we

will

mean

a circle with a radius not a

quadrant.

A sect whose end-points are on a circle is called a spherical chord, or simply a chord. A chord containing a pole is called a diameter. Since the supplements of congruent sects are (by

PURE SPHERICS.

223

515) congruent, therefore every circle has two poles which are opposite points, and its spherical radius to one pole is the supplement of that to the other. Always one spherical radius is less than a quadrant. Call its pole the g-pole, and it the g-radius. 535. Theorem. Any splicrical

chord

is

bisected

by

the

perpoidicidar from a pole.

Proof.

AD =^BD
A

{hy S2o).
straight-

536. Corollary.

diaman end-point has only this point in common with

est perpendicular to a

eter at

the

circle.

'

^^"

537. Definition.

straightest with one

and only
a tangent

one point in
538.

common with
//

a circle

is called

to the circle.

Theorem.

an

oblique from a point to a

tlicn tJicre is
iJie

straigJitcst he less

than a quadrant,

one

and only one perpendicular sect from

straightest 'which meets
the foot of the oblique
it

point

to the

at less than a quadrant from

this is less

and

Let

BA

than a quadrant. be obhque to CA

Fig. 204.

and < q, and BC CA Then CA cannot Proof. = g, else would BA =q. Hence CI may be taken <g, since from C to its opposite = 25. Now take C.4'=C:.4. Then BA'=BA and BC is median where the two sides are each
.-.

<q.
tion

.-.

BC

(by 530) BC<q. is the only other

(by 503)

its

prolonga-

from

to

AC.

224

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
If

539. Definition.

g-pole is P, then

or

A be a point of a circle whose any point between A and. P is

Q
such that

said to be within the circle, while

is

between P and Q 540. Theorem.

is said to be without the circle.

Any

straightest

through an

end-

point of a diameter, hut not per-

pendicular

to the

diameter, has

a point within and a second point on the circle. Let P be the g-pole, and AC the straightest through A, an end-point of diameter BPA

(^PAC
Fig. 205.

not

r't).

Take (538) PDCA with PD and AD each < q. Take DC = DA. .-. (by 484) PC = PA; that is, C on circle. MoreProof.

over (by 513) '^PAF>'^PCA^2P^C. .-. (by acute. 532) PD<PA; that is,
circle.

.-.^PAD

within

541.

Theorem.

Any

straightest

with-a point on
the

and a point within a

circle.

circle

has a second point on

Let

AB

and

have a point A on within circle with qcannot be then producto meet the circle at
if

pole P.
Proof.
r't.

^PAS
so,

For

ing

PB

C, (bys3i)

'^PCF>'^PAC
.-.

>r't

'^PAB.
to

^PCA
-^PCF
also

adis

jacent
acute.

obtuse
it is

Fig. 206.

But

obtuse,

being

(by

494)

PURE SPHERICS.

225

=
.'.

is impossible, .-.BA not LAP; has a second point on the circle. 542. Corollary. A tangent has no point within

-i^PAC.

This

(by 540)

it

the circle.
543

Theorem.
to

// less than a quadrant, the per-

pendicular

is the least sect

from
sect

a point

straightest.

Proof.

If

any other
were
less

than the perpendicular PA, then AC would have a point within the circle with q-po\e P and
to

from

AC

PA, and (by 541) a second point on this circle, which (by 536) is impossible.
g-radius
.

Pig. 207.

544. Convention.

In general a stun of sects

is

number
545.

of quadrants plus a sect.

Theorem.

Any

two sides of a spherical

is less

tri-

angle are together greater than the third.

Proof.

Since each side

to prove

than two quadrants,

we have only and BC< AC.

AB + BC'>AC when AB<q,

I.

If

BC = q,

then taking
500)

CD=q, we have (by

BD AC.
.-.{hy S43)
.-.

AD <AB.
BC.

AC=AD+DC <AB +

Fig. 208.

226

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

II.

(i)
(2)

If BC<q, \iCA<q, this

if

is 533.

(by

CA =q, erect _L at A. 543) AB>BD.

=AC.
Fig. 2og.

AB+BC>DB+BC= DC

(3) If

C^ >q, take on it CZ? = g and make CBF^q.

Then
X',

sects >15

and DF cross at

for

is

on the non-C-side

AB, while Z? is on the C-side .-.DF must have a of AB. point on straight AB. But
of
all

points of sect

DF are inteAB, which

^
is

rior to

point
Fig. 2x0.
all of

is

^ C", on

..

this intersection

sect

straight

BF<BK and .: AC = AD + DC<AK + CD =AK + CF<CB + BK+KA. III. If BCyq, then in ABC all sides are less than
Then (by
543)

AB within AD<AK.

C.

quadrants.

..{hYSZ?,)CB + BA

+ AC'>CB + BC' = CA + AC'.

..CB + BA>CA.
convex spherical polygon is one no points of which are on different sides of the
546. Definition.

straightest of
547.

any

of its sides.

Theorem.

convex spherical polygon

is less

than one containing

it.

PURE SPHERICS.
548.

227

Theorem.

The sum

of the sides of a convex

spherical polygon is less than four quadrants.

Proof.
its angles.

It is within,

hence

less than,

any one of

549.

Theorem.

// one angle

of a spherical triangle be greater

tJuin

a second,

the side opposite

the first

must

be greater tlian the

side opposite the second;

inversely.

and

Given
Proof.

^C>^B. Take ?DCS=?B.

Fig.

Then(by49s)LiC = L'B. But (hy 545) DC + DA> AC.

550.

Theorem.

In a

cyclic quadrilateral, the

sum

of

one pair of opposite angles equals the

pair.

sum

of the other

Proof.

By

isosceles triangles.

551.

ing

tiuo

Theorem. Of sects joinsymmetrical points to a

cutting the axis is

third,

tliat

the greater.

Proof.

BA=BD + DA =BD + DA'>BA'.

but the
is

Fig. 2x2.

552.

Theorem.
tJu-

// two spherical triangles have two

to tivo sides of the other,

sides of

one equal

included
greater
versely.

a)ig!cs

unequal, then that third side

the

ivliicli

is opposite the greater angle;

and

in-

228

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
Against one of the equal sides of one
Bisect the angle
tri-

Proof.

angle construct a triangle with elements equal to

those in the other.

pair of equal sides.

made by

the

This axis cuts the third

side,

which

opposite the greater angle. // each of the two sides about a 553. Theorem. right angle is less than a quadis

rant,
less

then the hypothenuse is

than a quadrant.

Extend the two BA, BC, taking BF = BD = quadrant. Then (by .'. (by B pole of DF. is 500) 498and497) ^Fisr't. .'.(by
Proof.
sides
Fig- 213-

495) L'F

is

a quadrant,

.'.(by

500)

a quadrant. .". (by 530) AC" < quadrant. Inverse of s S3. 554. If the hypothenuse and a side are each less than
is is less

DA

a quadrant, then the other side

rant.

than a quad-

Proof.

If

is

r't (Fig. 222),

each <q, there

that

is

CH

and

AH

(by 538) on st' each < q while

AB and AC AB a p't H such CH AH.

and and
.'.

But
It

or B' cannot be B' since

HisB

BA<q

(by II

10')

AB'>q.
555.

Theorem.

The

straightest bisecting two sides

of a triangle meets the third side at

a quadrant from

its

bisection-point.

points of

Let the straightest through A', B', the bisectiontwo sides BC, CA meet the third side proat D and D' duced
,

PURE SPHERICS.
Proof. Take (by 538) AL, such that each is <q, and also B'L, B'N, A'M, A'N each <g. .-.in^'s ALB'andCNB' (by 519) AL=CN. Shmlarly

229

BM, CN J. A'B' and

BM = CN.
and

inA's
be
bi-

ALD

BMD'
.-.if

(by 519)

AD=BD'.
section-point

AB, we have C'A +AD = C'B + BD'= q. The end-points 556. Theorem.
of

of

any

sect taken

with any point on

equal sects.

its

perpendicular bisector give

557. Corollary 556.

Every point on the perpenis

dicular bisector of a sect

its

pole of a circle through

end-points.
bisectors of the

558. Corollary to 557.

The perpendicular

sides

of

spherical triangle are copunctal (in its

559. Corollary I to 555.

circiiDiceiitcr).

The

altitudes of a spherical triangle are copunctal

(in its ortliocciner).

For, regarding

A'B'C

as the triangle, the perpenof D,

dicular to

DC

at

C is the polar

and

..

to

A'B'
Similarly, the pei-pendicular

to

BA'

at A'

is J.

to

B'C,

etc.

So the three altitudes of A'B'C are copunctal in the circumcenter of ABC.

560. Corollary II to 555.
(Lexell),
-^^

The

vertices of spherical trianele^

the same

230

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

angle-siHn on the same base are on a circle copolar with the straightest bisecting their sides.

AO=BO, ^OAB = ^OBA,'^LAB = '^MBA = K^+-B + C]. Hence aAOB is fixed, and .-.OC
For
[supplemental to

0A\
561.
ests

Theorem
of

The straightand
its

through the corresponding

vertices

triangle

polar are copunctal in the com-

mon

orthocenter.

Proof.

BC
Fig. 215.

For AA' is to and B'C, since it passes

poles.

through their

Equivalence.
562.

Theorem.
to

Any

angle
its

made with a

side of a

spherical triangle by joining

end-point
the

the circumcenter,

equals half the angle-sum less

opposite angle of the

tri-

angle.

?S+?C: = 2 ? OCA + 2 ? OCB d= 2^0AB. .-.'^OCA =l(4A + ?S + ?C] - U-OCB

Proof.

For'?^ +

FiG. 216.

?OAB] = H?^ + ?-B+ ?C]- ?B.

563. Corollary to 562.

Symmetrical spherical

tri-

angles are equivalent or equivalent

by

completion.

For the three pairs

of isosceles triangles

formed

by

joining the vertices to the circumcenters, hav-

'

PURE SPHERICS.

231

ing respectively a side and two adjoining angles

congruent, are congruent.

564.

Theorem.

Of

the

triangles

formed by

three

non-copunctal

straightests,

two

containing

vertical

angles are together equivalent to the content of that angle.

To prove a ABC" + a AB'C = ABA'CA. Proof. B'C'=BC, each

being

supplement

of

CB'.
^

Again ments

AC =A'C
of

(supple-

A'B
.-.

Again AB' = (supplements of AB).

AC).

(by 496)
.-.A

1AB'C' = 2BCA'.
A
e,

ABC + 2 AB'C =
The
spherical excess,

Fig. 217.

ABC + 2BCA' =ABA'CA.

565.
is

of a spherical triangle

the excess of the

sum

of its angles over

two

right

angles.

gon

In general the spherical excess of a spherical polyis the excess of the sum of its angles over twice as many right angles as it has sides less two. 566. Theorem. A spherical triangle is equivalent to
its

half the content of

spherical excess.

Fig. 218.

232

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

567. Corollary I to 566. of a

The sum
r't

of the angles

is

>2

r't t's

and < 6

568. Corollary II to 566.

^ 's. Every ^

of a

is

>^e.
is

569. Corollary III to 566.

spherical polygon
its

equivalent to half the content of

Ex. 597.
If

spherical excess.

a spherical angle adjacent to one angle of a is equal to a second angle of the triangle, the sides opposite these are together a ray. Ex. 598. In a spherical triangle and the spherical triangle determined by the opposites of its vertices the sides and angles are respectively congruent. Ex. 599. Where are the vertices of spherical triangles on a given base the sum of whose other sides is a ray ? Ex. 600. Does a triangle ever coincide with its polar? Ex. 601. The difference of any two angles of a spherical triangle cannot exceed the supplement of the third. Ex. 602. The bisector of an angle passes through the pole of the bisector of the supplemental adjacent angle. Ex. 603. If two straightests make equal angles with a third, the sects from their poles to its are equal. Ex. 604. If a straightest be through the pole of a second, so is the second through a pole of the first. Ex. 605. If two circles be tangent, the point of contact
spherical
triangle
is

on

their center-straightest.

common secant of 2 intersecting Os bisects tangent. Ex. 607. The three common secants of 3 s which intersect each other are copunctal.
Ex. 606. The
a

common

Ex. 608.

If

a quad' can have a o inscribed in

it,

the

sums

of the opposite sides are

Ex. 609. If two equal s intersect, each contains the orthocenters of as inscribed in the other on the common

chord as base. Ex. 610. Three equal s intersect at a point H, their other points of intersection being A, B, C. Show that

PURE SPHERICS.

833'

is the orthocenter of a ABC; and that the a formed by the centers of the circles is sto h.ABC. Ex. 611. The feet of Xs from A of i^ABC on the external and internal bi's of ^ s B and C are co-st' with the bisection-points of h and c. Does this hold for "a? Ex. 612. (Bordage.) The centroids of the 4 'as determined by four concyclic points are concyclic. Ex. 613. The orthocenters of the 4 'as determined by four concyclic points, A,B,C, D, are the vertices of a quad' = to A BCD. The incenters are vertices of an equian-

gTilar quad'.

Ex. 614. (Brahmegupta.) If the diagonals of a cyclic quad' are , the -L from their cross on one side bisects the opposite side. Ex. 615. If the diagonals of a cyclic quad' are I., the feet of the Xs from their cross on the sides and the bisection-points of the sides are concyclic.

Ex. 616.

If

an inscribed equiangular polygon have an

it is

odd number
Ex. 617.

of sides,

equilateral.

a circumscribed equilateral polygon have an odd number of sides, it is equiangular. Ex. 61S. If one of two equal chords of a O bisects ihe other, then each bisects the other.
If

Ex. 619. The tri-rectangular a is its o'wm polar. Ex. 620. All = AS on the same side of the same base have their two sides bisected by the same straightest. Ex. 621. If the base of a a be given, and the vertex variable, the straightests through the bisection-points of the two sides always pass through two fixed points. Ex. 622. If .1 and A' be opposites, then as ABC,

A'BC

are

called

cohtuar.

pole

of

the

straightest

bisecting

AB

and

AC

is

also pole of the

circum-O of the

colunar i^A'BC.

Ex. 623. Given b and

radius of circum-O-

a:+ j- /3 to construct q-pole

and

Ex. 624.
point of
c.

If

a+

= x,

the q-pole of circum-o

is

bisection-

234

R/tTlONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 625.
escribed

Two AS

Os=,have

Ex. 626

with one ^ the same and the opposite equal perinaeters. The tangent at A to the circum- of aABC

makes with

AB

and AC'^s whose

difference =/?

r-

Ex. 627. The q-pole of the circum- o of a a coincides with that of the in- of the polar a and the spherical radii of the 2 s are complementary. Ex. 628. From each 2^ of a a a X is drawn to the straightest through the bisection-points of ihe adjacent sides. Prove these s copunctal. Ex. 629. Through each y; of a a a straightest is drawn to make the same ^ with one side as the i- on the base makes with the other side. Prove these copunctal.
;

Ex. 630.
are

or

if

birectangular "as are = the sides not quadrants are =

Two

if

the oblique

^s

Ex. 631. In A, if c is fixed and a+^^iz, then C is on a fixed straightest. Ex. 632. (Joachimsthal.) If two diagonals of a complete spherical quadrilateral are quadrants, so
is

quad' whose diagonals other (a cenquad) has its opposite sides =

Ex. 633.

(i)

bisect
;

the third. each

(2)

and

in-

versely.
(3)
(5)

Also

its

opposite

x; s

(4)

and

inversely.

through this .bisection-point (spherical center) cuts the quad' into =halves. with a -^Cs (6) Its opposite sides make = alternate
straightest

Every

diagonal.
(7) Inversely, a quad' with a diagonal making with each side a ^ = to its alternate is a cenquad. (8) So is a quad with a pair of opposite sides = and making = alternate ^ s with a diagonal. (9) Also a quad' with a pair of opposite sides =, and a diagonal making = alternate -^ s with the other sides and opposite "^s not supplemental. (10) From the spherical center s on a pair of opposite sides are =.
.

PURE SPHERICS.
(11) If circuni-0. (12) If

235

two consecutive ^s two consecutive

of a

cenquad are =,it has a

c:nquad are=,it

sides of a

has an
^13) (14)

in- O

The polar

of a cenquad is a concentric cenquad. pair of opposite sides of a cenquad intersect on

its

the polar of
(15)

spherical center.

consecutive vertices of a cenquad opposites of the other two are concyclic.

(16)
If

Any two

and the

B', C,

be a cenquad, then .4, B, C, D' and A', on = Os with q-poles opposites. Ex. 634. The sides of a a intersect the corresponding sides of its polar on the polar of thei- orthocenter. Ex. 635. The sect which a ^ intercepts on the polar of its vertex equals a sect between poles of its sides. Ex. 636. If a spherical quad' is inscribed, and another

ABCD

ai^e

circumscribed touching at the vertices of the first, the crosses of the opposite sides of these quad's are on a
straightest

Ex. 637. The crosses of the sides of an inscribed a with the tangents at the opposite vertices are on a
straightest.

CHAPTER

XVII.

ANGLOIDS OR POLYHEDRAL ANGLES

570.
is 2r^u.

Theorem.

The area

of

a spherical angle, L,
of ^:

Proof.

For we have the proportion, area

:

area of J sphere = size of ^ size of at center size of r't ^ that is,

:
;

r't

^ = size of ^

L rV=-M ^tt. L = 2r'u.

:

.".

571. Corollary to 570

and

566.

The area

of a

spherical triangle

is

the size of

its spherical

excess

multiplied
If e' is

by

its

squared radius.
e,

the u of

A
572.

=e'r^.

Corollary to 571. To find the area of a spherical polygon, multiply its spherical excess in

radians

by the squared

radius.

Three or more rays, a, b, c, from the same point, V, taken in a certain order and such that no three consecutive are coplanar, determine a figure called a polyhedral angle or an
573. Definition.

angloid.

The common point

c,
. . .

is

the vertex, the rays

. . .

a, b,

are edges, the angles ^ab, ^bc,

are faces,
236

^NGLOIDS OR POLYHEDRAL ANGLES.

237

and the

pairs of consecutive faces are the diJicdrals

of the angloid.

According to the number of the rays,

the angloid
hedral,
.
,

3,

4,

S,

is

called trihedral, tetrahedi-al, penta-

574. If a unit sphere

and in general polyhedral. be taken with the vertex of

size as ^Yhile

the angloid as center, this determines a spherical

polygon vhose angles are of the same

inclinations of the angloid's dihedrals,

the the

length of each side of the polygon is the size of the coiTesponding face-angle of the angloid.

Hence from any property

of spherical polygons

we may

infer

an analogous property of angloids.

For example, the following properties of trihedrals have been proved in our treatment of spherical triangles:
I.

Trihedrals are either congruent or symmetrical

which have the followmg parts congruent (i) Two face-angles and the included dihedral. (2) Two dihedrals and the included face-angle. (3) Three face-angles. (4) Three dihedrals. (3) Tu'o pairs of dihedrals and the face-angles opposite one pair equal, opposite the other pair not
supplemental.
(6)

Two

pairs of face-angles

and the dihedrals

opposite one pair equal, opposite the other pair not

supplemental.
gi-eater

IL As one of the face-angles of a trihedral is than or equal to a second, the dihedral oppos-te the first is greater than or equal to that opposite the second, and inversely.

238
III.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
Symmetrical trihedrals
are

equivalent

or

eqtiivalent

by completion.
of a trihedral are together

IV.

Any two face-angles

greater than the third.

tively congruent,

V. In two trihedrals having two face-angles respecif the third is greater in the first,
is

so

the opposite dihedral, and inversely.

VI. In any trihedral the

angles
is less

sum sum

of the three face-

than four right angles.

trihedral, the
of the three dihe-

VII. In
angles.

any

drals is greater than

two and

less

than

six right

when any polygon formed by a plane face is convex, we have

VIII. In
less

In the same way, defining a polyhedral as convex cutting every

any convex polyhedral any face-angle

is

Proof.

than the of all the other face-angles. Divide into trihedrals and apply IV

sum

re-

peatedly.

IX. In any convex polyhedral the

face-angles
is less

sum

of the

than four right angles. X. The three planes which bisect the dihedrals

of

a trihedral are costraight.

XL

The

three

planes

through the edges and

tri-

the bisectors of the opposite face-angles of a

hedral are costraight.

XII. The three planes through the bisectors of the face angles of a trihedral, and perpendicular to these faces, respectively, are costraight. XIII. The three planes through the edges of a
trihedral,

and perpendicular to the opposite

faces,

respectively, are costraight.

/INGLOIDS OR POLYHEDRAL ANGLES.

239

XIV. If two face-angles of a trihedral are right, the dihedrals opposite are right.
Ex. 638. The face angles of any trihedral are proportional to the sides of its on any sphere.

Ex. 639. The area of a a

its

is

to that of the sphere as

{c'-.^it).

spherical excess

is

to 8 r't

^s

Ex. 640. Find the angles and sides of an equilateral a

whose area

is

\ the sphere.

Ex. 641. The angle-sum in a r't a is < 4 r't ^s. Ex. 642. If one of the sects which join the bisectionpoints of the sides of a a be a quadrant, the other two ai"e quadrants. Ex. 643. Cut a tetrahedral by a plane so that the section
is

a llgm.

Ex. 644. To cut by a plane a trirectangular trihedral

so that the section

may

Ex. 645. The base

the vertex

AC

equal any given A. and the area of a a being given,

^^-ith -4'

is

concyclic

and

Ex. 646. Given a trihedral; to each face from the vertex erect a perpendicular ray on the same side as the third edge; the trihedral they form is called the polar
of the given one.
is also
is the polar of a second, then the second the polar of the first. Ex. 647. If two trihedrals are polars, the face angles of the one are supplemental to the inclinations of the corre-

If

one trihedral

sponding dihedrals of the other. Ex. 648. If two angles of a a be

the third

r't, its

area varies as

Ex. 649. If t', one minute, is one sixtieth of a degree, 1", one second, is one sixtieth of a minute, find the and the angles a =20 9' area of a a from the radius 20' 14". Ans. o.iSisr'. 3-'". r=ii4 30", ,8=55 53' Ex. 650. All trihedrals having two edges common, and,

and

;,

on the same side of these, their third edges prolongations of elements of a right cone containing the two common
edges, are equivalent.

24

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 651. Equivalent Xs on the same side of the same base are between copolar = s. Ex. 652. Find the spherical excess of a 'a in degrees

from its area and the radius. Ex. 653. If any angloid whose size is i, that is, any angloid which determines on the unit sphere a spherical polygon whose area is i, be called a steradian, and all the angloids about a point be together called a steregon,
then a steregon contains
47c

steradians.

APPENDIX

I.

THE PROOFS OF THE TWO BETWEENNESS THEOREMS 16 AND 17, TAKEN FOR GRANTED IN THE TEXT.*
is bchcccn 57S. Theorem 1. If bctivccn and D, then is hchcccn is

A and C, and C B aitd D.

Through

Proof.

Let A, B, C,

Dhe
a.

on

a.

C take

a straight c other than

other than C.

On

take a point

On the straight

and E take F. Thus between B and F is no point of c. Now between A and F there can be no point of c, else c would (by II 4) have a point between A and

BE between B

B, since,

by the construction

of F, c

point between

and F.

Thus

C would be

cannot have a between

and B, contrary to our hypothesis that B is between A and C. Thus since c cannot have a point between A and F, it must (by II 4) have a point between F and D. Thus we have the three non-co-straight points F, B, D, and c with a point between F and D, and, by Therefore it construction, none between F and B. must (by II 4) have a point between B and D. So C is between B and D.

* These proofs are due to my pupil, R. L. Moore, to whom I have been exceptionally indebted throughout the making of this book.
241

242

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

B is between A and C, and C is between A and D, then B is between A and D. Proof. Let A, B, C, Dhe on a. Through B take
576.

Theorem

II.

If

a straight b other than a. On b take a point E other than B. On

the straight

CE

between
b.

C and

E take F. Thus between C and Then since F is no point of

Pig. *io.
is between A and C, therefore b must (by II 4) have a point between A and F.

by hypothesis

Thus we have the three non-co-straight points A, and b with a point between A and F. Therefore b must have (by II 4) a point between ^ and D, or between F and D. But it cannot have a point between F and D, for then it must (by II 4) have a point either between F and C, contrary to our construction, or else between C and D, contrary to Theorem I, by which C is between B and D. Therefore it has a point between A and D. So B is between A and D.
F, D,
577.

Theorem. Ill
also between

can always be so

lettered,

Any four ABCD,

points of a straight
that

B is

between

and
is

C and

between
Proof.

our D. Now as regards B and D, and our fourth point A, either A is between B and D, or B is between A and D,ov D is between A and B. If B is between A and D, we have fulfilled the
3)

A and D We may

and D, and furthermore and also between B and D.

(by II
letter three of

A C

points B, C, D, with

between

B and

hypothesis of Theorems I and

II.

APPENDIX
If

I.

243

and B, then interchanging the and D, that is calHng B, D and D, B, we have the hypothesis of Theorems I and II. There only remains to consider the case where A is between B and D. If now C is between D and A we have fulfilled the hjrpo thesis of Theorems I and II, by calling D, A, and C, B, and A, C, and B, D. If, however, A were between C and D we would have fulfilled the hypothesis of Theorems I and II by writing for A, B, for D, A, and for B, D. We have left only one sub-case to consider, that where D is between A and C.
lettering for

D is between A
B

This sub-case

is

impossible.

Suppose
other than
point

ABCD
a.

on
c

a.

Through C take a

straight c

On

take a

other than C.

On

P'- *" and F is no point of c. Then since by hypothesis C is between B and D, therefore c must (by II 4) have a point between B and F. Therefore we have the three non-costraight points B, F, A and c with a point between B and F.

the straight DE between D and E take F. Thus between

Therefore

has (by II

4) either

a point between
.

But it cannot and A, or a point between F and A have a point between F and A, else it would (by II 4) either have a point between F and D, contrary to our construction, or else between D and A, giving C between D and .4, contrary to our hypothesis D between A and C.

244

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

So C would be between B and A, but this with D between A and C gives (by Theorem I) D between A and B, contrary to our hypothesis A between B and D. Thus there is always such a lettering that B is between A and C, and C between A and D, whence (by Theorem I) C is between B and D, and (by Theorem II) B is between A and D. ylr^ A, B,C, D points of a straight, 578. Theorem, such that C lies between A and D and B between A and C, then lies also B between A and D, but not between C and D.
A
B

Fig. 222.

The points ABCD, in accordance with 577, have an order in which two are each between the remaining pair and of this remaining pair neither But here by hypothesis C is between two others. and B axe between others. So we reach the followProof.

ing arrangements

ACBD, DBCA, ABCD, DCBA.

Of these arrangements, however, the first two do For in both arrangnot satisfy the hypothesis. ments C lies between A and B, which (by II 3) contradicts the hypothesis "-B between A and C" In the third and fourth arrangement appears, by 577, that C lies between B and D, therefore, by II 3, B cannot lie between C and D. 579. Theorem. Between any two points of a straight
there are

always indefinitely

many points.

Proof.
least

II 2, is between A and B at one point C; likewise there is between A and

By

there

/IPPENDIX

I.

245

one point Further, there is within at least one point C" which likewise is within ,4 B but not within C'B therefore since C lies within C'B, C" cannot be identical with C. In this way
at least

C
;

AC

^ji

91

S_

Fig. 223.

we

get e^cr

new

points of

AB

without ever coming

to an end.
580.

Theorem.
this

If

ABCD

is

four points con-esponding to

besides

577,

an arrangement of then there is

still

aiTangement
577.

only
is

the

inverse

which
581.

fulfills

[The proof
If

essentially already

given in pro^dng 57S.]

Theorem.

any

finite

number
.

of points of

then they can always be arK, such ranged in a succession .4, B, C, D, E, .4 the one hand and on that B lies bet\\-cen C, D, on the other, further C between .4, B on E on the other, then D one side and D, E between A, B, C on the one side and E, on the other, and so on. Besides this distribution there is only one other, the re\-ersed arrangement, which is of the same
a straight are
g'i^'en,
. .

character.
[This theorem
is

a generalization of 577.]

Fig. 224.

Proof.

Our theorem holds

for four points

by 577

and

5 So.

246

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

show that the theorem remains valid for if it holds for n points. Let A^A2A3 An be the desired arrangement for n points. If further we take an additional point
w+
I

We may

points

then there are forthwith three cases possible:

(i) (2)
(3)

lies
lies

An

lies

between X and An; between X and A^; between A^ and An-

In the third case we prove further, that there is one and only one number m, such that lies between

Am

and

A m+iwe show
.

Finally

in the three cases

(i) (2) (3)
.

that the following arrangements have the desired properties:

.

XA,A-A, An-, A,A,A,...AnX;

Aj^A^Ag
.
.
.

AmXAm+t

A;

and that they with

their inversions are the only ones

which possess those properties.

APPENDIX

II.

THE COMPASSES.
582. Euclid's third
ter

postulate

is:

About any cen-

with any radius one and only one circle

may

he

This has been understood in ordinary geometries as authorizing the use of a physical instrument, the compasses, for drawing a circle with any center
taken.

and any radius. But this is only made

carrier, in

fruitful,

beyond the

sect-

problem

solving,

by

new assumption:

Assumption

of the

Compasses.

Assumption Yl.
a
Circle,
it

If a straight have a point within

circle.

lias

two points on the

Corollary.

// a circle have a point within

and

a point ivithont another circle, has two points on this it

other.

Problem. From a given point without the circle to draw a tangent to the circle. the Construction. Join ^' H given point A with the cenFig. 225. ter C, meeting the circle in B. Erect BD to CB, and (by VI i) cutting in
583.
\

-.-

247

248

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
the OC(CA).
Join DC, meeting tangent to OCiCB).

eC(CB)

in F.

Then

AF
.'.if

is

Proof.

Radius CA,

is

to chord

HD,
of

bisects arc

HD;

we

rotate the figure until

H comes upon
D;
.'.

the trace of A, then

on the trace

tan-

on trace of AF. gent Determination. Always two and only two tangents.
584.

HB

Problem.

To

construct a triangle of which

sects,

the sides shall be equal to three given

given

that any two whatever of these sects are together greater than the third.

Fig. 226.

Given the three sects a, b, c, any two whatever together greater than the third. Construction. On a straight OF from take OG = b. Take O0(a), and QG{c). Since a + c>&, these (by VI 2) intersect, say at K.
i^^OGK is the triangle required. To construct a triangle, given two 585. Problem. sides and the angle opposite one of them.

Given

a, c,

and C.

APPENDIX

II.

249

Case i. If a<c. On one ray of ifC take CB=a. This (by VI i) has two points A', Aj on the straight of the other ray of :^ C. The point C is between A' and Aj. .. if ^C r't, we have two
if congruent triangles (Fig 236) oblique, only one triangle (Fig. 237).
;

Fio.

M7.

Case
Ai

2.

Ifa=c.

[^C acute.]

C
Fig. 228.

Then C coincides with A' or A^, and we have only one triangle.

Case
I.

3.

If

a>c.

[^C

acute.]

li c

= p,

the perpendicular from

B on

CA, there

is

only one triangle.

II.

If

c>p, then A^ and A' are on the same side

there are

of

C and

two

different

triangles
tions,

which

fulfill

the condi-

namely,
is

A'BC and A^BC

Fig. 229.

(Fig. 238).

This
case. III.

called the ambiguous

If

c<^, no

triangle.

APPENDIX

III.

THE SOLUTION OF PROBLEMS.

586.

problem in geometry

is

a proposition ask-

ing for the graphic construction of a figure which

shall satisfy or fulfill certain given conditions or
It has been customary to use the and compasses; that is, to allow our assumptions I-V and also VI (Appendix II), but no others. Of these, assumptions V-VI have usually been superfluous and unnecessary, the problems treated not requiring the compasses, but only rtiler and set-

requirements.
ruler

sect.

587. When we know how to solve a problem, the treatment consists of (i) Construction: Indicating how the ruler and sect-carrier or ruler and compasses are to be used

in effecting

what

is

required.

(2) Proof: Showing that the construction gives a figure fulfilling all the requirements.

Determination: Considering the possibility of the solution, and fixing whether there is only a single solution or suitable result of the indicated
(3)

procedure, or
limitations

more than one, and discussing the which sometimes exist, within which
is

alone the solution

possible.
250

APPENDIX
588.

III.

251

The

first

step toward finding a desired solu-

is called Geometrical Analysis. This consists in supposing drawn a figure like the one desired, also containing the things given, and then analyzing the relations of the given things

tion

is

usually

what

among themselves and to

the things or figure sought,

or the elements necessary for attaining such figure.

589. Methods of procedure in problem-solving.
I.

Siicccsshie

SiibsHtiifions.

We

may

substitute
it

for the required construction another

from which

would follow, and for this another, perhaps simpler, until one is reached which we know how to accomplish.

attempting to find a demonstration for a new theorem, we may freely deduce from the deJust
so, in

by use of invertible theorems, and thus we reach a known proposition, the inversion of the process will give the demonstration sought.
sired proposition
if

Fig. 230.

Example

i.

Theorem.

the circumcircle of

from any point P on the triangle ABC be drawn PA',

If

252

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
perpendicular to the sides, the points X,

PY, PZ
Y,

be costraight, the Simson's st' of A for P. We will have proven X, Y, Z costraight if on joining XY, XZ we show ^PXY supplementPXZ. But again this is proven if we show ary to :^PXZ supplementary to i-ABP and i^PXY =
will

Analysis.

:if

^ABP.
But
Z,

^PXZ

is

supplement of i^ABP since P, X,

are concyclic.

And

since P, Y, C,

X are con-

cyclic, ^PXY is supplement of ^PCY, as is also ^ABP, since P, C, A, B are concyclic. Construct a A, given an I Example 2. Problem.

angle, the side opposite

to the other

two

sides,

and two [a from

is

sects proportional
a, a,

b/c]

Analysis.

By

a and a

(by 165) the circumcircle

Bisect

given.

^BAC by AD
CD/BD = b/c.

and prolong
circle

AD

again

to meet the (by 138) in E.

Then (by

242)

So (by 241) the point D is known. Moreover, since arc

thus

and E can be constructed, A by the prolongation of ED to the circle.

Fig. 231.

CE, the point E is (by 225) known. Therefore, taking BC = a, the points D

BE = arc

and

Analogous Problems: Ex. i. Given a, R, h/c. Ex. 2. Given a, R, b/c. Ex. 3. Given a, BD, CD.
II.

may

Data. The explicit giving of certain things involve the implicit giving of others more im-

mediately available.

APPENDIX

III.

253

Such an implicitly given thing has been

datum.

called a

For example, if a straight and a point without it be given, the perpendicular from the point to the straight is a datum. an angle and a point within it be given, then the sect from the point to the vertex, the sect from the point to one side drawn parallel to the other side, and the sect this cuts off from the side are data. With an angle a are given the constructible parts \a, \a, etc., but not ^a, \a, etc.; also the supplement and complement. If the sum and difference of two magnitudes are
If

given so are the magnitudes. If in a triangle of the three things, a side, the opposite angle,

the circumradius, two are given, so

altitude, area.

is

the

third.

So also with base,

II
side,

Example

i.

To

construct a triangle from one

the opposite angle, and the difference of the

other two angles,

Analysis.
.

(a from a, a, /?;-.) Since a is known, so is also

^-|-

;-

as its

.'. /? and j are known, and supplement. side and the two adjoining angles.

we have a

III.

Translation.

Again new auxiliary parts may

advantageously be introduced. Certain procedures are found particularly fertile. In any triangle ABC, transporting AC parallel to itself into BD, and extending BA equal to itself to E, we have that the sides of EDC are double the medians of ABC and parallel to them.

254

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
sides of

The

ABC

are two-thirds the medians of

EDC, and A
altitudes of

is its

of the triangles

Two of AED, ARC, ADC are

centroid.

the altitudes

equal to two
is triple

ABC

and the content

of

EDC

that of
If

ABC.
of

we have given such elements

ABC as render

possible,

through these properties, the determina-

tion of one of the triangles

EDC, AED, ADC, AEC,

always be constructible.

then the triangle

Ill

ABC

will

Example i. Problem. Construct a triangle, given one median m^, the angle between the others, m^ and m^, and two sects proportional to them
[A from
Analysis.
;

nil,

^of m^ and m^, m^/m^.

In the

aEDC

we know

DC = 2FC =

Therefore the problem 2Wi also ^E and DE/EC. reduced to I Example 2. IV. Symmetry. ^Add to the tentatively constructed figure the figure symmetrical to it or to a part of it, with respect to a chosen straight as axis. Particularly adapted for axis is an angle-bisector Especially does this show or a perpendicular.
is

differences of sects or angles.

APPENDIX

in.

255
tri-

IV Example

i.

Problem.

angle, given

To construct a two sides and

the an-

difference of the opposite

gles:

[A from
Analysis.

a, b,

/?].

Take

CE CA
-I-

CD.

with respect to perpendicular Then ^AEC=^ a. But ^ ARC = ^B+ :^BCE

.-.

= /?+<?.

5=a-/?.
therefore constructible (two sides and

aBCE
C
on BE.

is

included ^). The point

D is the foot
(axis

of the perpendicular

from

CD). IV Example 2. Given the two straights and a point A on 5. Determine the point A' on s, such that ^4A' = perpendicular from A' on /.
^Vnalysis.

A-i-E

and

\Yith respect to the

Fig. 234.

bisector of
figure

^,4A"5 as axis, the symmetrical to XBC is A^4C",

is

and

^ACB

bisected

by A'C

Therefore, erecting

a perpendicular at the given point .4, the bisector of the angle ACB made with / meets 5 in the required
point X.

V. Similan'fy.
is

"When the figure to be constructed

determinable by such conditions that, omitting one, the remaining determine a system of similar

figures,

then

first

similar to the

determine this system of figures on* sought, and secondly, by taking

fix

account of the suppressed condition, which soh-es the problem.

the one

2S6

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.]

There are two sorts of cases according as the suppressed condition determines
figure sought;
first
(I)

the size of the

(II)

its

position or place.

In the

case the data are angles and proportions (giv,

ing the system of similar figures) and a sect (giving

the size of the particular figure)

are only given angles

In the second case

also is

and proportions, but

imposed a condition that the figure

demanded must

have a determinate position with respect to something given; for example, must contain a given
point,

V
it

must contain a tangent to a given circle, etc. Example i. To make a triangle, given an
its

angle a, sects proportional to the sides containing

{b:c=m:n), and also

bisector
b/c,

t^:

[A from a,

t^].

and n. On its bisector the sides of a take take ti. Through the foot of i, draw a parallel to and n. [Similarly the straight through the ends of

On

A from

a,

fi,

ma] A from
2.

a, ^, ha].

V
angle

Example

In a triangle that
its sides

ABC
are as

inscribe

parallelogram of

which one angle

shall coincide

with

BAC, and such

b,

m to n.

The

vertices of the parallelogram sought

one at A, one on
this last

must be one on c, one on a. Omitting condition, the fourth vertices of parallelo-

grams satisfying the other conditions are on a straight determined by A and the parallelogram with sides m and n. The fourth vertex sought is where this straight
crosses the base
b.

. .

APPENDIX

III.

257

which

VI. Intersection of Loci. All points in a plane satisfy a single geometric condition make up
one.

often a single straight or a single circle, in rare cases

more than

Neglecting these rare cases,

fying the giA-en condition.

we may

call

such

straight or circle the locus (place) of the points satis-

Where

it is
if

required to find points satisfying two

conditions,

we

leave out one condition,

we may

find a locus of points satisfying the other condition.

Thus, for each condition ^Ae may construct the corresponding locus. If these two loci have points in common, these points, and these only, satisfy both
conditions.

In a problem involving more than two distinct two may be selected which give available loci, and then the remaining used to complete
conditions,

the solution. If the circle occurs as locus, we may assume the two postulates of the compasses (VI). As preHminary it ^A-ill be convenient to have a
collection of simple loci.

Loci.
1

The

locus of points which -nith a given point

/

give the sect

This
radius

is also
r,

is OP(r). the locus of the centers of circles vdlh

which pass through P. locus of points P on one side of a st' / and 2 such that from them the perpendiculars on I are equal to h is the parallel to / through P, one such

The

point.

258

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.
is

This

also the locus of the centers of circles with

I

radius r tangent to
3.

on one

side.

The

locus of the point to which sects from

two

given points are equal is the perpendicular bisector of the sect joining them. This is also the locus of the centers of all circles

through the two given points.

4.

The

locus of the vertices of

all

right angles on
is

the same side of a given sect as hypothenuse

semicircle
5

the

on the given sect as diameter.

locus of the vertices of
is

The
/?

all

angles congruent

to

j3

on a given sect AC as base

as inscribed angle.
is

the arc on

AC hav-

ing

This

the locus of the vertex of triangles on the

same
6.

side of given base b with given opposite angle ^.

ulars

The locus of the point from which perpendicon the sides of a given angle are equal is the

angle-bisector.

This is also the locus of the centers of circles touching both sides of the angle from within. 7. The locus of the bisection-points of all chords equal to ^ in a given circle is a concentric circle with radius equal to the perpendicular from the center

on

k.

8.

The

locus of the bisection-points of all chords

of a circle

through a given point

the sect from

9.

P to the

P is the circle on given center as diameter.

The

locus of the centers of circles touching a

at the point

given
10.

st' I

is

the perpendicular to

through P.

The

locus of the centers of circles touching

the given circle

OC(CP)

at

is

the

st'

CP.

. .

APPENDIX

HI.

259

Ti

is

1 1 The locus of the centers of circles with radius touching a given circle with radius r^ from without a concentric circle with radius rj + rz- From

within, radius r^r^.

12

The

locus of the end-points of tangents

is

=t

to

the circle OC(r)

the concentric circle with radius

from
cles

to the end of one of these tangents.

is

This circle
that

also the locus of the centers of cirt

with radius
is,

which cut OC"(r) at right angles;

so that at every intersection-point the tan-

gents to the two circles are at right angles.

13.

The

locus of the centers of circles of radius r

with centers on the same side of st' I and cutting from I a chord = ^ is a parallel to / through the vertex of an isosceles triangle with base k onl and side r. 14. The centers of circles of radius r^ cutting from a given circle OC{r^ an arc with chord =^ lie on two concentric circles with radius from C to the vertex of an isosceles triangle with base k a chord of
OC{r-^ and side
15.
i\
r-^.

The

locus of the centers of circles with radius

which bisect a given circle QC{r^ is a concentric with radius from C to the vertex of an isosceles triangle with base a diameter of OCir^) and
circle

side

r^.

16.
fi

The

locus of the centers of circles with radius

which are bisected by a given circle QC{t\) is a concentric circle having as radius the perpendicular from r on any chord = 2;-i in oC{r.^.
17.

The

locus of the vertices of triangles of equal

parallel to the base

content on the same side of the same base is the through the top of its altitude.

26o
1 8.

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

The locus

of the vertex

B B

of all triangles
is

on on

the same base h in which a^ + c^

19.

= constant

a
is

circle.

The

locus of the vertex

of all triangles

the same base b in which a^c^== constant

a per-

pendicular to the base.

20.

The

locus of the bisection-point of a sect with

is

end-points on two straights at right angles

as radius.

circle

with their intersection as center and half the sect

VI Example

i.

To

construct a triangle from

an angle and the altitudes on the including sides (A from a, h^, h^).
Analysis.

B is the intera with

of a
Fig. 235.
h^.
2.

section of a side of

the parallel to the other side

of

a through the end

perpendicular to this side equal to

VI Example

To

con-

struct a triangle

from one

side and the altitudes to the other two (a from a,

K K)Analysis.
for F.

E is the interon
/i2.

section of semicircle

BC
So

with arc of radius

sect

Then A is intersection of CE and BF. P'- "36Reckoning. VII. Our calculus may be freely used for making and

solving equations of the

first

and second degree

containing expressions for sought sects.

APPENDIX

III.

261

VII Example

i.

Construct, -^-ithout using the

compasses,
third.

an

isosceles

triangle

w-ith the equal angles

double the
side of a

Construction.
right angle,

On one

B, take
side,

BA

equal to

half the

unit sect.

BA=h.

On

the
FiG. 237.

other

the hypothenuse

BC = \. Prolong AC to D, taking
erect a perpendi-

CD = \.
it

At

cular,

and on

take

DF = \.
EG,

On CA take CE = \. Take -l-4' = 2-4". At E erect the

perpendicular
bisector

taking EG = Join AG and A'G. The triangle AA'G is the one required.
Proof.

AF

Take

GH

= AA'.
t
Fig. 238.

Join A'H.

EG^AF = \[{\+^y + \f + \J
= [[KCO*+i]]= + i]* = [TV[io--n5)*]]-AG- = iV[io + 2

.-.

5V] +^L[6

- 2 (5)^^ = I.

GH = AA'==2AE = l[^-.)'-T.'\.

AH = i-h['-^i-i]=h[:,-(,in.
..GA:AA'=AA':AH.
.:

(by 239) J^.IC;.!'^

aAA'H.

..A'H = AA'=GH.

262

RATION/IL GEOMETRY.

= ^ HGA' + ^ HA'G = 2
VITI. Partition
of

-4-

HGA'.

a Perigon. The four right angles around a point, taken together, may be called a perigon. Since any angle may be bisected, a perigon can be cut into 2" congruent angles. Since the supplement of the angle of an equilateral triangle is one-third of four right angles, therefore a perigon can be cut into 3 2" congruent angles. The angles at the base of an isosceles triangle with the equal angles each double the third are each onefifth of four right angles. Therefore a perigon can be cut into 5 2" congruent angles. The difference between one-third and one-fifth of a perigon is two-fifteenths of a perigon. Hence a perigon can be cut into 15-2" congruent angles. If a perigon be cut into n congruent angles, the rays determine on any circle about the vertex the vertices of an inscribed regular polygon of n sides, and the points of tangency of a regular circumscribed polygon of n sides. From the time of Euclid, about 300 B.C., no advance was made in the inscription of regular polygons until Gauss, in 1796, found that a regular polygon of 17 sides was inscriptible, and in 1801 published the following: That the geometric division of the circle into n equal parts may be possible it is necessary and sufficient that w be 2 or a higher power of 2, or else a prime number of the form 2 ^"^ -|- 1 or a product of two or more different prime ntimbers of that form,

APPENDIX

in.

263
2

or else the product of a power of

different

by one

or

more
300,

prime numbers
6, 8,

of that form.

Below

the following 38 are the only possible values of n:

2, 3. 4,
S.

ID, 12, 15, 16, 17, 20, 24, 30, 32, 34,

40, 48, 51, 60, 64, 68, 80, 85, 96, 102, 120, 128, 136,

160, 170, 192, 204, 240, 255, 256, 257, 272.

There is one inscriptible regular polygon known with the number of its sides prime and greater than 257. This number is 224 + 1=65,537. For = 7, the numbers obtained are not OT = 5, m = 6,

prime.
Ex. 654. Show
,

how

terior ^ and the exterior n =2'" or 5.2'".

to trisect the central ^, the in^ of a regular w-gon where

to

Ex. 655. Show

how
if

cut

the

of

an equilateral

A into n equal parts

is 2'"

or 3.2'" or

5.2'"-

Loci.

Ex. 656. In A, given b and

I;
/.;

/3,

find the locus of

G; H;

O.

Ex. 657. In oC(r) find the locus of C: (i) Given r and P (a point of 0). (2) Given r and a tangent. (3) Given P, Q (two points of O). (4) Given tangent at P. tangents. (5) Given 2 Ex. 658. In A, given b and /3, find locus of the bisectionpoint of sect joining outer vertices of equilateral As on a and c. Ex. 659. Find locus of point the sum of the squares of whose sects to A, B, C = k. Ex. 660. Given an equilateral A, find the locus of the point whose sect to one vertex is the sum of its sects to
||

the others.

squares of whose

Ex. 661. Find the locus of the point the sum of the J.s to the sides of a r't if = k'.

264

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 662. Find the locus of the intersection of two drawn through the ends of a fixed diameter in a given one of the secants to a tangent at the second point where the other cuts O. Ex. 663. Find the locus of the intersection of 2 st's drawn from the acute :^ s of a r't a through the points where any to hypothenuse cuts one opposite side and the production of the other. Ex. 664. Two given s intersect. Find the locus of the bisection-point of the sect through one of their points of intersection with end-points one on each circle. Ex. 665. Given AB divided at C. .Find locus of P,
secants
, ,

if

:>fAPC^^BPC.

Ex. 666. Any 2X chords intersect in a given point Find the locus of the bisection-point of a of a given- . chord joining their ends. Ex. 667. The locus of a point, the sum of the squares of whose sects from the vertices of a given equilateral a equals twice the square on one of the sides, is the circum- Ex. 668. The locus of the end of a given sect from the point of contact and on the tangent is a concentric . Ex. 669. Find the locus of the foot of the X from P on a st' through B. Ex. 670. Find the locus of the end of sect from P cut

by

st'

a into parts as

to n.
st'

Ex. 671. Find locus of end of sect from

into parts as

a cut by

to n.
II

Ex. 672. Sects

cut into parts as
points.

and with ends in the sides of ^ a are to n. Find the locus of the cutting

Ex. 673. Find the locus of a point P if PAiPB =m:n. Ex. 674. The locus of the cross of two tangents to <3C{r), the st' of whose chord of contact rotates about a fixed point P is a st' pCP. P is called the pole of p, and p the polar of P, with respect to the given O. Ex. 675. If A (given) is on the polar of (variable),

find the locus of

X.

APPENDIX

HI.

26s

Ex. 676. To find the locus of a point from which rays through the ends of a given sect make a given :^ Ex. 677. Find the locus of the vertex B of As, given
b

and a.c=m:
di

11.

Ex. 67S. [Circle of ApoUonius.]

parts as
to n,

If

a sect

is

cut into
of

and the

interior

and exterior points

division are talcen as ends of a diameter, this O contains the vertices of all as on the given sect, whose other two
sides are as
11:

to n.

Ex. 679. Find the locus of those points in a plane a from which ra}-s to the ends of a given sect not on a are Ex. 680. Find the locus of P if PA =PB =PC. Ex. 6S1. If h' is the projection of b on a\\b, and b' a in , find the locus of the bisection-point of a given sect AB if A on a and B on b. Ex. 682. A variable st' is to a given plane and meets tx^-o non-coplanar st's. Find the locus of a point which
||

cuts the intercepted sect into parts as

to

11.

Ex. 683. Find the locus of the point from which -Ls to three coplanar st's are=. Ex. 684. Find the locus of the point having one or two
of the foUo'tt'ing:

Equal sects to two given points; Equal J_s to two given intersecting st's; (III) Equal s o two given planes. Ex. 6S5. Find the locus of the poles of great circles maldng a given angle with a given great circle. Ex. 686. Calling 2 ^s c mplciiiciiial wh n their sum is what is the locus of the intersection of ravs from a r't .4 and B making '4- with AB the complement of 4- with
1

1)

(II)

"4-

BAl
Ex. 68 7. Calling a chord the chord of contact of the point of interesection of tangents at its extremities, what is the locus of points whose chords of contact in oC(r)
equal r?
is St'

Ex. 688. The locus of vertex of a =s', on given b at altitude hb, where blw = 23^II

b,

266

RATIONAL GEOMETRY.

Ex. 689. The locus of vertex of A on given h, and with a^-c^=<r^ is st' to 6 at D, where AD''-CD^=s'Ex. 690. Find locus of trisection points of equal chords. Ex. 691. The locus of a point from which tangents to two given 0s are = is a st' _L to the center sect, which
that the difference of the sq's of the segThis st' is the radical axis of the 2OS. If they intersect it contains their common chord. Ex. 692. The locus of such that PA PB = m-.n is on DjDi as diameter, where co-st' and DA =m:n.
it

so divides

ments =r' ri^.

DAB

DB

Ex. 693. Given b and a c, the locus of foot of X from A on tb is O with bisection-point of b for center and
J(a

c)

for radius.

Ex. 694. Given b and a +c, the locus of foot of X from A on bisector of external ^ at 5 is with bisectionpoint of b for center and i(a+c) for radius Ex. 695. The locus of P cutting sects from A to a as

to

is

st'

II

a.

Ex. 696. The locus of P cutting a sect 5 from A to a so that s-AP=k'' is a . Ex. 697. The locus of P cutting a sect from C(r) to

sls

to

is

a,

Ex. 698. If rectangles have one vertex at A and the adjacent vertices on C(r), the locus of the fourth vertex is C(r]) where r,^ =2?-^ AC"^. Ex. 699. The locus of the vertex -B of a 'a of given b

and area
is

is

arc

A'BC
{<^

Ex. 700. Given b and

arc

+ r?)

in "a, the locus of

ABC.

INDEX.

PAGB

PAGB
Angle, tetrahedral
of triangle trihedral vertex of Angles, adjacent alternate exterior alternate interior
18,

Abbreviations

vii

Acute angle Addition Adjacent angles Adriaan Anthoniszoon Metius Alimes Alkhovarizmi
Alternate angles Altitude of triangle of cone of cylinder of parallelogram of pyramid of triangle Ambiguous case Analysis

28,

211 67
19

237 207 237

17

132 132 132 132

19,

208 33 33
33 33 33
18 121

complemental
corresponding
exterior
interior
. .

37, 265

33 46 194
197

. ;

46 166
46
62,

sum

of triangle of
19,

supplemental
vertical

249 251
16

Angloid

Apex
of cone

Angle
acute at center degree of dihedral
exterior exterior of

28, 211

ApoUonius

112

134 237 123

17

Arab Arc
degree of
greater length of

27 209 236 166 194 265 132

Ill

134 114 130

iii

greater inscribed interior of obtuse of two great circles

61

major
Arcs, congruent.

104
17 28, 211 189

in
65

Archimedes' assumption theorem

198

Area
of circle of cone of cylinder of parallelogram of polygon of sector

86
134 194, 196 197 94

polyhedral
right sides of
size of

236
19
17

133
189,

spherical

tancbord

206 107

90
134 267

268

INDEX.
PAGE 191

PAGE
Circle, division of

Area of sphere
of of spherical polygon of spherical triangle of triangle

262
109 184 109 128 100
187 133 109 117 116 194 197 102 188 102 102 102 262 188

236 236 236

87 132
I,

escribed great
in-

mensuration of
radius of small
unit
Circles, escribed

Aryabhatta
Association Associative
'

200 200
186 194 197

68, 69
2,

Assumptions Axis of circle

of circular cone of circular cylinder of symmetry radical

tangent

two
Circular cone cylinder

39 266
194 197 196 46
175 166 191

Circum-center of tetrahedron
-circle

Base of cone
of cylinder of frustum of cone of parallelogram of prismatoid of pyramid of spherical segment of triangle

-radius

Circumscribed circle polygon sphere Colunar

233
141
67, 69 37,

Common

section

46
5i

Betweenness
Bible Bisection-point Bis9Ction-ray

201, 241

Commutative law Compasses Complement

Completion
Concentric cenquads

247 265

132
38,

214

Bordage

Brahmagupta
Calculus, sect Cavalieri

39 233 60, 233

Coney clic Cone

apex of
area of axis of base of circular

Cenquad
Center of circle of sphere
spherical straight

66 191 234 100 184

234
loi

element of frustum of lateral area nappes of

oblique right
slant height of truncated ,

Centimeter Centroid

Chord of

circle

of contact of sphere spherical Circle of Apollonius axis of center of

circum diameter of

130 46 100 265 184 222 100 265 186 100 102 100

volume of. Congruent

arcs figures triangles

8l 235 102 194 194 194, 196 194 194 194 194 196 196 194 194 194 194 196 194, 196
15

Ill 29
19
62,
85,

Construction Contact, point of

250 106
134

Content

INDEX.
PAGE 65
II, 165,

269
PAGB 67 96
81,

Continuity

Equal

sects

Convex
Coplanar Copunctal Corresponding angles
sides

226
3

Equilateral triangle

162 33 72 162 162 180 180

105

Costraight Cross

2,

Equivalence Equivalent by completion Escribed circle Euclid

Euclid's postulate

230
81 81 109

85,

247
35 166 109 109 231
11

Cube
Cuboid
Cyclic Cylinder, altitude of
axis of . . bases of circular
.
_.

Euler Ex-center
-radius Excess, spherical

elements of lateral area oblique

right right section of truncated volume of .... ,

197 197 197 197 197 197 197 197 197 197, 198 197

Explemental
Exterior angle Exterior angles of angle point

123 33
17 II

Face Faces of angloid of polyhedron

of tetrahedron

236 236
165 163

Base
Data.

'.

Degree of angle
of arc Deltoid

132 252 134 134 40

Figure plane Foot of perpendicular Frustum, area of of cone

29 29
144 ig6 196
175

Determination

250
2

pyramid volume of
of

196

Determine
Di:igonal of polygon Diameter of circle of sphere spherical

10

Dihedral
Distributive Division external internal

100 184 222 237 69 7

125 125 166
31. 160 31, 160

Gauss Geodesic Geometric elements

,

262 200
i

Geometry Golden section

Graphics Great circle Greater angle
arc
sect

i
^

Dodecahedron Dual
Duality, principle of
of angloid of polyhedron Element of cone

125 52 184 61 114 61 75 75

Harmonic
range

division

Edges

236
165

Heron Hexahedron
Hilbert

98 i6
iii
,

cylinder Elements, the geometric End-points

(rf

I94 i97
i

Hindoo

Equal

^01 67

Hippocrates of Chios Historical note on nr

132 137 132

38,

Hypothenuse

63

270
__

INDEX.
TAGE
PAGE 241
31

166 In-center 109 -radius 109 188 of tetrahedron Inclination of hemiplanes .... 157 of straight to plane 153 Inscribed angle 104 262 polygon sphere 188 Instruments 5') 5^ Intercept 112

Icoshahedron

Moore
Motion....;. Multiplication

68
194
62
197

Nappes
Oblique
cylinder to a plane Obtuse angle

144
28,
12, 18,

2H
166

Octahedron
Opposite
points side

Interior angles

of angle point Intersection of loci

Isosceles triangle

33 17
II

200 184
12

257
28, 212

summit
Orthocenter

165

49
137 153
'

Joachimsthal Jones

234
132

Pappus
Parallel planes straights to a plane

Kochansky
Lambert
Lateral area of cone of cylinder of truncated cylinder

133
132 196 197 198 166

32 144

Parallelogram
altitude of

base of. Parallelopiped

Parallels

edge
face surface

Left

Length of arc
of circle

166 166 209 130

131
68, 208

Paris Partition of perigon transversal Pascal

42 46 46 180 32 130 262

87, 169
,

Less
Lexell

229
132 132 257, 263 257 132

Pasch Pass Pedal Pentagon

Pentahedral

6,

66 202 144 108

11

Leyden Lindemann
Loci

237
166

Locus Ludolph van Ceulen

Pentahedron Perigon partition of

Perimeter.

262 262
viii

Perpendicular planes

Major arc

in
124 40 40, 216
141 130
15

Mean

Median

proportional of quadrilateral

straights to plane

Pi (*)

157 19 144 131

of triangle

Plane
figure

Meet Meter Methods Minor arc Minus

Minute

29 29
185
i

tangent Planes
parallel

Ill 205

239

perpendicular Plus

153 157

205

INDEX.
PAGE
Points of contact. opposite Polar
straightest triangle
I

271
PAGE 166
175

Pyramid, base of
frustum of lateral edges of
lateral faces of lateral surface of

106 184
213, 239, 264

213 219

truncated

with respect to a circle .... 264 Pole 264 of circle 186 Poles l85, 213

volume of
Pythagoras
q-pole q-radius

166 166 166 196 176

S4
223 223 120 213

Polygon
area of

10

50
11

Quadrant of

circle

convex
cyclic

diagonal of plane
regular simple
spherical Polygons, similar Polyhedral angles

105 10
11

of straightest Quadrilateral median of Quotient

ff

40 70
102 1^3

105
II

204 76 236
165 165 165 165 165

Radian
Radical axis Radius of circle of sphere
spherical

266
100 184 222
9,

Polyhedron convex edges of

faces of

Ray
Reckoning
Rectangle Regions Regular polygon.

204 260
42 7 105

summits of volume of
Postulate, Euclid's Principle of duality

174 35 31, 160

1

Rhombus
Richter

42
132

Prism
right

79

179
175 175 175 177

Prismatoid altitude of base of formula

section of

Right angle
circular cone circular cylinder section of cylinder triangle

209
19

176
175 175
50,

194 197 197 37, 63

121

top of

Prismoid Problems Product

Projecting plane of point on plane straight on plane

Rotation Ruler
Scalene

51

250 68
152 151 151

Schur
Secant

87 66
106 239 202 66 64 204 61 176
141

Second
Sect -calculus
-carrier
-train 10,
6,

Proof Proportion Ptolemy Pure spherics

250
72 126, 132

200
166 166 166

Pyramid
altitude of

greater Section

apex of

common

. 1

272

INDEX.
PAGE 197
133
10,

Section, right

Square
Steradian Steregon Straight

Sector area of
Sect-train

134 204
igl

PAGE 42 .... 240 240 29

51

Segment, base of
of circle of one base
of sect of sphere top of

edge
Straightest Straights Successive substitutions Sum of angles of arcs of sects

201
191 125 191 192 191

200
i

25 121

119
67, 225 165
27, 211

volume of
Semicircle Sense
Set-sect

no
205 77 132
17

Summits Supplement Supplemental

Surface

sects
.,

217
165
vii

Shanks ...
Side of angle of plane
of point on straight of polygon of straight
.,

14
9

Symbols Symmetrical points

Similar

polygons
Similarity

Simson
Size of angle

Skew
Slant height of cone

Small circle Solution of problems Sphere area of.

center of

10 9 72 76 255 252 133 163 194 187

Symmetry Sy mtra

39>

39 425
41

Talmud
Tanchord angle Tangent
circles
1

132 107
106, 223

plane spheres
straight straightest

117 185 185 57, 185

250
184
191

circumscribed diameter of
great circle of inscribed radius of small circle of

184 188 184 184 188 184 187

185 191
189,

Tetrahedral Tetrahedron circumcenter of edges of

faces of

223 237
165 188
1 65 165 165 169

summits of volume of

Theorem
of Archimedes of Bordage,. of Brahmagupta 60, of Euler of Heron of Hippocrates of Chios ... of Joachimsthal of Lexell of Moore of Pappus of Pascal of Ptolemy of Pythagoras Top of prismatoid
.

tangent

volume of
Spherical angle center

chord
excess

polygon
radius

206 234 222 231 204 222

191

198 233 233 166 98 137 234 229 241

137 6g i2g 8

segment
tangent
triangle

223 205

Spherics

200

i7

INDEX.
PAGE

273
PAGB 180 133
132 170
17
19,

Top

of segment

191

Unit
circle

68, 94, 130,

Trace
Translation Transversal
partition

plane Trapezoid Triangle

altitudes of angle bisectors of

90 122, 253 33 87, 169 169 42

11

Vega
Veronese Vertex of angle
Vertical angles Vertices of polygon

209
10 168 194 180 197 174 180 176 176 191 191 169 198

angle of area of base of

equilateral
isosceles

18,

46 109 207
87

Volume
of of of of of of of

cone cuboid cylinder

28,

medians of
polar
right spherical Triangles, congruent similar

46 96 212 40 219
205
19

polyhedron prism
prismatoid

pyramid

of sphere

37, 63

of spherical segment of tetrahedron of truncated cylinder

7^

symmetric
Trihedral
Trisection-points

210 237 44
196 197 196

Within
the sphere

6 184
165

tetrahedron

Truncated cone
cylinder

Without
the sphere tetrahedron

6 184
165

Truncated pyramid