Dissertation Torsten Mack

A MEMS-Based Recongurable RF Receiver
Front-End Utilizing Multi-Port Technology

A Thesis Submitted to the
Technical Faculty of the
University of Erlangen-Nuremberg
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
DOKTOR-INGENIEUR
by
Torsten Mack
Erlangen 2005
Rekongurierbarer Hochfrequenz-Empfanger
mit Mikro-Elektromechanischen Systemen
auf Basis von Multi-Tor-Technologie
Der Technischen Fakult at der
Universit at Erlangen-N urnberg
zur Erlangung des Grades
DOKTOR-INGENIEUR
vorgelegt von
Torsten Mack
Erlangen 2005
Als Dissertation genehmigt von
der Technischen Fakultat der
Friedrich-Alexander Universitat Erlangen-N urnberg
Tag der Einreichung: 15. Juni 2005
Tag der Promotion: 11. August 2005
Dekan: Prof. Dr. Albrecht Winnacker
Berichterstatter: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. habil. Robert Weigel
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Franz X. Kartner (MIT)
Acknowledgements
This work was conducted at the DaimlerChrysler Research Facility in Ulm, Germany,
Department of Vehicle Sensing and Communications Microwave, and at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology in Cambridge, MA, USA, between November 2001
and March 2005.
I would like to thank Prof. Robert Weigel from the Friedrich-Alexander-University
Erlangen-Nuremberg, Chair of Technical Electronics, and Prof. Franz Kartner from
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Research Laboratory of Electronics for their
involvement and the supervision of this work.
I would especially like to thank Prof. Franz Kartner for embracing me as a member of
his research group during my research period in the United States.
I would like to gratefully acknowledge the enthusiastic supervision of Dr. Johann-
Friedrich Luy from DaimlerChrysler Research and Technology. His knowledge and
expertise helped guide me through this work.
I want to sincerely thank Dr. Bernd Schauwecker and Dr. Karl Strohm for numerous
discussions and countless hours of technical support during the design phase and fab-
rication of the MEMS.
I want to thank Dietrich Eisbrenner for his generosity in taking the extra time in the
clean-room and assisting me during the fabrication process of the MEMS.
Many thanks to Dr. Thomas M uller for his inspiration in the eld of SDR and for
helping the thesis take shape and progress forward.
Many thanks also to Thomas Eireiner and Dr. Konrad Bohm for their intellectual
support and for the various fruitful discussions that were essential for the success of
this work.
Furthermore, I want to thank Winfried Simon from IMST GmbH and Dr. Jan Mehner
from FEMWARE GmbH for supporting the development process of the MEMS with
their simulations.
Thanks also to Francois Deborgies and Laurent Marchand from ESA for their support
and suggestions in the development of the MEMS.
Many thanks to all my interns and Master Thesis students, especially to Alexander
Honold.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents, Inge and Eugen, and my girlfriend
Annie Seapan. Without their encouragement and support, this work would not have
been possible. Many thanks also to my sincere friends Micky, Andrea, and Annie for
making me dinner and proofreading this thesis.
Abstract
The aim of this work is the design and evaluation of a recongurable, universal, multi-
band, multi-standard receiver front-end. This front-end is based on software dened
radio (SDR) which leads to a signicant reduction of hardware circuit complexity.
For down conversion, the multi-port receiver principle has been chosen as it is a very
promising candidate to cope with the large frequency ranges needed for receiving mul-
tiple standards.
The original multi-port (or six-port) theory applies only to alternative network analyz-
ers. Since the late 1990s, the six-port principle has also been used for radio frequency
(RF) communications receivers, but the principle of the frequency conversion process
was never thoroughly described. Therefore, an accurate mathematical description of
the frequency conversion and demodulation processes in multi-port receivers needs to
become established. With this detailed understanding of the multi-port theory, the
six-port receiver can then be evaluated and its performance can be compared to that
of conventional architectures.
To integrate present and future frequency bands from 1 GHz through 40 GHz into
a single receiver, the hardware of the multi-port interferometer itself needs to be re-
congurable. Hardware recongurability in the analog front-end necessitates multi-
ple routing structures, i.e. receive/ transmit (RX/TX) switches or front-end selector
switches. It is obvious that these switches must have a very low loss so as not to degrade
the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio. On the other hand, RX/TX switches must support
very high powers. As we will see, these two requirements, namely low loss and high
power, cannot be achieved suciently with conventional PIN diode switches. The new
and upcoming micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) technology oers an elegant
way to accomplish these specications. As low loss, high power switches are the key
element for future multi-band multi-standard transceivers, much eort has been put
in the design, simulation, fabrication, and evaluation of new suitable radio frequency
(RF) MEMS switches in particular, a single pole double throw (SPDT) switch. RF
MEMS switches designed with this new technology can cover a frequency range from
DC to 40 GHz with an insertion loss below 1 dB and can handle several watts of power.
When the performance of the new MEMS switches is known, they can be applied and
evaluated in the context of the six-port receiver. For an accurate evaluation of the
recongurable six-port interferometer, S-parameter measurements need to be analyzed
in respect to signal attenuation and phase relations. A detailed analysis of these pa-
rameters will further improve the understanding of the multi-port principle, especially
the requirements for covering a large frequency range.
In the context of communications the meaningful physical entity is the symbol er-
ror rate. The multi-band, multi-standard six-port receiver front-end must meet the
requirements of todays communication standards. This implies a good noise per-
formance which can be characterized by the symbol error rate of the demodulated
symbols with respect to the bit energy over noise (E
b
/N
0
) ratio.
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Motivation and State of the Art Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Contribution and Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Theoretical Background of Multi-Port Receivers 5
2.1 The Software Dened Radio Concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Introduction to Software Dened Radio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Software Dened Radio Architectures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 The Theory of Diode Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Semiconductor Diode Circuit Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Diode Detectors in Multi-Port Applications . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Simple Description of Multi-Port Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Mathematical Description of the Multi-Port Receiver . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Theory of Additive Mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.2 The Multi-Port Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.3 Calibration Method and IQ Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Frequency Conversion in Multi-Port Receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3 RF MEMS For Signal Routing 25
3.1 Motivation and Introduction to RF MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Typical Applications of RF MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Overview of the RF MEMS Under Investigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Theoretical Background of the Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.1 Mechanical Domain Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2 Electrostatic Domain Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.3 Fluid Domain and Transient Response Simulations . . . . . . . 33
3.3.4 Electromagnetic Domain Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Design, Layout, and Simulation Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.1 Shunt Airbridge Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4.2 Toggle Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.3 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.4 RF Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Process Flow and Fabrication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6 SEM Micrographs and Experimental RF Measurement Results . . . . . 52
i
Contents
3.6.1 Experimental Results of the Shunt Airbridge Switch . . . . . . . 52
3.6.2 Experimental Results of the Toggle Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.3 Experimental Results of the SPDT Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6.4 Experimental Results of the RF Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Additional Measurements and Reliability Results . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.7.1 Switching Time Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7.2 RF Power Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.3 Switch Cycle Measurement Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7.4 DC Contact Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.7.5 Temperature Dependency and Reliability . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4 The MEMS-Based Multi-Band Six-Port Circuit 69
4.1 Introduction to Passive RF Multi-Port Interferometers . . . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Options for the Multi-Port Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.1 The N-Port Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 Five-Port and Six-Port Interferometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Design and Analysis of a 1.5 GHz Six-Port Interferometer (SP1500) . . 73
4.3.1 Theoretical Background of the Electromagnetic Simulations . . 74
4.3.2 Substrate and Microstrip Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.3 Design and Simulation Results of the Power Divider . . . . . . . 76
4.3.4 Design and Simulation Results of the Quadrature Hybrid . . . . 77
4.3.5 Simulation and Measurement Results of SP1500 . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Analysis of the 2 GHz to 25 GHz Six-Port Interferometer (SP40) . . . . 85
4.4.1 Guidelines for Broadband Power Divider Design . . . . . . . . . 86
4.4.2 Measurement Results of a Broadband Power Divider . . . . . . 86
4.4.3 Guidelines for Broadband Quadrature Hybrid Design . . . . . . 87
4.4.4 Measurement Results of a Broadband Quadrature Hybrid . . . . 87
4.4.5 Measurement Results of the SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 The Recongurable MEMS-Based Multi-Band Front-End . . . . . . . . 91
4.5.1 Targeted Applications of RF MEMS in Receiver Front-Ends . . 91
4.5.2 The MEMS-Based Recongurable Six-Port Front-End . . . . . . 93
4.5.3 Results of the MEMS-Based Recongurable Six-Port Front-End 94
4.5.4 The RF MEMS SPDT Antenna Switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5 Performance of the Multi-Band Six-Port Receiver 103
5.1 Simulation Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.1 Functional Principle of the Simulation Program CppSim . . . . 103
5.1.2 Simulation Set Up . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.1.3 Simulation Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 Simulation of the Six-Port Receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.1 Inuence of Channel Noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Frequency Oset and Phase Noise Dependency . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3 Characterization of the Schottky Diode Detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4 Measurement Results of the Multi-Band Six-port Receiver . . . . . . . 115
ii
Contents
5.4.1 Measurement Set Up and Run . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.2 General Dependency of RF and LO Power on Reception . . . . 117
5.4.3 General Noise Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.4 General Phase Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.5 Inuences of In-Band Interferers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.4.6 Frequency Dependent SER Performance of Multi-Band Receiver 121
5.5 Alternative Applications of the Multi-Port Principle . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6 Conclusion and Perspectives 133
6.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Main Achievements and Outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Table of Figures 137
Abbreviations:
IQ in-phase/ quadrature
RF radio frequency
MEMS micro electro-mechanical systems
SDR software dened radio
SPDT single pole double throw
SEM scanning electron microscope
DC direct current
GHz gigahertz
SER symbol error rate
SP1500 six-port interferometer with a center frequency of 1.5 GHz
SP20 six-port interferometer for frequencies from 2 GHz through 25 GHz
QPSK quadrature phase shift keying
iii
Contents
iv
1 Introduction
1.1 Motivation and State of the Art Technology
Today, the communications industry faces the challenge of integrating an increasing
number of radio communications systems. Especially in automotive applications, a
vast amount of dierent receivers ranging from below one megahertz (amplitude mod-
ulation (AM) radio) to electronic toll collect systems at 5.7 GHz or even radar systems
at 79 GHz. Future communications systems with higher data rates are envisaged to
employ the 17 GHz, 24 GHz, or 60 GHz bands. The state-of-the-art technology is the
use of hardware that is limited to cover one frequency band only. This becomes very
complex, ineective, and expensive as modern transceivers need to handle more and
more standards in a single, compact device.
Therefore, it is of great interest to design a single transceiver that can handle multi-
ple frequency bands, understand dierent standards, and is easily recongurable and
upgradeable. These requirements can be met by shifting traditional hardware com-
ponents into the digital domain. This type of radio is called software dened radio
(SDR) [1]. With the advances in complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS)
technology, analog-to-digital converters (ADCs), programmable digital signal proces-
sors (DSP), and high speed data transfer, the SDR principle becomes feasible from the
digital point of view and much eort is undertaken to implement SDR radios. How-
ever, great eort also needs to be applied to the analog front-end, meaning anything
from the antenna(s) to the ADCs. An eective and well rounded principle needs to be
discovered and developed for universal frequency conversion processes over a large fre-
quency range that allows high freedom and is independent of the baseband modulation.
The motivation of this work is the design of a broadband receiver for a frequency
range from 1 GHz to 40 GHz with reduced hardware requirements. Hardware archi-
tectures for SDR applications that cover such a large frequency range have not yet
been reported. To achieve this goal, dierent SDR hardware architectures [2][3] have
been reviewed and the most promising, the multi-port principle, was applied [4]. The
reported multi-port architectures dier in the number of output ports: Five-port re-
ceivers [5][6][7] and six-port receivers [8][9][10][11][12][13].
1
1 Introduction
The six-port receiver under investigation in this work uses a local oscillator (LO) and
broadband matched power detectors for frequency conversion. The SDR principle is
employed for demodulation. To cover the aforementioned frequency range, the six-
port architecture needs the ability to route signals to dierent antennas and to switch
between dierent interferometer circuits. This feature was implemented with radio
frequency (RF) switches that consist of micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS)
[14]. As the realization of such new type of switches requires an enormous amount
of eort, the RF MEMS switching structures were developed in a joint project with
the European Space Agency (ESA) called Microwave Electrostatic Micro-Machined
Devices For On-Board ApplicationS (MEMOS).
1.2 Contribution and Outline
This work is organized as a step by step approach from the theoretical background of
multi-port receivers to the nal performance evaluation of the designed recongurable,
multi-band, multi-standard six-port receiver platform. The highlight lies in the devel-
opment of the low loss, high power RF MEMS switches to be demonstrated in Chap.
3 and their application in the six-port receiver context. To name a few, new scientic
contributions of the performed MEMS research are:
Stable fabrication processes for new types of MEMS: an ohmic contact switch,
an SPDT switch, and an RF cross. All devices can be fabricated on standard Si
wafers with standard Si processes (CMOS compatibility).
The increased handling and decreased insertion loss from the capacitive mem-
brane switch, the toggle switch, and the SPDT switches make RF MEMS switches
superior in their performance when compared to state of the art positive/ intrin-
sic/ negative (PIN) diode switches.
The MEMS RF cross oers low attenuation when signal lines need to lead over
each other.
Detailed reliability and performance analysis of the toggle and capacitive shunt
airbridge switch covering RF power, total number of switch cycles, direct current
(DC) contact resistance, and temperature dependency.
Besides, there are several new achievements that are related to multi-port receivers.
The most prominent are:
A comprehensive and better to understand theoretical description that applies
the concept of additive mixing to multi-port receivers and gives insight into the
frequency conversion processes
2
1.2 Contribution and Outline
A six-port front-end that covers a very large bandwidth
A better description of phase relations that further improve the understanding
of multi-port theory
Symbol error rate (SER) measurements at dierent signal-to-noise (SNR) ratios
(more precisely E
b
/N
0
) over a frequency range from 1.075 GHz to 40 GHz (at
selected frequencies). SER measurements covering such a large frequency range
in a single receiver have not been published before.
The scientic content of this work starts o in the next chapter, Theoretical Back-
ground of Multi-Port Receivers (Chap. 2), with a short introduction to SDRs in the
context of multi-port receivers. From this, follows a description of the semiconductor
diode detector as it is identied as the key component of multi-port receivers and the
place where the frequency conversion process takes place. A thorough elaboration and
application of the diode theory is of great importance in understanding the functional
principle of multi-port receivers. The theory focuses on the multi-port principle in the
context of communications receivers which is somehow detached from the original de-
scription of six-port reectometers found in the early work of Cohn [15], Engen [4][16],
and Hoer [17][18]. This is necessary because in comparison to Engens work, we face
a dynamic system which has dierent properties and requirements than quasi-static
six-port reectometers. This new approach to multi-port theory allows deep insight
into the functional principle and sheds light onto the black box, an expression for
the six-port interferometer found in a scientic article [19].
Operating the six-port receiver over a large frequency range requires a low loss, high
power switch in the analog front-end. For this reason, Chap. 3, RF MEMS Switches
for Signal Routing, shows the possibility to realize such routing structures with the
new upcoming MEMS technology. The chapter begins with an introduction to RF
MEMS with their typical applications and state-of-the-art technological possibilities.
An overview illuminates the principle of the single pole double throw (SPDT) switch;
namely that it is composed of two dierent RF MEMS switches, a capacitive shunt
airbridge switch and an ohmic contact switch called a toggle switch [20]. In ad-
dition, an RF cross is designed. To understand the design issues for all RF MEMS
switches, mechanical, electrostatic, and electromagnetic simulations are performed and
will be explained before presenting the simulation results achieved from the dierent
structures. As the MEMS technology involves moving parts, it is highly sophisticated
and the design requires feedback from the advanced fabrication processes. Several
redesigns were necessary to achieve the measurement and reliability results that are
presented. Scattering (S) parameters and power handling are the main parameters
that were improved. Additional simulation and measurement results give insight into
switching time, reliability, contact resistance, and temperature dependency.
3
1 Introduction
Once the results from the new RF MEMS switches are available, they can be used for
the design of the recongurable multi-band six-port circuit that is investigated in de-
tail in Chap. 4, The MEMS Based Multi-Band Six-port Circuit. The chapter begins
with an introduction to various RF interferometers and design guidelines. To evaluate
the MEMS in the multi-port context, a 1.5 GHz six-port interferometer was designed,
simulated, fabricated, measured, and thoroughly evaluated. It is organized in a way
to understand the function of all single components, three quadrature hybrids and a
power divider, as well as their arrangement in the nal interferometer. As multi-port
receivers are based on the superposition of electromagnetic waves under dierent phase
angles, this chapter aims to convey these phase relations in an accuracy and depth
that has never been described before. Commercial components are used for the second
broadband six-port interferometer, that covers a notable frequency range from 2 GHz
to 25 GHz (experimental receiver measurements are performed up to 40 GHz)[21]. Fi-
nally, S-parameter simulation results are presented for both six-port circuits including
the RF MEMS switches and RF MEMS cross that serve to route the signal to the dif-
ferent interferometers. For this purpose, real S-parameter measurement results from
the RF MEMS components, as well as from the six-port interferometers, are included
in the system simulation.
In Chap. 5, Performance of the Recongurable Six-port Receiver, the multi-standard
receiver is evaluated over the designated frequency range from 1 GHz to 40 GHz. This
evaluation is done by analyzing the SER in demodulated quadrature phase shift keying
(QPSK) signals that is caused by noise, specied by the E
b
/N
0
ratio. Schottky diode
detectors (characterized in the beginning of the chapter) are applied to detect the
power of the signal. Simulations are performed that include inuences of channel
noise and the phase noise of the LO on reception. For the time domain simulation of
the SER, a new and rapid C++ based computer simulation program called CppSim
(developed by M. Perrott from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT)[22]) is
used. Measurements at selected frequencies between 1 GHz and 40 GHz are performed
and compared with their simulation results and theory.
Eventually, the work ends with a conclusion and outlook giving a short summary of
the achieved results and discussing the maturation of this new technology.
4
2 Theoretical Background of
Multi-Port Receivers
This chapter will focus on the theoretical background and functional principle of the
multi-port receiver. The beginning of the chapter will discuss various SDR archi-
tectures and indicate why the six-port receiver is chosen to be the most promising
candidate for a multi-band, multi-standard SDR platform for the frequency range
from 1 GHz through 40 GHz. The main focus in the multi-port theory is on the diode
detectors and the principle of additive mixing. This is essential in understanding the
frequency conversion processes which is the basis of multi-port theory.
2.1 The Software Dened Radio Concept
2.1.1 Introduction to Software Dened Radio
Radio communication is based on modifying the amplitude, the phase, and/or the
frequency of a carrier wave. In todays radio transceivers, the frequency conversion
from RF to baseband and vice versa is done with a hardware modulator that is solely
designed for a single standard. During use, the radio receiver selects only the specic
signal type and lters out all other signals. Such transceivers are not exible; systems
become complex and expensive when hardware for several standards has to be included
in one device. The solution is the SDR concept. SDRs distinguish themselves from
their conventional counterparts by shifting typical hardware related tasks into the dig-
ital domain [1]. In other words, an SDR is a radio with a generic hardware based on
analog circuitry under a exible software architecture. This includes recongurable
radios, software-based radios, and SDRs based on digital signal processing technol-
ogy. Although these concepts have been around for awhile, their practical designs
have only now become feasible due to advances in many technologies such as: CMOS,
silicon germanium (SiGe), MEMS, eld-programmable gate arrays (FPGA), powerful
and cost-eective programmable DSPs, high-performance ADCs, and ultra-fast data
transfer interfaces [23].
SDRs have several advantages over todays hard-wired radios. The most obvious ad-
vantage is the exibility under a multi-standard environment. SDRs can be repro-
5
2 Theoretical Background of Multi-Port Receivers
grammed and recongured on the y to adopt to the dierent standards even in
dierent frequency bands. Furthermore, SDRs can also be congured to handle mul-
tiple communications protocols. An agile SDR can handle various popular standards
and protocols from a single design implementation such as: 802.11a, 802.11b, Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA),
analog (FM) and Digital Audio and Video Broadcast (DAB, DVB), satellite radio
(Satellite Digital Audio Radio Services SDARS), Global Positioning System (GPS),
and, in the future, the European Global Satellite Navigation System (GALILEO). In
fact, some of these standards (i.e. frequency modulation (FM) radio and GSM) use
sometimes slightly dierent frequencies and channel spacings in dierent countries.
This becomes challenging and expensive for manufacturers to handle all the possible
variants. In a global market and with increasing internationalization, there is a de-
mand for inexpensive exible hardware. For the automotive industry, it would be of
great ease to have one single platform that can be congured by software depending
upon which country it will be shipped to.
2.1.2 Software Dened Radio Architectures
With a generic hardware base, radio functionalities such as signal generation, waveform
modulation and demodulation, baseband digital signal processing, use of intermediate
frequency (IF), and use of multiple link-layer protocols that have traditionally been
handled by hardware can now be dened by software. The focus of this work, however,
is to provide the hardware front-end for multi-band, multi-frequency SDRs. The hard-
ware modules for an SDR include antennas, analog front-ends (which convert the RF
signal into IF signals or baseband signals), and digital baseband modules. Dierent
SDR receiver front-end architectures will be discussed in the following.
Fig. 2.1 shows idealized block diagrams of possible RF front-ends. The ideal SDR
receiver hardware includes direct sampling of the signal at the antenna, even without
the use of any lter as shown in Fig. 2.1(a). Filtering, frequency conversion to base-
band, and demodulation are then performed with appropriate software algorithms in
the digital domain. The concept is called direct sampling. In this case, according to
the Nyquist Theorem, the sampling rate of the ADC
s
must be greater than or equal
to twice the RF frequency
RF
. With the latest achievements in ADC technology, this
can be done with great success for FM radio where the carrier frequency is around 100
MHz [24].
However, for larger carrier frequencies at 1 GHz or 2 GHz, todays mass market ADCs
are not fast enough to meet the Nyquist criteria. In this case, one possible architec-
ture is based on bandpass limited sub-sampling as illustrated in Fig. 2.1(b). Instead
of sampling the entire spectrum, only the modulated RF bandpass signal is sampled.
This is an interesting approach that requires very sharp, high Q, RF lters and a
6
2.1 The Software Dened Radio Concept
RF
ADC
RF
(a) Direct digital
(
s
2
RF
)
RF
ADC
RF
BPF
(b) Bandpass-limited subsampling
(
s
> 2 bandwidth)
RF
s
ADC
LO
BPF
RF
(c) Heterodyne: IF/ low IF
(
LO
<
RF
)
RF
ADC
LPF
RF
s
LO
(d) Homodyne: zero IF/ direct conversion
(
LO
=
RF
)
Fig. 2.1: Dierent RF front-ends for SDR platforms.
sampling rate greater than twice the lter bandwidth B
BPF
. For frequencies above 10
GHz, such lters could become available in MEMS technology. Promising results can
be found in the article describing MEMS lters [14]. Another issue with sub-sampling
architectures is the disadvantageous mapping of noise onto the baseband signal whose
magnitude depends on the RF to sampling rate ratio.
The remaining two architectures are heterodyne (Fig. 2.1(c)) and homodyne (Fig.
2.1(d)). Sampling of the intermediate frequency (IF) in a heterodyne architecture is
advantageous, as the IF lters can be designed with sharp anks. Filter banks for
dierent standards can be implemented at the IF level. Channel ltering, as well
as down conversion to baseband, can easily be done in the digital domain. The IF
depends on the ratio of the RF and LO frequency. As the LO frequency gets closer
to RF, the IF becomes smaller and the signal can be ltered with a low pass lter
(LPF). For IF greater than zero, the architecture is called low IF. If the RF equals the
LO frequency, the architecture is called homodyne (this is also called zero-IF or direct
conversion). It should be mentioned that the ideal direct conversion requires hardware
based complex down conversion as found in todays in-phase quadrature (IQ) receivers
(see Fig. 2.8). This will be discussed in detail in Chap. 2.5.
The more RF blocks introduced into the front-end, the less exible it is. For the
architectures in Fig. 2.1(b) to (d), low loss signal routing elements are needed to
switch to dierent antennas, bandpass lters, and down converter architectures. In a
real architecture, high Q RF lters and low noise ampliers (LNA) are additionally
needed before down conversion. In this work, the main focus lies in the design of a
broadband frequency down-converter that can handle a large frequency range. This
7
frequency down conversion process can be realized in multi-port technology covering
a much higher bandwidth and much higher maximum frequency when compared to
state-of-the art mixer concepts (i.e. multiplicative Gilbert cell mixers) [21][25][26][108].
2.2 The Theory of Diode Detectors
In a multi-port receiver, the extremely large bandwidth and the very high maximum
frequency is achieved by using semiconductor diodes in a power detector conguration.
Cut-o frequencies of Schottky diodes can reach terahertz frequencies [27]. In fact,
the diode based power detector can be regarded as a diode mixer with an LPF at
the output. Fig. 2.2(a) shows the process of conventional multiplicative mixing where
transistors are used for frequency conversion (i.e. in a Gilbert cell) with subsequent
low pass ltering.
LO
RF
(a) Multiplicative mixing
RF
LO
i
(b) Additive mixing (multi-port down con-
version)
Fig. 2.2: Multiplicative versus additive mixing. The additive mixing process is the
basis of the multi-port theory.
The new concept that is used in multi-port receivers is based on additive mixing as
shown in Fig. 2.2(b). The issues with additive mixing will be thoroughly discussed in
Chap. 2.4.1. In a multi-port receiver (a six-port receiver is shown in Fig. 2.5), each
of the four output ports is connected to a power detector. The signal addition itself
takes place in the interferometer circuit which superposes the RF and LO signals under
dierent phase angles
i
. It is possible to make such interferometers very broadband
[21]. In comparison to conventional IQ mixers with two output ports, the signals at
the output ports of the power detectors must be processed further. The baseband
IQ signals are calculated from the four power readings after a calibration process.
Before the multi-port theory is covered in detail, the functional principle of the diode
detectors (as they are one of the key elements in the architectures of the receiver) will
be described in the following.
8
2.2.1 Semiconductor Diode Circuit Model
In order to understand the diode power detector, it is necessary to have a circuit
model for the Schottky diode. This model has to be valid for both the large signal,
nonlinear case as well as for the small signal case [28]. Since the Schottky diode is
largely immune to minority carrier eects, the junction capacitance
C(V ) =
C
j0
_
1 V/
bi
(2.1)
and diode current
I
d
(V ) = I
s
_
e
V
1
_
, (2.2)
where = e
0
V/nk
B
T, change almost instantaneously with junction voltage V (C
j0
is
the junction capacitance at zero bias,
bi
is the built-in potential from Schottky con-
tact, I
s
is the reverse saturation current, e
0
is the charge of an electron, n is the diode
ideality factor, k
B
is the Boltzmann constant (1.3710
23
J/K), T is the absolute
temperature in Kelvin. I
s
is typically between 10
6
and 10
15
A, and at T=290 K,
28 mV). Therefore, the DC expression for these quantities are valid to very high
frequencies in the hundreds of GHz. In the large signal diode model, it is assumed
that the capacitance and current are functions of the junction voltage alone. This is
valid up to at least 250 GHz [28].
C(V)
R
S
g
d
(V)
I
d
(V)
V
(a) Simple equivalent circuit for
Schottky diode
20
15
10
5
0
5
0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
c
u
r
r
e
n
t

I
d
(
V
)

[
m
A
]
voltage V [V]
(i) (ii) (iii)
(iv)
(b) DC characteristics of Schottky diode with
typical regions (i) through (iv)
Fig. 2.3: Equivalent circuit of Schottky diode and its DC characteristics
A circuit model for the Schottky diode is shown in Fig. 2.3(a). It consists of a voltage-
variable resistance (or conductance g
d
(V )) and capacitance for the junction C(V ), and
a xed series resistance R
S
. Other elements that describe packaging are not included.
It is important to dierentiate between large signal and small signal diode parame-
ters. For large signal circuits such as the six-port receiver with only a large LO signal
9
applied, the junction current and capacitance have a non-linear dependence on the
instantaneous junction voltage (C(V ) and I
d
(V ) are given in Eq. 2.1 and 2.2, where
V represents the instantaneous voltage of the time varying voltage).
In the small signal case, it is assumed that the magnitude of the AC junction voltage
is very small. There may also be a larger junction voltage component, such as a DC
bias or a larger LO signal. If the alternating current (AC) voltage is small enough, the
capacitance and junction resistance may be treated as linear quantities, although they
may vary as the larger applied voltage is varied. The small signal junction conductance
g
d
(V ) is the derivative of the diode current
g
d
(V ) =
dI
d
dV
= I
s
e
V
= (I
d
(V ) +I
s
), (2.3)
which result in the junction conductance being proportional to its current. I
s
is very
small compared to I(V ) for forward conduction and can be ignored.
A linear plot of the DC characteristics of a Schottky diode is shown in Fig. 2.3(b)
(dierent regions are marked). For very small applied voltages V , the current response
of the diode can be approximated with its quadratic term from a Taylor expansion
of Eqn. 2.2 (between (i) and (ii)). Higher order terms appear between (ii) and (iii).
For higher voltages, the limit for the current is given by the series resistance R
S
which leads to a linear dependence beyond point (iv). For power detection, the input
voltage should stay in the quadratic region of the diode, where the output current I
d
is proportional to the square of the input voltage and, therefore, proportional to the
input power:
I
d
V
2
P
in
. (2.4)
2.2.2 Diode Detectors in Multi-Port Applications
The properties of a semiconductor diode (described in Chap. 2.2) are well suited for
multi-port applications. What is needed is the quadratic relationship between RF
input power and baseband output voltages. Fig. 2.4(a) shows a simple power detector
as it is used in multi-port applications.
For broadband RF matching, the input impedance Z
0
should equal the line impedance,
which is 50 in most applications. The input power generates an AC voltage V
d
across
the diode. This AC voltage generates the diode current which is low pass ltered at
the output by a capacitance C
LP
. The load at the output is in the order of M. The
detector output voltage V
RL
is the voltage across the load resistance. In the picture of
a power detector, a single sine wave signal generates a DC oset voltage at the output
10
V
in
V
d
C
LP
R
L
Z
0
(a) Simple power detector
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
6
20 0 20 40 60
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

o
u
t
p
u
t

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
input power [dBm]
(i)
(ii)
(b) Characteristics of a simple power detector
Fig. 2.4: Characteristic response to RF power of a simple power detector.
port which, in the quadratic region of the diode, is proportional to the input power.
Fig. 2.4(b) shows the characteristic input power to detector output power relation-
ship. For most semiconductor diodes, the quadratic region goes up to approximately
-20 dBm in a 50 environment generating an output voltage in the order of mV [29].
For even larger input powers, the diode does not operate any longer in its quadratic
region and power is lost to higher order terms (transition region between (i) and (ii)).
These higher order terms do not contribute to the DC oset and are ltered by C
LP
.
Due to this, the detector output voltage does not increase linearly with input power.
For even larger input voltages V
in
, the diode operates in rectication mode where the
detector output voltage V
RL
is proportional to the amplitude of the RF input signal
P
in
(in other words, proportional to the square root of the input power):
V
RL
V
in

_
P
in
. (2.5)
However, this model of the working principle of the diode detector in a multi-port ap-
plication is not very accurate. In fact, in multi-port applications, there is not only one
single sine wave signal to be detected, but the sum of the RF and LO signal. There-
fore, the operation mode of the diode detectors in multi-port applications is rather a
mixing of two signals on a non-linearity. This non-linearity is given by the quadratic
region of the diode. The superposition, or the addition of the two signals RF and
LO, is accomplished by the interferometer circuit. The mathematical background for
this additive mixing that takes place in multi-port receivers is thoroughly described in
Chap. 2.4.1
11
2.3 Simple Description of Multi-Port Receivers
Before proceeding to the mathematical background of the additive mixing and multi-
port theory, the functional principle of the multi-port receiver will be explained. We
will see that the diode detector output voltages, when operating the diode in its
quadratic region, have a linear dependence on the RF signal amplitude. In this case,
the power of the LO signal has to be constant.
The six-port interferometer as shown in Fig. 2.5(a) superposes the RF and LO signals
under dierent phase angles. Now, consider only the output voltage at port 5. In
this case, the superposition of LO and RF signal is given by j/2 (LO + RF) (the
signal amplitudes are halved and the signals have a phase dierence of 0
). If the
amplitudes of the RF and LO signals are equal, this superposition of the two waves
leads to twice the amplitude. Now, when sweeping the RF phase from 0
to 360
,
the detector output voltage produces one full circle sine function as plotted in Fig.
2.5(b). With an initial phase oset that is given by the interferometer circuit, the
output voltages at the other ports start with a dierent initial voltage but show the
exact same behavior (sine function with a dierent phase oset). Using simple linear
relations, these detector output voltages can be used to calculate the amplitude and
phase of any RF signal. How this can be done is described in the following Chapter
in conjunction with a much more detailed mathematical approach of the functional
principle of multi-port receivers.
PD
90
o
90
o
90
o
RF
j LO
2 2
+
3
4
RF (2)
LO (1)
6
5
LO
j RF
2 2
+ ) (
2
RF LO
j
+
) (
2
1
RF LO
PD
PD
PD
(a) Six-port interferometer circuit
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
360 270 180 90 0
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

o
u
t
p
u
t

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
phase difference between LO and RF signal [degrees]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
(b) Output voltages of the detector
Fig. 2.5: Functional principle of the multi-port receiver (six-port circuit shown).
When sweeping the RF phase from 0
to 360
, the output ports show the

voltage waveforms given in (b).
12
2.4 Mathematical Description of the Multi-Port Receiver
2.4 Mathematical Description of the Multi-Port
Receiver
2.4.1 Theory of Additive Mixing
The small signal diode mixer theory accurately describes the behavior of the baseband
output voltages of the diode detectors depending on the magnitude of the LO and RF
signals. In the following, the small signal diode mixer theory from [30] is adapted to
suite its application in a multi-port environment. As we have seen earlier in Eqn. 2.2,
the I-V characteristics of a diode can be written as
I
d
(V ) = I
s
(e
V
1). (2.6)
This I-V response is plotted in Fig. 2.3(b). Now consider the total diode voltage to
consist of a small AC signal
V (t) = V
0
+v(t) (2.7)
where V
0
is the DC bias voltage and I
d
(V
0
) = I
0
is the DC bias current (this DC bias
can also result from a large AC signal). If we assume that v(t) represents only small
deections around a constant bias term, the expression for the total current at this
point can be represented by a Taylor series as a function of the applied AC signal
voltage
I
d
(V ) = I
0
+G
d
v(t) +
1
2
G
d
v
2
(t) +. . . , (2.8)
where
G
d
=
dI
d
(V )
dV
V =V
0
= I
s
e
V
0
= (I
0
+I
s
) (2.9)
is the dynamic conductance and
G
d
= G
d
=
2
I
s
e
V
0
=
2
(I
0
+I
s
) (2.10)
is the derivative of the dynamic conductance. The Taylor series in Eqn. 2.8 is the
small signal approximation for a diode. The rst two terms are of little interest
as no frequency conversion occurs through them. The third term (containing v
2
(t))
represents the square law response of the diode and is responsible for the dominant
frequency conversion terms. In the following, typical LO and RF signals (as used in
multi-port receivers), are applied to Eqn. 2.8 to derive the multi-port mixer theory.
Fig. 2.6 shows the process of additive mixing that is found in each arm of the multi-port
receiver. The superposition, or addition, of the LO input signal
v
LO
(t) =

V
LO
cos(
LO
t +
LO
) (2.11)
13
RF
LO [ ]
2
LPF
v
LO
(t)
v
RF
(t)
i
IF
(t)
Fig. 2.6: Theory of additive mixing: the RF and LO signals are added and then
squared. This leads to additional terms in the baseband.
and the modulated RF input signal
v
RF
(t) = v
BP
(t) (2.12)
= Re
_
v
BB
(t)e
j
RF
t
_
= |v
BB
(t)| cos(
RF
t +
RF
+
BB
(t))
= I(t) cos(
RF
t +
RF
) Q(t) sin(
RF
t +
RF
)
takes place in the interferometer circuit, where v
BP
(t) is the complex bandpass signal,
v
BB
(t) is the complex baseband signal,

V
LO
is the amplitude of the LO signal,
RF
is
the initial phase of the RF signal, and
BB
is the modulated phase (containing phase
information from the in-phase component I(t) and quadrature component Q(t)). For
now, let us consider a modulated RF signal without additional phase shifts from the
interferometer as indicated in Eqn. 2.12 (the interferometer circuit will be discussed
later in more detail). This sum of the two signals
v(t) = v
LO
(t) +v
RF
(t) (2.13)
is then applied to the diode equation (Eqn. 2.8). Considering all terms up to v
2
(t) this
results in a diode current
i
d
(t) = I
0
+G
d
(v
LO
(t) +v
RF
(t))
. .
(i)
+
G
d
2
(v
LO
(t) +v
RF
(t))
2
. .
(ii)
. (2.14)
Now suppose I
0
= 0 (no DC bias) and i(t) is low pass ltered at the output. Therefore,
G
d
= I
s
and the term (i) in Eqn. 2.14 is zero. The remaining term (ii),
i
d
(t) =
k
2
(v
LO
(t) +v
RF
(t))
2
(2.15)
=
k
2
v
2
LO
(t)
. .
(i)
+
k
2
v
2
RF
(t)
. .
(ii)
+kv
LO
(t)v
RF
(t)
. .
(ii)
,
where k = I
s
, is now further evaluated to nd the baseband signals. Putting the full
forms of Eqn. 2.11 and Eqn. 2.12 into Eqn. 2.15 with subsequent low pass ltering
leads to:
14
(i):
LP
_
k
2
v
2
LO
(t)
_
= LP
_
k
2
V
2
LO
cos
2
(
LO
t +
LO
)
_
(2.16)
= LP
_
k
2
V
2
LO
1
2
(1 + cos(2(
LO
t +
LO
))
_
=
k
4
V
2
LO
(ii):
LP
_
k
2
v
2
RF
(t)
_
= LP
_
k
2
V
2
LO
(I(t) cos(
RF
t +
RF
)
Q(t) sin(
RF
t +
RF
))
2
_
=
k
4
_
I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
=
k
4
|v
BB
(t)|
2
(2.17)
(iii):
LP{kv
LO
(t)v
RF
(t)} = LP
_
k
V
LO
cos(
LO
t +
LO
)(I(t) cos(
RF
t +
RF
)
Q(t) sin(
RF
t +
RF
))
2
_
=
k
2
V
LO
(I(t) cos( + ) +Q(t) sin( + ))
(2.18)
where =
LO

RF
and =
LO

RF
. It is found from Eqn. 2.18 that for
= 0 and = 0 the quadrature component Q(t) = 0, while for = 0 and
= 90
the in-phase component I(t) = 0. However, the resulting expression for the
entire baseband signal for additive mixing also contains the terms from Eqn. 2.16 and
2.17 and can be written in the form:
i
IF
(t) =
k
4
V
2
LO
+
k
4
_
I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
+
k
2
V
LO
(I(t) cos( + ) +Q(t) sin( + )) .
(2.19)
This detector output current leads to a voltage across the load resistance R
L
as shown
in Fig. 2.4 (referred to as the detector output voltage). The result states that for a con-
stant LO signal, there is a linear dependence between the detector output voltage and
I(t), Q(t), and I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t). Treating I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t) as a third unknown, at least three
independent voltages at dierent phase shifts are needed to linearly solve for the
two unknown baseband signals I(t) and Q(t). This is in agreement with the mismatch
that is found in experimental measurement results of a four-port diode based receiver
with two output ports using QPSK calibration and 64QAM (quadrature amplitude
modulation) modulation [33].
15
2.4.2 The Multi-Port Theory
The multi-port theory includes the phase shifts from the interferometer circuit. This
process is depicted in an abstract manner in Fig. 2.7
RF
LO
i
[ ]
2
LPF
v
RF
(t)
v
LO
(t) g
BB,i
(t)
Fig. 2.7: Theory of additive mixing in multi-port receivers: in the interferometer
circuit, the phase of the RF signal is shifted by an angle
i
.
Similar to the simple additive mixing process from Fig. 2.6, the LO and the phase
shifted RF signals are added, squared, and nally low pass ltered. With Eqn. 2.19,
the baseband signal at the output of the low pass lter can be written as
g
BB,i
(t) = LP
_
(v
LO
(t) +v
RF,i
(t))
2
_
=
k
4
_
V
2
LO
+I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
+
k
2
V
LO
(I(t) cos((t) +
i
) +Q(t) sin((t) +
i
)) ,
(2.20)
where (t) = +. As mentioned earlier, this equation states a linear dependence
between the detector output signals g
BB,i
(t) and the complex baseband signals y(t).
Therefore, the multi-port equations can be written in the linear form
y(t) =
n
i=1
c
i
g
BB,i
(t)
=
k
4

n
i=1
c
i
_
V
2
LO
+I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
+
k
V
LO
2

n
i=1
c
i
(I(t) cos((t) +
i
) +Q(t) sin((t) +
i
)) ,
(2.21)
where c
i
= a
i
+ j b
i
are the constant complex calibration coecients or, in terms of
the in-phase and quadrature component, simply as:
I(t) =
n
i=1
a
i
g
BB,i
(t) (2.22)
Q(t) =
n
i=1
b
i
g
BB,i
(t)
16
In matrix notation, the general expression for the multi-port receiver is:
y(t) =
_
_
c
1
c
2
.
.
.
c
n
_
_
T
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
1
)
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
1
)
k
4
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
2
)
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
2
)
k
4
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
n
)
k
2
V
LO
cos((t) +
n
)
k
4
_
_
I(t)
Q(t)
.
.
.
I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
_
+
k
4
V
2
LO
_
_
1
1
.
.
.
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(2.23)
2.4.3 Calibration Method and IQ Calculation
In an optimum six-port interferometer circuit, the phase shifts between the LO and
RF signals at the four output ports are:
i
{0
, 90
, 180
, 270
}. With a constant
RF phase, (t) = 0 at the input of the six-port receiver; this is true if no frequency
oset and no modulation occurs. The six-port equations found from Eqn. 2.21 are:
y(t) =
k
4

4
i=1
c
i
_
V
2
LO
+I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t)
_
. .
(i)
+
k
V
LO
2

4
i=1
c
i
(I(t) cos(
i
) +Q(t) sin(
i
))
. .
(ii)
.
(2.24)
The rst term (i) can be eliminate by the requirement
4
i=1
c
i
0. (2.25)
Putting the six-port phases
i
into the second term (ii) we obtain:
y(t) =
k
2

V
LO
(c
1
I(t) c
2
Q(t) c
3
I(t) +c
4
Q(t)) (2.26)
=
k
2

V
LO
((c
1
c
3
)I(t) + (c
4
c
2
)Q(t) (2.27)
This system of linear equations can be solved for known signals. For best calibration
results, the sent IQ signals should be equally distributed in the IQ space. In the case
17
of six-port calibration, the appropriate IQ signals for calibration are 90
apart: (1,1),
(-1,1), (-1,-1), and (1,-1). For ve-port calibration, the sent symbols are 120
apart:
(0,
2), (-1,-1), and (1,-1). Solving the corresponding systems of linear equations for
the unknown calibration coecients, we obtain for six-port calibration:
c
i
=
1
k
V
LO
_
1 j 1 j
(2.28)
and for ve-port calibration with c
4
= 0:
c
i
=
1
k
V
LO
_
1 e
j
2
3
e
j
4
3
. (2.29)
Once the calibration coecients are known, the baseband IQ signals can be calculated
at each sampling instant from the voltage readings g
BB,i
of the power detectors with
Eqn. 2.22.
It has been shown how the calibration coecients can be theoretically derived. How-
ever, in a real multi-port application, the calibration is done by sending a sequence of
known and suitable IQ values, storing the resulting voltages from the detector outputs,
and solving Eqn. 2.22 for the unknow calibration coecients. This is the experimental
method that is applied in Chap. 5.
The multi-port receiver can easily be calibrated by using its linear relations between
detector output voltages and amplitude of the modulated RF input signal (see Eqn.
2.19). More calibration methods that trace back to six-port reectometer calibration
can be found in the literature [34][35][36]. An interesting approach is the use of S-
parameter measurements for calibration [37].
2.5 Frequency Conversion in Multi-Port Receivers
The theoretical results found in Chap. 2.4 are now used to depict the frequency con-
version processes in multi-port receivers. To demonstrate this in a clear manner, the
mathematical formulation that includes convolution and Fourier transforms of complex
signals is avoided and the results are graphically explained in the frequency domain.
A similar idea can also be found in the literature [31].
Complex and Real Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion to an RF carrier is necessary in order to transmit the data (with
a relatively low modulation frequency) over the air interface. At the receiver, this RF
18
signal needs to be converted to the baseband to retrieve the baseband data.
To illustrate the frequency conversion processes, it is important to dierentiate between
complex and real down conversion. In general, the modulated RF signal
s
RF
(t) = S
RF
(t) sin(
RF
t +(t)) (2.30)
= I(t) cos(
RF
t) Q(t) sin(
RF
t)
contains complex information and requires complex down conversion to maintain the
complex baseband signals. During down conversion, the Fourier spectrum S
RF
()
of the RF signal s
RF
(t) is shifted by
LO
which results in a new spectrum S
RF
(
LO
). From a mathematical point of view, this transformation can be achieved by
multiplication of the RF signal with the complex signal e
j
LO
t
. However, the complex
frequency conversion process is not possible with only one mixer unit. Instead, one
must realize this complex mixing by two separate down conversion paths, one for the
real and the other for the imaginary part.
s
RF
(t)
sin(
LO
t)
cos(
LO
t)
exp(j
LO
t)
LPF
LPF
(a) Complex
cos(
LO
t)
LPF
s
RF
(t)
(b) Real
Fig. 2.8: Principle of complex and real frequency conversion.
Fig. 2.8(a) shows the basic receiver principle that performs this complex down conver-
sion. The RF signal s
RF
(t) is multiplied in one arm by cos(
LO
t), and in the other arm,
by its 90
phase shifted counterpart sin(

LO
t). If 90
between the two LO signals are

achieved, no IQ mismatch occurs only a circular movement of the IQ constellation
around the origin due to an initial phase oset is possible. In fact, each arm carries
out a real down conversion as depicted in Fig. 2.8(b). A single real down conversion
cannot obtain the entire complex baseband information.
The processes for real and complex down conversion in the frequency domain are
depicted in Fig. 2.9. It is indicated that in case of a complex down conversion, the
19
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
0 +
RF
+2
RF
RF
2
RF
LPF
LO
(a) Complex down conversion
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
0 +
RF
+2
RF
RF
2
RF
LO
LPF
(b) Real down conversion
Fig. 2.9: Spectral properties of complex and real frequency conversion. Real down
conversion to baseband leads to an overlap and information loss.
convolution of the RF frequency
RF
with the LO frequency
LO
shifts the RF signal
into only one direction (Fig. 2.9(a)). When expanding the cosine function with
cos(
LO
t) = 1/2
_
e
j
LO
t
+e
j
LO
t
_
, (2.31)
it can be seen that a real down conversion (as depicted in Fig. 2.9(b)) produces two
frequency shifts of the original spectrum S
RF
(): a positive and a negative shift, which
leads to an overlap in the baseband. From this baseband signal, it is not possible to
retrieve the full complex signal and, therefore, information is lost. The resulting signal
s
BB,n
(t) is a mixture of the I and Q component:
s
BB,m
(t) = LP(s
RF
(t) cos(
LO
t +
LO,1
)) (2.32)
= LP(I(t) cos(
RF
t) cos(
LO
t +
LO,1
) Q(t) sin(
RF
t) cos(
LO
t +
LO,1
))
=
1
2
(I(t) cos(
RF
t) +Q(t) sin(
RF
t))
Therefore, a second path with another measurement is needed in order to separate the
two components. This is usually done with another real down conversion using the
90
phase shifted version of Eqn. 2.31: cos(

LO
t +
LO,2
). The general expression for
complex down conversion using multiplicative mixers can be written in the form:
_
s
BB,m
(t)
s
BB,n
(t)
_
=
1
2
_
cos(
LO,1
) sin(
LO,1
)
cos(
LO,2
) sin(
LO,2
)
_ _
I(t)
Q(t)
_
(2.33)
The in-phase and quadrature components can be calculated from the two measure-
ments if the phase matrix is nonsingular. It is found from Eqn. 2.33 that the require-
ment |
1

2
| = 90
is not necessary to obtain I(t) and Q(t) as long as the phase

matrix can be inverted.
20
In the case of a real RF bandpass signals, the two sidebands in Fig. 2.9(b) are sym-
metric and this scheme of direct conversion can still be applied successfully if the
phase between RF and LO is constant (phase synchronous, coherent). An additional
requirement is that the phase is chosen carefully so that the two sidebands do not
destructively overlap.
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
RF
+
LO
RF
LO

RF
LO
RF
+
LO
LO
BPF
(a) Complex down conversion
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
RF
+
LO
RF
LO

RF
LO
RF
+
LO
LO
BPF
(b) Real down conversion
Fig. 2.10: For a suciently large frequency dierence between LO and RF there is
no overlap in the IF.
One solution to overcome the overlap problem is to down convert the RF signal to
an IF signal. This is depicted in Fig. 2.10. In this case, it is not required to use
complex down conversion as the spectra from the negative and positive frequencies
(that are convoluted to IF frequency) do not overlap. The IF signal still contains the
entire complex information. However, to demodulate this information it is necessary
to further down convert the IF signal. This can be done very elegantly in the digital
domain after AD conversion of the IF signal. An appropriate receiver architecture is
depicted in Fig. 2.11
Frequency Conversion by Additive Mixing
The issue with additive mixing is that it is not a simple mathematical multiplication
of the two signals, RF and LO, but the baseband spectrum also contains other parts
that originate from Eq. 2.15 [32]. The baseband spectrum after a direct conversion
additive mixing process is depicted in Fig. 2.12.
It can be seen how the content from Eqn. 2.16, Eqn. 2.17, and Eqn. 2.18 are mapped
into the baseband: the desired complex baseband signals I(t) and Q(t) are inu-
enced by the baseband interferers I
2
(t) + Q
2
(t) and a component from the LO signal
s
2
LO
(t). Depending on the type of modulation, I
2
(t) + Q
2
(t) is not always constant
21
ADC
I(t)
Q(t)
RF
+
LO
RF
LO

RF
LO
RF
+
LO
cos(
LO
t)
cos(
2
t)
sin(
2
t)
LO
RF
RF
RF
LO
+
2
0
RF
LO
+
2
BPF
LPF
LPF
BPF
Fig. 2.11: Principle of IF sampling. After a real down conversion to IF, the com-
plex down conversion from IF to baseband can be achieved in the digital
domain.
RF
+
LO
0
s
2
LO
(t)
I(t),Q(t)
I
2
(t)+Q
2
(t)
Fig. 2.12: Baseband spectrum after direct frequency conversion as found in the
multi-port receiver.
(
_
I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t) is the amplitude of the baseband signal and is constant for QPSK
signaling). The broadening of its spectrum comes from real self-mixing of the I- and
Q-component as indicated in Fig. 2.12. In order to remove this baseband interferer,
I
2
(t) +Q
2
(t), a multi-port with additive mixers needs an additional port (altogether,
three output ports).
The additive mixing process in multi-port receivers, which depends on the frequency
dierence between the LO and RF signal, is depicted in Fig. 2.13. Overlapping spectra
lead to information loss that can be recovered with an additional arm (detector). In
the case of Fig. 2.13(a), the IF spectra do not overlap and no information is lost with
only one output arm. An example where this principle can be used is a single Schottky
diode for down conversion of extremely high carrier frequencies to IF. The complex
baseband data can then be retrieved with a subsequent conventional IF to baseband
stage (analog or digital). Fig. 2.13(b) and (c) again show the disadvantage of additive
mixers in working with low- or zero-IF that requires an additional arm and digital
22
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
LO
RF

LO
RF
+
LO
0
s
2
LO
(t)
I
2
(t)+Q
2
(t)
BPF
(a) Additive mixing with large IF
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
LO
RF
LO
RF
+
LO
s
2
LO
(t)
BPF
I
2
(t)+Q
2
(t)
(ii)
(b) Additive mixing with low IF
+
LO
+
RF
RF
0
LO
s
2
LO
(t)
I
2
(t)+Q
2
(t)
0
(i)
(ii)
LPF
(c) Additive mixing with zero IF
Fig. 2.13: Spectrum of the additive mixing process in multi-port receivers for dier-
ent LO and RF frequencies.
baseband algorithm to remove the interferer (i) and (ii).
23
24
3 RF MEMS For Signal Routing
Various RF MEMS are feasible today. Low loss routing structures are key elements
and their availability makes the design of inexpensive multi-band front-ends possible.
Therefore, new types of RF MEMS elements have been designed for their special ap-
plication as low loss RF routing elements in the receiving path and as receive/transmit
(RX/TX) switches that can handle the high transmitter powers. We will see that the
concept of RF MEMS switches oers advantages compared to their diode based semi-
conductor counterparts. The new structures are a shunt airbridge switch, an ohmic
contact switch (called toggle switch [38]), an SPDT switch [20][14], and an RF
cross[40]. To gain a deeper insight into these new structures, their design, fabrication,
simulation, and measurement results will be shown in detail in this chapter.
3.1 Motivation and Introduction to RF MEMS
The design of microsystems (especially at higher frequencies and higher powers) of-
ten requires the integration of mechanical elements on an electronic circuit [41][42][43].
Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits (MMICs) with MEMS elements on the same
Si chip have many advantages over the conventional method that use complex multi-
chip packaging schemes. One advantage is the cost eective batch fabrication of a
large amount of systems on a chip. At the same time, this reduces the size, weight
and complexity leading to better reliability. In addition, system performance can be
increased by several orders of magnitude because less electrical interconnect parasitics
are involved.
In todays mass market communications transceivers, semiconductor pin diode switches
are used. They are either based on GaAs, AlGaAs, or Si. An advantage is their faster
switching time which is in the order of nanoseconds. The disadvantages, however, are
their greater insertion loss, their smaller power handling capability, their non-linearity,
and their power consumption. RF MEMS switches promise superb power handling at
high frequencies, yet they do not suer from non-linearities and they consume practi-
cally no power. In addition, a main advantage is their compatibility and integrability
with Si batch fabrication. However, RF MEMS switches are mechanical elements and
are limited in their switching time (usually in the order of microseconds) and need
advanced packaging solutions [44]. To learn about the performance of commercially
25
available SPDT pin diode switches, some products of main manufacturers will now
be discussed. M/A-COM oers an AlGaAs pin diode switch for frequencies up to 50
GHz with an extremely low insertion loss of only 0.7 dB at 50 GHz. The disadvantage
is a similar insertion loss at lower frequencies, whereas RF MEMS switches have a
barely perceptible insertion loss. In addition, maximum power handling is limited to
23 dBm. HITTITE oers a GaAs pin diode switch for frequencies up to 20 GHz with
an insertion loss of 1.7 dB. Switches with even higher insertion losses are available
from MITEQ (IL: 2.8 dB at 18 GHz), American Microwave Corporation (IL: 2.1 dB
at 20 GHz), Sierra Microwave Technology (IL: 3.2 dB at 26.5 GHz), and TOKIMEC
(IL: 3 dB at 18 GHz).
With the introduction of batch fabrication and advances in micro-machining tools,
MEMS switches have overcome some major shortcomings in manufacturing both
in cost reduction and in integration compatibility with electronics [45]. Since then,
various papers have been published on RF MEMS switches. In general, they can be
dierentiated by their actuation mechanism and their structural designs. Actuation
mechanisms include electromagnetic [46]-[49], magnetostatic [50], electrostatic [51],
thermal-electric [52], and piezo-electric [53] actuation. The structural designs include
rotating transmission line [54], surface micro-machined cantilever [55]-[64], multiple-
supported or membrane based designs [55][57][65]-[70], bulk micro-machined or wafer
bonded designs [71]-[73], diamond cantilever and contact [74], polysilicon switch [75],
mercury micro-drop contact [76][77], and bistable micro-relays [78][83]. All of these
structures use vertical contacting. Besides, lateral contact switches have also been
studied [80][83]. Though superior in their dynamic behavior to many of the verti-
cal contacting switches, the contact mechanism of the lateral switches lags behind
due to the roughness in etched side-surfaces and contact materials [80]. All of these
dierent designs have their advantages and disadvantages. The trade o is strongly
inuenced by requirements of the targeted application. Today, cantilevered and multi-
ple supported surface micro-machined electrostatic switches are by far the most widely
studied devices. Their design aims to optimize the parameters specied in Chap. 3.2.
All electrostatic switches have similar electromechanical behaviors. When a bias volt-
age is applied between the contacts, charges distribute in such a way that an elec-
trostatic force occurs between them. This force is independent of the polarity and
it bends the cantilever, or membrane, down creating an opposing tensile force. At a
certain threshold, the tensile force can no longer balance the electrostatic force and
the cantilever abruptly falls to the opposing electrode. When the magnitude of the
voltage is reduced, the cantilever jumps back into its initial position, but typically at
a much lower voltage than the actuation voltage. This leads to a hysteresis character-
istic which is typical for all electrostatically actuated MEMS switches. However, their
main advantage is the zero static current in the actuation path that leads to extremely
low power consumption. Furthermore, their size and design makes them very suitable
for integration onto an Si MMIC chip.
26
3.1 Motivation and Introduction to RF MEMS
3.1.1 Typical Applications of RF MEMS
Until today, the major applications of RF MEMS switches included automatic test
equipment [73], RF communications, radar systems as well as more general applica-
tions such as automotive [2][81] and switching power supply. Electrical switches are an
essential part of all communications devices and are widely used. They are currently
based on solid state semiconductor devices. Mass market communications equipment
ranges from below one megahertz (AM radio) to wireless local area networks (LAN)
at 2.4 GHz (IEEE 802.11b and 802.11g) and frequency bands in the 5 GHz range
(802.11a). However, to fulll the demands for higher data rates in wireless systems,
even higher frequency bands are considered. Interesting frequencies are located at 17
GHz, and in the Industrial, Scientic and Medical (ISM) bands at 24 GHz and 60 GHz.
For some analog high power broadcasting applications - like AM, FM, and TV - the
requirements on the switches might be less stringent and solid state devices can be
used. However, for low power digital communications, a broadband low loss switch is
of utmost importance when designing a multi-band, multi-standard transceiver archi-
tecture with a frequency coverage from 1 MHz to 40 GHz and higher. In the front-end
of digital receivers, the RF signal path must have only very low loss for not to degrade
the SNR. Future transceivers that utilize extremely high carrier frequencies need to be
downward compatible to lower frequency standards in order to guarantee basic Quality
of Service (QoS) in cases where the air link is not as good. Therefore, broadband low
loss and high power devices for signal routing need to become available [82].
Besides the targeted application of the MEMS devices under investigation here (namely
signal routing and switching), there are several other applications where these switches
can be used. The applications cover the following elds:
impedance matching networks
lter tuning
variable gain amplier
attenuator
phase shifter and phase shifting networks
variable capacitors (replacement for varactor diodes)
capacitor banks
time delay networks
phased array antennas
electrically congurable antennas
redundant switching networks
27
3.2 Overview of the RF MEMS Under Investigation
In this section, the basic building elements for switching matrices are introduced.
These elements include an RF cross and two basic switch types: ohmic and capaci-
tive. The inherent design of a capacitive shunt airbridge switch makes it ideal for use
towards higher frequencies. The other switch type, an ohmic contact switch in serial
connection (called a toggle switch), shows better performance at lower frequencies.
Both switches are combined in an SPDT switch to achieve higher isolation in the
bandwidth from DC to 40 GHz and up [14]. The design of the toggle switch is such
that it can be easily extended to make an SPDT switch. A special RF cross has been
designed for large switching matrices where the RF lines cross each other.
To support operating frequencies ranging from the upper megahertz range to 50 GHz,
MEMS switching matrices are advantageous when compared to transistor or diode
switches. As mentioned earlier, MEMS switches distinguish themselves from their
semiconductor counterpart by having extremely low insertion loss and attenuation
over a large frequency range covering mm- and sub-mm-waves while capable of han-
dling high RF power. Low losses in the RF front-end are of utmost importance since
any loss strongly decreases the SNR.
C
on
, C
off
signal
ground
1 2
(a) Shunt airbridge
switch
signal
ground
1 2
(b) Toggle
switch
ground
1
2
3
4
(c) RF cross
signal
ground
ground
C
C
2
1
3
(d) SPDT
switch
Fig. 3.1: Electrical models of the MEMS switches and the RF cross showing the
functional principle.
Based on the two dierent switch types, the capacitive shunt airbridge switch (Fig.
3.1(a)) and the toggle switch (Fig. 3.1(b)), higher order switches are used for routing
the signal to dierent ports. These are the SPDT switch in Fig. 3.1(d) and the a four
28
3.2 Overview of the RF MEMS Under Investigation
port switch [39]. For applications where the coplanar wave guides (CWG) cross each
other, an RF cross (which is basically a low loss airbridge as shown in Fig. 3.1(c)) was
designed.
The design of MEMS switches and RF cross are optimized for the following criteria
but show excellent performance beyond the values specied:
frequency of operation: 1 GHz to 30 GHz
insertion loss: <0.4 dB
isolation: >50 dB
return loss: >20 dB
actuation voltage: <50 V
power handling (to be maximized)
operating ambient: -25
C to +75
C
switching time (to be minimized)
power consumption (to be minimized)
Concerning the multi-band RF front-end which is under investigation, high power
handling capability is needed for the RX/TX switches, the antenna diplexers, and
antenna selector switches.
toggle shunt airbridge
pull-in voltage applied not applied applied not applied
membrane state activated relaxed activated relaxed
electrical state on o o on
switch state closed open open closed
insertion loss |S12| - - |S12|
return loss |S11| - - |S11|
isolation - |S12| |S12| -
reection - |S11| |S11| -
Tab. 3.1: Overview of switch states and S-parameter nomenclature. Notice that
when the membrane is relaxed, the shunt airbridge switch is closed
or the electrical state is on. Loss is referred to the closed state of the
switch; reection and isolation to the open state.
Tab. 3.1 gives an overview of the notation for the dierent switch states of the toggle
and shunt airbridge switch that will be used in this work. Insertion and return loss are
referred to in the closed state of the switch, while reection and isolation are referred
to in the open state of the switch. The shunt airbridge switch is electrically closed
when no voltage is applied, i.e. the membrane is relaxed. The toggle switch with its
29
ohmic contact is closed when the membrane is activated. The dB-values for insertion
loss, return loss, isolation, and reection that appear in the graphs have negative dB
values which correspond directly to the S-parameter results. In the text, however,
positive dB values are given.
3.3 Theoretical Background of the Simulations
The general objectives of the electromechanical design are low driving voltage, minimal
switching and release time, high reliability, and a long lifetime of the exible parts.
The latter mainly depends on the stress level inside the material. In the case of RF
MEMS, additional electromagnetic simulations are essential when optimizing for scat-
tering parameters. In the following, the theoretical background for these simulation
tools are given.
The mechanical, electrostatic, uid domain and transient response simulations have
been carried in cooperation with J. Mehner from FEMWARE GmBH. The electro-
magnetic domain simulations have been carried in cooperation with W. Simon from
IMST GmBH.
3.3.1 Mechanical Domain Simulations
Most micro-mechanical systems can be described by the theory of beams and plates
[84]. The theory of beams covers exible components that only vary in one direction.
The theory of plates and shells is much more complex and needs to be applied in cases
where a signicant deformation in two directions takes place. Fortunately, the design
of the toggle and the shunt airbridge switch mainly varies in the horizontal direction
and the beam theory is suciently accurate for the analytical design.
The chosen analytical solutions methods are based on energy terms. Because energy
is independent of the true physical background, it is considered key for coupled do-
main simulations which are needed for electromechanical actuators. The Principle
of Castigliano [85] is most practical for over-determined mechanical systems such as
arrangements with multiple clamps. This is the case for the toggle switch. The method
is the inverse approach of the Lagrangian method, which assumes that the nal defor-
mation can be represented by a series of trail or shape functions. The latter method is
more suitable for the shunt airbridge switch. The Principle of Castigliano starts with a
given load situation for the electrostatic pressure, reacting spring forces, and moments
[86]. It then computes the total mechanical strain energy W
m
which is stored in the
exible component. An iterative solution procedure is necessary since electrostatic
30
loads depend strongly on the deection results. For bending beams we obtain
W
m
=
_
M
2
b
(x)
2EI
dx (3.1)
where E is the Youngs modulus with material parameters, I is the area moment of
inertia, and M
b
is the bending moment along the beam axis x which results from
external loads.
The resulting deection u
A
of characteristic points of the structure due to the applied
force F
A
(auxiliary force) can be directly computed from the rst derivative of the
mechanical energy
u
A
=
W
m
F
A
=
_
M
b
(x)
EI

M
b
F
A
dx. (3.2)
The other method, the Lagrangian method, is based on the superposition of shape
functions. The nal deformation state u
D
(x) along the beam axis is represented by a
weighted combination of predened shape or trail functions
i
(x)
u
D
(x) =
q
i
i
(x) (3.3)
where q
i
are the unknown weights or generalized coordinates which describe how much
each shape function contributes to the nal deection state. The shape functions
can be mathematical terms or eigenvectors of the linear mechanical system. When
using eigenvectors, the problem can be solved by superposition. It can be shown that
the lowest eigenvectors, or modes, are sucient to describe the static and dynamic
behavior with high accuracy [87].
Rewriting the mechanical strain energy of Eqn. 3.1 as a function of n unknown weights
we obtain
W
m
(q) =
EI
2
_
L
0
_
n
i=1
q
i
2
(x)
x
2
_
2
dx. (3.4)
Deriving this strain energy with respect to q
i
, the reacting spring forces of the i
th
generalized coordinate can be calculated:
F
m
i
(q) =
W
m
q
i
. (3.5)
The force balance equation (Eqn. 3.6) must be fullled for all n derivatives of the
energy function.
F
m
i
(q) = F
el
i
(V, q) i = 1..n, (3.6)
where F
el
i
is the electrostatic force which acts on the i
th
mode (see electrostatic domain
simulations below for details). Dynamic properties such as the modal masses, M
i
31
(which correspond to each mode shape), and eigenfrequencies, F
i
, can be obtained
from the kinetic energy equation at unit velocity:
W
K
i
( q
i
= 1) =
A
2
_

i
(x)
2
dx =
M
i
2
(3.7)
F
i
=
1
2
W
m
i
(q
i
= 1)
W
K
i
( q
i
= 1)
. (3.8)
3.3.2 Electrostatic Domain Simulations
Remarkable force densities within small gaps can be achieved by electrostatic actu-
ators. Such actuators are of high interest for MMIC as they can be readily manu-
factured and integrated in standard semiconductor technologies. We will see that,
unfortunately, such transducers require a rather large voltage when compared to lev-
els used in standard electronic circuits. This is due to the fact that the electrostatic
pressure, P
el
, within small gaps is directly related to the local gap separation u:
P
el
(V, u) =
V
2
0
2(d u)
2
, (3.9)
where
0
is the permittivity of air and d is the initial gap separation. One can see
that the electrostatic pressure goes to innity as the gap separation approaches zero.
Fringing elds can be neglected in most cases when the gap separation is much smaller
than the lateral dimensions. The electrostatic quantities can be described by modal
shape functions
i
(x) with respect to the generalized coordinates q
i
. Consequently,
the capacitance function is given by
C(q) =
_

0
d
i
q
i
i
(x)
dA, (3.10)
the electrostatic eld energy is given by
W
el
(V, q) =
V
2
C(q)
2
, (3.11)
and the force is given by
F
el
(V, q) =
V
2
2

C(q)
q
i
. (3.12)
For a single shape function, the equilibrium of the stationary electromechanical system
of Eqn. 3.6 can be expressed by the voltage deection relationship
V (q
1
) =
2
E
m
q
i
_
C
q
i
_
1
. (3.13)
32
When using more than one shape function to represent the deformation state, the
resulting equation system has to be solved iteratively.
The optimum geometric dimensions and physical parameters can be found by analyz-
ing the stationary behavior of the electromechanical system with analytical equations.
After this analytical optimization process, a series of time consuming nite element
simulations are carried out in order to assess the mechanical stress at dierent load
situations, to compute the inuence of initial warp, and to determine dynamic system
parameters such as damping ratios for transient analyzes [88].
3.3.3 Fluid Domain and Transient Response Simulations
The settling and release time of micro-mechanical structures after a voltage change
depends mainly on the viscous damping in the surrounding gas (e.g. air). Viscous
damping is caused by energy dissipation due to friction in the squeezed gas lm between
membrane and xed walls. Design parameters are damping coecient C
i
and damping
ratios
i
characterizing damped vibrations from the physical point of view. Optimal
damping occurs if damping ratios are between 0.7 and 1.0 [89].
Reynolds squeeze lm equation from lubricant theory can be used to compute the
damping parameter of mode shapes. The relation between the local beam velocity
u(x) and the reacting pressure change p(x, y) in the squeezed gas lm is give by
d
3
12
_
2
p(x, y)
x
2
+

2
p(x, y)
y
2
_
= u(x), (3.14)
where is the dynamic viscosity of air and d the local gap separation. This partial
dierential equation must be solved for the wall velocities u(x) which correspond to
the modal shape functions
i
(x). The results of the shunt airbridge and toggle switch
were obtained using the nite element tool ANSYS. The damping coecients, C
i
, can
be computed by scaling the pressure results p
i
(x, y) for each mode shape by
i
(x) and
integrating them at the bottom face of the movable microstructure [90]:
C
i
=
_

i
(x)p
i
(x, y)dA. (3.15)
For the damping ratios
i
we obtain
i
=
C
i
2
i
M
i
(3.16)
where
i
are the circular eigenfrequencies and M
i
the modal masses.
33
In the case of optimal damping (0.7
1
1.0), the settling and release time after a
voltage change take the duration of about one cycle [91]:
T
1
=
2
1
=
1
f
1
(3.17)
Systems with a mechanical contact can be stimulated with voltages higher than needed
to reach the stationary position. In this case, the movable beam hits the contact more
quickly at the cost of a possible bouncing eect.
In order to simulate the transient response, the stationary force equilibrium of Eqn.
3.6 must be extended by inertial and damping forces which leads to [92]
M
i
q
i
+C
i
(q) q
i
+F
m
i
(q) = F
el
i
(V, q). (3.18)
Movable microstructures are strongly non-linear. The mechanical stiness, electro-
static forces and damping coecients vary with deection and must be considered as
functions of the generalized coordinates q
i
. Both the modal spring forces, F
m
i
, and
the electrostatic forces, F
el
i
, are available with analytical calculations. The damping
functions, C
i
(q), are derived from a series of nite element simulations which compute
the damping coecients at various deection states in the operating range. Later, a
regression algorithm (a least square t) is applied in order to compute a mathemat-
ical function (or response surface) which represents the damping data in Eqn. 3.18.
The weights q
i
of Eqn. 3.18 are solved numerically by a Newmark time step integra-
tion scheme. Afterwards, the deection state of the entire structure can be computed
according to Eqn. 3.3.
3.3.4 Electromagnetic Domain Simulations
To compute the scattering parameters, three-dimensional electromagnetic simulations
were performed with the three dimensional electromagnetic (EM) eld simulator EM-
PIRE developed at IMST GmbH. This simulator is a powerful tool for solving Maxwells
equations based on the nite dierence time domain (FDTD) method which includes
all three-dimensional coupling eects. Using this method, the Maxwell equations are
discretized in time and space. This is accomplished by mapping the RF MEMS struc-
ture under investigation onto a rectangular grid where the unknown eld components
are located in each cell. S-parameter simulations are then performed for the static
problem. In the case for the switches, two independent S-parameter simulations were
performed for the two states one with an activated beam and one with a relaxed
beam.
The implemented FDTD method of the simulator solves an initial value problem by
an ecient time stepping algorithm (the Yees leapfrog scheme). Any unknown eld
34
3.4 Design, Layout, and Simulation Results
at a certain time is computed from the eld values of the preceding time step. For
stability reasons, the size of the time steps is related to the size of the grid and cannot
be dened independently. Therefore, a suitably sized grid is needed for an ecient
simulation. Both switch types, capacitive shunt airbridge switch and toggle switch,
utilize a thin 200 nm nitride isolation layer which is relatively small compared to the
overall dimensions of several millimeters of the whole switch structure. Extremely long
simulation times would be caused by the thin sheets. To overcome this problem, a new
stability criteria for FDTD simulations with strongly graded meshes (e.g. a 200 nm
nitride sheet next to a 3 m metal sheet) is applied. During the optimization process
of the switches, thicker equivalent sheets are used in the simulation. These thicker
sheets have a proportionally increased permittivity
inc
r
=
d
inc
d
0
(3.19)
where d
0
is the original sheet thickness. The resulting capacitance of the switches
within this approximation is nearly correct. However, the original nitride lm thick-
ness was used in the nal simulation of the structures before manufacturing. The
results are presented later in this chapter.
The metal losses are included in the simulation by applying resistive sheets. The
equivalent sheet resistance R
sh
at frequency f is given by
R
sh
=
1
2a
(3.20)
with the skin eect penetration depth
a =
1
f
0

(3.21)
where is the intrinsic conductivity, and
r
is the magnetic permeability. The sim-
ulated losses are frequency dependent and, therefore, only accurate at a specied
frequency (20 GHz in all simulations). In reality, the losses below this frequency will
be smaller, and the losses above this frequency will be larger.
The design of RF MEMS switches is inuenced by their mechanical as well as elec-
tromagnetic properties. For both elds, the simulations described in section 3.3 were
performed. To simulate the real behavior of the dynamic switch structures, combined
mechanical and electromagnetic simulation are required. However, such simulations
are very complex and not necessarily needed to design and understand the behavior of
the nal switch structure. Both switch types, shunt airbridge and toggle switch, are
35
digital two-state switches and are either on or o during the designated operation.
The switching or activation procedure itself is certainly interesting to investigate and
dynamic electromagnetic simulations might give more accurate results for activation
time, release time, activation voltage, and velocity of the membrane when hitting the
electrode. However, very accurate simulation results for these values are not of great
importance when the main focus is on optimizing the scattering parameters for the
two discrete states.
In the starting phase of the design, mechanical simulations were performed in order
to get enough information to understand mechanical properties of the targeted ma-
terials and geometry. In a second phase, electromagnetic simulations are performed
to achieve accurate results for the scattering parameters of the switch structure. We
will see that the simulation results achieved not only show the correct tendency of the
scattering parameters over the frequency, but also show accurate absolute results.
All RF structures were designed for manufacturing on 4 inch Si wafers with a resistivity
of 4000 cm. Typical dimensions of a 50 CPW are 144 m for the signal line width
and 78 m for the gap between signal and ground lines.
3.4.1 Shunt Airbridge Switch
The geometry and the functional principle of the capacitive shunt airbridge switch is
depicted in Fig. 3.2 and Fig. 3.3. In a 50 CPW environment, a exible airbridge
called beam, or membrane, is attached to the ground lines. To activate the
membrane, a voltage of approximately 40 V is needed between the signal line and
the movable membrane (i.e. the DC lead). This results in an electrostatic force which
acts on the membrane above the ground electrode. In the activated or down state,
a nitride isolation layer on top of the signal line prevents both irreversible sticking and
a dissipative current ow between signal and ground contacts.
Voltage Displacement Relationship of the Shunt Airbridge Switch
The mechanical simulation of the clamped exible membrane is well described by the
shape function technique explained in Chap. 3.3. The deformation state is rather
simple and represented by a single shape function (x). This shape function resulting
from uniform pressure is given by
(x) =
16
L
4
x
4
32
L
3
x
3
+
16
L
2
x
2
, (3.22)
where L is the length of the membrane.
36
membrane
isolation
signal line
gound line
port 2
port 1 substrate surface
Fig. 3.2: Three-dimensional view of
the shunt airbridge switch.
ground
substrate
ground
movable membrane DC lead
signal line
isolation
(a) Membrane relaxed (V
act
= 0 V )
ground
substrate
ground
DC lead
signal line
(b) Membrane activated (V
act
40 V )
Fig. 3.3: Cross-sectional view of the
shunt airbridge switch.
It was shown earlier that the equations of motion of electromechanical systems can
be established from the energy and capacitance functions. For the shunt airbridge
switch, the bending energy from Eqn. 3.4 must be superimposed by a second term for
the stiness change due to initial pre-stress,
u
, as well as a third term for the eects
of stiness at large deections. The resulting strain energy is therefore given by
W
m
(q) =
EI
2
_
L
0
_
x
2
_
2
dx +

u
A
2
_
_
_
L
0
1 +
_
x
_
2
dx L
_
_
+
EA
2L
_
_
_
L
0
1 +
_
x
_
2
dx L
_
_
2
(3.23)
and can be processed with MATLAB. The spring force, F
S
, can then be calculated
from the rst derivative of Eqn. 3.23. The resulting shape function (mechanical de-
formation) of the membrane of the shunt airbridge switch is depicted in Fig. 3.4. The
shading indicates the structural displacement u
y
(x).
More obvious than the force deection relationship is the voltage deection function
given by Eqn. 3.13 and shown in Fig. 3.5. The maximum of that function represents
the voltage which is necessary to activate the contact. It is remarkable that the mem-
brane is not necessarily released if the voltage is lower than the pull-in voltage. As a
matter of fact, the release voltage is usually much lower (hysteresis) and depends on
the thickness of the isolation layer. In the given example, the membrane is activated
in the maximum of the deection function at 39 V and released at 14 V.
37
(a) Relaxed membrane
(b) Activated membrane
Fig. 3.4: Shape function simulation of
the shunt airbridge switch
membrane.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
deflection/gap ratio [1]
hysteresis release voltage
pullin voltage
i
n
s
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

l
a
y
e
r
Fig. 3.5: Voltage deection function
of a shunt airbridge switch
shows hysteresis.
2.7
2
1
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
25 V
30 V
40 V
(a) Membrane activation
2.7
2
1
0
1
2
2.7
0 20 40 60 80 100
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
(b) Membrane release
Fig. 3.6: Membrane displacement of the shunt airbridge switch as a function of time.
Switching and Release Time of the Shunt Airbridge Switch
The transient responses after dierent voltage jumps are depicted in Fig. 3.6(a). For
all voltages, the membrane moves smoothly against the contact. This is because both
electrostatic and damping forces grow almost in the same order. However, to decrease
the settling time, higher driving voltages should be used. The displacement of 2.7 m
corresponds to the distance between the membrane in the neutral position and the
electrode. Activation times depend on the activation voltage and vary from 9 s to 24
s. After releasing the voltage, the membrane oscillates back into its initial position
(Fig. 3.6(b)). The corresponding release time of 100 s is larger than the activation
time due to the following reasons:
1. The relaxed state has a signicantly lower damping ratio when compared to the
38
activated state where the membrane touches the electrode.
2. The stiness and the eigenfrequency of the membrane is lower in the relaxed
state than in the activated state. This lower eigenfrequency leads to a larger
period and longer cycles (see Eqn. 3.17).
Electromagnetic Simulation Results of the Shunt Airbridge Switch
To improve the RF scattering characteristics of the shunt airbridge switch, an LC
matching network was designed. This matching network compensates the capacitance
of the switch in a broad frequency range from DC to 30 GHz. The LC matching
network consists of two serial inductances in a T conguration with the shunt capac-
itance. The matching at the feeding port S
11
as a function of the capacitance and
inductance was investigated to improve the structure. It was found that a capacitance
of 100 fF can be compensated by a total inductance of 350 pH up to a frequency of
34.5 GHz. For a lower frequency of 30 GHz, a maximum capacitance of 118 fF can
be compensated by an inductance of 450 pH yielding a matching of 20 dB. Higher
inductances decrease matching signicantly. Fig. 3.19 on page 52 shows the geometry
and dimensions of the designed switch as it is manufactured. The inductive lines have
a reduced width of 20 m.
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,

r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation
reflection
Fig. 3.7: Simulated S-parameter of the shunt airbridge switch. Notice that the in-
creased capacitance of the membrane clearly increases the isolation above
3 GHz.
The simulation result of this optimally designed shunt airbridge switch is shown in Fig.
3.7. This switch is closed when no pull-in voltage is applied (i.e. when the membrane
is relaxed (see Fig. 3.1 for overview of this notation)). In this state most of the power
can move from the input to the output port. Fig. 3.7 shows that the return loss is
above 30 dB for frequencies up to 25 GHz, and above 20 dB for frequencies up to 40
39
GHz. When the membrane is activated by a pull-in voltage, the switch opens and
the electrical state is o. In this state, less power can move from the input to the
output port. Due to the inherent design of a shunt airbridge switch, the isolation of
the switch is 0 dB at DC and increases almost linearly towards higher frequencies (up
to approximately 30 dB at 40 GHz). The reection (S
11
in closed state) shows that
more and more power gets reected at higher frequencies.
3.4.2 Toggle Switch
The geometry and the functional principle of the toggle switch is depicted in Fig. 3.8
and Fig. 3.9. The toggle switch can be regarded as a conventional air gap switch, or
relay, made for high frequencies. In a 50 coplanar waveguide (CPW) environment,
cantilever
signal line
of CPW
flexible
metal
band
suspension
airbridge
ground line
of CPW
push
electrode
pull
electrode
contact paddle
Fig. 3.8: Three-dimensional view of
the toggle switch.
signal
line
signal
line
substrate pull electrode
suspension
push electrode
(a) Contact closed (down-state) - voltage is
applied to pull electrode
signal
line
signal
line
substrate
movable cantilever
pull electrode push electrode
suspension
(b) Contact open (up-state) - voltage is ap-
plied to push electrode
Fig. 3.9: Cross-section view of the tog-
gle switch.
a cantilever is embedded in the signal line and can open and close an ohmic contact in
response to an external voltage. The metal cantilever is attached to the signal line on
one side by a exible metal band, and additionally, it is supported by a suspension.
This exible torsion spring is isolated and attached to the ground lines. In the closed
state, the signal is routed from the input port along the exible metal band, across
the cantilever, and over the ohmic contact to the output port. The switch is closed by
applying a DC voltage to the pull electrode which activates the cantilever (Fig. 3.9(a)).
In this state, the tip of the cantilever is in contact with the contact paddle. An iso-
lation layer on top of the ground electrode prevents a dissipative current ow when
the cantilever touches the electrode. When the external DC voltage is switched o,
the cantilever is released and the contact is opened. To improve isolation in the open
state, the switch is designed in such a way that an external voltage can be applied to
the push electrode which increases the gap between the cantilever tip and the contact
40
paddle (Fig. 3.9(b)). The airbridge serves as a stop for the cantilever when it bends up.
Voltage Displacement Relationship of the Toggle Switch
For the design and the mechanical domain simulation, the cantilever can be repre-
sented by a simplied three-dimensional model. One must take into account that both
the cantilever and exible metal band bend signicantly under an electrostatic load
and should be considered as exible. The suspension springs are mapped by a spring
element with two degrees of freedom which captures the transversal stiness, C
trans
,
and torsional stiness, C
rot
. Furthermore, the electrostatic pressure is strongly depen-
dent on the deection and must be updated in each iteration cycle. To determine the
displacements along the beam axis at various DC voltages, the Principle of Castigliano
(see Chap. 3.3.1) is employed using the following iteration scheme [93]. Steps 1 to 5
are repeated until convergence occurs:
1. Computation of the electrostatic pressure along the beam as a function of local
displacement:
P
el
(u
y
(x)) =

0
V
2
2(d u
y
(x))
2
(3.24)
2. Evaluation of the lateral shear force F
q
which depends on the pressure and the
transversal force of the suspension spring F
S
(unknown arbitrary parameter):
F
q
(x, F
S
) =
_
x
0
P
el
(s)ds +F
S
(x > a) (3.25)
3. Evaluation of the bending moment M
b
along the beam axis. The spring moment
M
S
is an unknown parameter:
M
b
(x, M
S
) =
_
x
0
F
q
(s)ds +M
S
(x > a) (3.26)
4. Calculation of the total mechanical strain energy. C
trans
and C
rot
are the transver-
sal and torsional stiness of the torsion spring:
W
S
(F
S
, M
S
) =
1
2EI
_
M
2
b
(x)dx
. .
cantilever
+
F
2
S
2C
trans
+
M
2
S
2C
rot
. .
torsion spring
(3.27)
5. Computation of the unknown spring force F
S
and moment for the current load
situation M
S
:
W
S
(F
S
, M
S
)
F
S
= 0,
W
S
(F
S
, M
S
)
M
S
= 0 (3.28)
41
6. Computation of all displacements along the beam axis:
u
y
(x) =
1
EI
_
x
0
M
b
(s x)ds (3.29)
Convergence occurs if the structural displacement at step 6 is constant.
The simulations show that reasonably small voltages are required to pull the tip of
the cantilever down to the contact paddle. Any further increase of the applied voltage
will lead to instability called pull-in. Pull-in occurs when the electrostatic forces
grow faster than the spring forces with respect to the displacement. In this case, the
cantilever snaps down to the pull electrode. This usually happens when the structure
is displaced to about 33% to 43% of the initial gab.
In addition to the analytical model, the state of the art nite element tool ANSYS was
used to verify the stationary deformation state and to compute the stress distribution.
The program allows simultaneous simulation of dierent physical models [94]. In the
mechanical region, the structure is described with approximately 3000 hexahedral solid
elements; in the electrostatic domain, by about 800 transducer elements. These trans-
ducer elements are based on quasi analytical descriptions of the capacitance-stroke
function within small gaps, and hold for systems where the fringing elds can be ne-
glected. They compute the local electrostatic force density with regard to the applied
voltage and deection state, and they transfer the loads to the mechanical domain.
The deviations between both simulations analytical method and ANSYS are below
3%.
The geometry and dimensions of the simulated structure can be seen in the SEM
micrograph of the manufactured structure in Fig. 3.21(a) on page 54. The gap between
cantilever and electrode is approximately 2 m. The contact closes when a pull voltage
of about 5 V is applied to the pull electrode (Fig. 3.10(a)). A further increase of the
pull voltage to 12 V raises the force between the tip of the cantilever and the contact
paddle and bends the center of the cantilever down towards the pull electrode (Fig.
3.10(b)). A sudden snap, or pull-in, happens at 25 V (not shown). To avoid pull-in
during operation, the voltage should be kept well away from the critical voltage and
below 20 V. When applying a push voltage of 40 V to the push electrode, the tip of
the cantilever rises about 0.6 m above its neutral horizontal position (Fig. 3.10(c) -
lift-up mode).
42
(a) Pull down mode (V
act
= 5 V)
(b) Pull down mode (V
act
= 12 V)
(c) Lift up mode (V
act
= 40 V)
Fig. 3.10: Mechanical displacement
simulation of the tog-
gle cantilever (shading
indicates height).
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
cantilever tip
center of pull electrode
center of push electrode
(a) Pull down mode (V
act
= 5 V)
0
0.5
0.8
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
cantilever tip (hits paddle)
center of pull electrode
(b) Pull down mode (V
act
= 12 V)
0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 50 100 150 200
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
cantilever tip
(c) Lift up mode (V
act
= 40 V)
Fig. 3.11: Membrane displacement of
the toggle cantilever as a
function of time.
Switching and Release Time of the Toggle Switch
Switching and release time of the toggle switch depend strongly on the damping ra-
tios of the lowest eigenvectors. Numerical uid ow simulations based on Reynolds
squeeze lm equation have been performed with the nite element tool ANSYS. The
simulations show increased gas pressure at the center (underneath the cantilever when
pulling downwards) due to viscous friction. Therefore, perforation holes in the can-
tilever are added to compensate for this eect (3.21). The transient response and
cantilever displacement after a voltage jump is illustrated in Fig. 3.11. It can be seen
that an activation with 5 V in pull down mode takes approximately 300 s (3.11(a)).
As expected, activation with an increased voltage of 12 V takes less time approxi-
43
mately 50 s (3.11(b)). In this case, the center of the pull electrode bends downwards.
In push mode, the cantilever tip bends upwards and reaches its maximum of 0.6 m
in approximately 100 s when applying a voltage of 40 V.
In addition to these functional parameters, the simulations give insight into the frac-
tural strength and fatigue behavior of the movable mechanical structures. As a rule of
thumb, the mechanical stress should be much lower than the yield stress of the involved
materials. The simulations state a peak stress of about 12 MPa in the silicon nitride
suspension spring. This value is signicantly lower than the critical value reported of
about 500 MPa [95]. Fig. 3.8 shows that curved clamps were used in the design in
order to minimize the stress concentration due to notching eects.
Electromagnetic Simulation Results of the Toggle Switch
The toggle switch has a parasitic capacitance due to the small distance of approxi-
mately 2 m between the cantilever and the grounded DC switching electrodes. An
LC matching network achieves a broadband compensation of this capacitance. For
the regular toggle switch, a reduced signal line width of 32 m with a length of 100
m for the input port and 120 m for the output port gives optimum results. The
scaled toggle switch [96] (second design) has a compensation line width of 20 m with
a length of 120 m on both sides.
The magnitude of the electric eld of the regular toggle switch is depicted in Fig. 3.12.
There is a 60 dB dierence between maximum and minimum eld values for both
the closed state (Fig. 3.12(a)) and the open state (Fig. 3.12(b)). In the closed state,
the highest eld values occur under the cantilever due to the small separation of the
grounded DC electrode. In the open state, the highest eld values occur at the end
of the inductive compensation line in the signal path where the exible metal band
is attached (distinct peak in 3.12(b)). Lowest eld values are found in the substrate
between the signal and the ground line.
S-parameter simulation results for regular and scaled toggle switches for activated
(closed, on) and relaxed (open, o) states are shown in Fig. 3.13 (see Tab. 3.1 for
details on notation). When activated, the regular toggle switch in Fig. 3.13(a) shows
an insertion loss less than 0.25 dB and a return loss higher than 15 dB up to 40 GHz.
This indicates good matching of the structure to the 50 CWP environment. In this
case, the simulation is neglecting metal losses. When relaxed or open, an isolation
higher than 19 dB up to 40 GHz is found. Up to 10 GHz the isolation is higher than
23 dB. The reection which is smaller than 0.1 dB indicates, that in this case, most
of the power is reected at the input port.
44
(a) Contact closed (b) Contact open
Fig. 3.12: Magnitude of the electric eld of the regular toggle switch at 20 GHz in
both switching states (height indicates the magnitude of the electric eld
strength).
The improved smaller version of the toggle switch shows even better performance (Fig.
3.13(b)). In the closed position, a return loss lower that 33 dB is found over the entire
frequency range from DC to 40 GHz. Insertion loss, including metal losses, is smaller
than 0.18 dB. In open position, an isolation greater than 18 dB up to 30 GHz is
achieved, similar to the regular toggle switch. This is because the determining factor
is the gap between the cantilever tip and the contact paddle which is the same in both
cases.
0
20
40
60
80
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.1
0.2
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss (act)
return loss (act)
isolation (rel)
reflection (rel)
(a) Regular toggle switch
0
20
40
60
80
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss (act)
return loss (atc)
isolation (rel)
reflection (rel)
(b) Small toggle switch
Fig. 3.13: S-parameter simulation results for the two dierent designs of the toggle
switch neglecting metal losses.
45
3.4.3 Single Pole Double Throw (SPDT) Switch
The higher order SPDT switch is composed of the shunt airbridge switches and toggle
switches which are described in Chap. 3.4.1 and Chap. 3.4.2. The geometry and layout
can be seen in Fig. 3.14. The functional principle of the RF MEMS SPDT switch is
that of a conventional SPDT switch. A signal at the input port (port 1) can either
be routed around a 90 degree bend to port 2 or can proceed straight to port 3 (Fig.
3.14(a)). This is achieved by two toggle switches in the intersection at the center of the
structure that can alternately tap the input line (Fig. 3.14(b)). The shunt airbridge
switches are even used to increase isolation at high frequencies [14] [39]. Two versions
of the SPDT switch are designed: one composed of two regular sized toggle switches
(as shown in Fig. 3.14), and one composed of two small toggle switches (Fig. 3.23(d)).
port 1
port 2
port 3
(a) Overview
port 2
port 3
airbridge
shunt airbridge
switch
toggle
cantilever
toggle
suspension
toggle
electrode
CPW
signal line
port 1
(b) Magnied view (note that ports are rotated)
Fig. 3.14: Three-dimensional view of the SPDT switch made of two toggle switches
and two shunt airbridge switches
.
Electromagnetic Simulation Results of the SPDT Switch
The small size of the scaled toggle switches allows for a compact 1 mm
2
SPDT switch.
The SPDT structure needs an adapted LC matching network (inductive lines) with
a width of 25 m and a length of 180 m at the input port to compensate for the
additional capacitance of the crossing airbridge. At port 3, a matching line with a
length of 70 m is needed. With the use of the taper in the ground line, no matching
is required for port 2. The airbridges that cross over the toggle cantilever are used to
strongly suppress unwanted higher modes on the coplanar line if the signal is routed
around the 90 degree bend.
46
From the electromagnetic simulations, the current density distribution is obtained. A
dierence of 50 dB is found between the lowest values behind the shunt airbridge at
port 3 and the highest values on the cantilever tip, the small matching lines, and on
the ground signal airbridges. The cantilever of the open toggle switch still shows a
high value due to induced current.
Scattering parameters of the SPDT switch are shown in Fig. 3.15. When the signal is
routed from port 1 to port 2, the insertion loss is smaller than 0.2 dB and the return
loss is above 30 dB for frequencies up to 35 GHz (Fig. 3.15(a)). The isolation to port
3 in this routing state is greater than 38 dB. When routing the signal straight through
the structure, from port 1 to port 3, the insertion loss is below 0.28 dB, and the return
loss is above 30 dB for frequencies up to 30 GHz (3.15(b)). The isolation to port
3 in this routing state is above 40 dB up to 30 GHz. A reduced isolation occurs at
higher frequencies due to substrate modes and can be improved by the use of a thinner
substrate.
0
20
40
60
30 20 10 0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 3)
(a) Signal routed from port 1 to port 2
0
20
40
60
30 20 10 0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 2)
(b) Signal routed from port 1 to port 3
Fig. 3.15: S-parameter simulation results of the SPDT switch composed of small
toggle switches for the two dierent routing states.
3.4.4 RF Cross
The RF cross depicted in Fig. 3.16 is designed to continuously route two signals across
an intersection in a CPW environment without the need for switching. This RF cross
is very useful when designing planar circuits without using multiple conductive lay-
ers with via holes. EM eld simulations with EMPIRE have been carried out during
the design phase that supports all three-dimensional coupling eects between the two
signal lines [40]. The ground-to-ground spacing in the center of the cross is 110 m.
This relatively small width reduces the eective eld and allows the use of a shorter
airbridge. From port 2 to port 4, the signal is routed via an underpath that has a
47
metal upper shielding airbridge on top. From port 1 to port 3, the signal is routed
along a cross signal airbridge that runs on top of the crossing signal line with a lower
shielding airbridge sandwiched in between.
port 1
underpath
upper
shielding
airbridge
lower
shielding
airbridge
cross
signal
airbridge
ground
signal
line
port 2 port 3
port 4
ground
signal
line
(a) Three-dimensional view of the RF cross
ground
port 3
port 1
cross
signal
airbridge
lower
shielding
airbridge
signal
route
underpath
upper
shielding
airbridge
port 2
port 4
(b) Electric eld above cross-signal airbridge
Fig. 3.16: Three-dimensional view of the RF cross and electric eld distribution
above the cross-signal airbridge.
Electromagnetic simulations reveal that the RF cross has a strong concentration of
the scattering eld in a small area above and below the underpath line when no lower
shielding airbridge is applied. When the signal travels over the cross signal airbridge
from port 1 to port 3, the electric eld is located mainly between the cross signal
airbridge, the underpath line, and at the edges of the airbridge. The scattered eld is
comparably weak. The use of a grounded lower shielding airbridge prevents a direct
coupling between the two lines. The outside coupling through air is minimized with
the use of upper shielding airbridges that connect the ground metalizations in a large
area of 600600 m around the cross. An overlap of 10 m between the two shielding
airbridges prevents radiation leakage from the underpath to the cross signal airbridge.
Because of the shieldings, the eld of the underpath signal line is concentrated below
the shielding bridges and in the substrate. The eld from the crossing signal line is
concentrated mainly above the upper shielding bridge and in the air (Fig. 3.16(b)). For
optimization of the RF performance, the small center conductor lines have been de-
signed to create a microstrip mode against the shielding electrodes with an impedance
near 50 . Short inductive lines are used for compensation outside the shielded area.
The S-parameter simulation results of the RF cross are shown in Fig. 3.17. When
the signal is routed over the airbridge (Fig. 3.17(a)), an insertion loss smaller than
0.55 dB, and a return loss greater than 25 dB, is found for frequencies up to 40 GHz.
The slightly higher insertion loss when the signal is routed along the underpath is
due to higher conductor losses in the 300 nm thin cross signal airbridge (Fig. 3.17(b)).
However, the insertion loss is still below 0.65 dB up to 40 GHz. In this case, the return
48
3.5 Process Flow and Fabrication
0
20
40
60
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 2)
(a) Signal routed over airbridge (port 1 to 3)
0
20
40
60
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 3)
(b) Signal routed along underpath (port 2 to 4)
Fig. 3.17: S-parameter simulation results of the RF cross for the two dierent rout-
ing states representing all symmetric routing combinations.
loss is above 20 dB for frequencies up to 40 GHz. Due to the use of the lower shielding
airbridge, the isolation between the two signal paths is above 40 dB for frequencies up
to 40 GHz. The imbalance in the insertion loss can be compensated by increasing the
length of the underpath signal line.
All MEMS structures introduced in Chap. 3.4 are manufactured simultaneously on the
same silicon wafer during the fabrication process. Some steps apply only to certain
structures. A total of 42 dierent manufacturing steps using twelve dierent masks
are needed for these designs. The process ow in Fig. 3.18 exemplarily shows the
manufacturing of the toggle switch. It can be easily applied to the corresponding parts
of the shunt airbridge switch and RF cross. A thorough description of the lithography
steps and the functional principle of the machines involved for metal sputtering, metal
evaporation, dry chemical etching, and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
(PECVD) can be found in [97].
The RF MEMS switches and the RF cross are fabricated on oxidized, high-resistivity,
525 m thick, 4 inch diameter Si wafers with a resistivity greater than 4000 cm.
To further minimize substrate losses, a high quality SiO
2
of 400 nm is deposited by
PECVD and annealed at 1000
C for 60 s in preparation for processing.

In the rst process step, the lower electrode (underpass metalization) is dened by a
lift-o process (Fig. 3.18(a)). The two metals, 50 nm Ti and 250 nm Au, are deposited
in a vacuum by high temperature evaporation. The structured photo resist (PR) used
49
substrate p-Si > 4000 cm
300 nm Au
50 nm Ti
pull and push electrodes
(a) Lower electrodes (underpass metalization)
100 nm Si
3
N
4
(b) Isolation layer for lower electrode
Au Au
2500 nm Au
50 nm Ti
signal line
of CPW
(c) Denition of CPW lines
Au Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
(d) First sacricial layer for cantilever-to-
electrode distance denition
Au Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
torsion spring
570 nm Si
3
N
4
(e) Torsion spring formation
Au Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
400 nm
(f) Contact hole etching
Au
Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
photoresist filling
(g) Filling of the contact hole
Au Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
cantilever
400 nm Au
75 nm Ni
400 nm Au
(h) Cantilever formation
Au Au
1
st
sacrificial layer
2
nd
sacrificial
layer
(i) Second sacricial layer for cantilever-to-
airbridge distance denition
Au Au
cantilever
airbridge
metal
flexible
band
(j) Airbridges and the exible metal band af-
ter removal of both sacricial layers in a
CPD process
Fig. 3.18: Process ow for the fabrication of the toggle switch (cross-sectional view)
all other MEMS elements are fabricated by the same process.
in a lift-o process has an undercut prole that leads to sharp edges and vertical walls
in the metalization layer [97].
The 100 nm thick silicon nitride (Si
3
N
4
) passivation for lower electrodes and lower DC
leads is deposited over the entire wafer by PECVD at 320
C. Then, the photo resist

50
is structured and selectively etched in a LAM reactor by a CF
4
/CH
3
F plasma in a He
environment (Fig. 3.18(b)).
Signal and ground lines of the CPW lines have the same height of 2550 nm (50 nm
Ti and 2500 nm Au) and are dened by metal evaporation and a subsequent lift-o
process (Fig. 3.18(c)).
The planar lling of the region between ground and signal lines with a sacricial layer
is a critical step. This rst sacricial layer denes the electrode-membrane distance
and needs to have a at interface between the photo resist and the Au ground metal as
idealized in Fig. 3.18(d). The overlapping photo resists on the ground pads is removed
by a sophisticated, multiple step planarization process that was specially developed
for this problem.
Then, a second SiN isolation layer is deposited on top. This layer is 570 nm thick and
forms the torsion spring for the toggle switch (Fig. 3.18(e)) as well as the isolation for
the contact leads. These DC leads run on top of the ground metal and contact the
membranes of the shunt airbridge switch in SPDT designs. They are, in contrast to
single shunt airbridge switches, isolated against the ground.
After this, the contact paddle for the toggle switch is dened by wet chemical etching
of 400 nm of gold at the area shown in Fig. 3.18(f). To make the contact paddle harder
and, therefore, more robust, a 85 nm thick WTi layer is sputtered. The resulting hole
in the signal line needs to be lled again with photo resist to form an even toggle
cantilever which will be deposited on top.
Afterwards, the dierent cantilever metalization layers are sputtered. The cantilever
material consists of 400 nm of Au, 75 nm of Ni, and 400 nm of Au (Fig. 3.18(h)).
The sandwich structure with the Ni layer is an elegant solution to control and adjust
the stress in the cantilever. The stress in the layer can be changed by thickness mod-
ication and by variation of the sputtering process parameter (temperature and ion
acceleration voltage). The nal switch parameters (actuation voltage and switching
speed) strongly depend not only on the geometry of the membrane, or cantilever, but
also on its metal and sputtering parameters which dene tension and residual stress.
While a change of these parameters for the membrane (which is xed on two sides) is
less critical, it becomes a more delicate matter for the toggle switch. This is mainly
because one side of the toggle cantilever is not attached to anything and tends to
strongly bend up or downwards if the stress parameters are not well controlled.
In the last step, the exible metal band, the upper stop bar for the toggle cantilever,
51
and the additional ground-to-ground airbridges are added. For this, an airbridge resist
with a height of 3 m is patterned as a second sacricial layer and annealed (Fig.
3.18(h)). The 1200 nm Au is evaporated and structured by a lift-o process. Finally,
the hard photo resist of both sacricial layers is carefully removed with wed chemical
etching with H
2
O
2
:H
2
SO
4
(1:4) and isopropanol. The critical point drying (CPD)
technique is used to dry the nished wafer so as to avoid sticking of the membrane
and cantilever.
3.6 SEM Micrographs and Experimental RF
Measurement Results
In this chapter, the experimental results of the fabricated RF MEMS, the toggle switch,
the shunt airbridge switch, the SPDT switch, and the RF cross are presented. SEM mi-
crographs were taken with a state of the art scanning electron microscope. To measure
the S-parameters, all RF MEMS were designed in CPW ground-signal-ground cong-
uration and were contacted in a Cascade probe station. The RF measurements were
then performed with a HP 8510C network analyzer. External voltages for actuation
were applied by Keithley 238 source measurement units. A standard line-reect-match
(LRM) method was used for calibration of the RF equipment.
3.6.1 Experimental Results of the Shunt Airbridge Switch
(a) 100 m-wide membrane (b) 50 m-wide membrane
Fig. 3.19: SEM micrograph of the shunt airbridge switches with perforation holes.
Fig. 3.19 shows the shunt airbridge switches in CWP design. The lighter part on the
right and on the left side in both SEM micrographs is the ground metalization. The
52
3.6 SEM Micrographs and Experimental RF Measurement Results
darker part in between the signal and ground metal shows the silicon oxide of the wafer
surface. The perforation holes in the membrane were applied for faster actuation as
mentioned earlier. The switch in Fig. 3.19(a) has a 100 m membrane which has a
metal-to-metal contact with the ground line. Note that the SEM micrograph in Fig.
3.19(a) shows a single pole single throw (SPST) version of the shunt airbridge switch
which does not have a DC lead. Actuation of SPST shunt airbridge switches can be
done by applying a voltage between the signal and the ground line. The darker elec-
trode below the membrane has a SiN cover. The 50 m wide membrane of the shunt
airbridge switch in Fig. 3.19(b) is isolated against the ground metal by SiN and has
a separate DC lead for actuation (right part of the SEM micrograph). The electrode
below the membrane has the same width as the signal lines, but additional inductive
lines (the thinner part in the signal line) are used to compensate for the capacitance
in the non-actuated state.
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
1
2
3
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,

r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation
reflection
(a) 100 m-wide membrane, V
act
= 39 V
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
1
2
3
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,

r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation
reflection
(b) 50 m-wide membrane, V
act
= 27 V
Fig. 3.20: S-Parameter measurement results of the shunt airbridge switches depicted
in Fig. 3.19.
S-parameter measurement results of the shunt airbridge switches from Fig. 3.19 are
depicted in Fig. 3.20. Both switches clearly show the simulated RF behavior. At 40
GHz, there is a greater than 30 dB decrease in transmission between on and o
state. This value is found from the dierence between the isolation and insertion loss
at 40 GHz. When the membrane is activated, isolation (S
12
) and reection (S
11
) are
the parameters of interest; whereas in the relaxed state, insertion (S
12
) and return loss
(S
11
) are given (see Fig. 3.1 for the RF notation of the shunt airbridge switch). In the
closed state (membrane relaxed), the 100 m version of the shunt airbridge switch in
Fig. 3.20(a) has an insertion loss smaller than 0.4 dB and a return loss greater than 12
dB up to 40 GHz. In the open state (membrane activated), the isolation is better than
40 dB while the reection of 0.5 dB indicates that most of the RF power is reected
at higher frequencies. Comparison of the insertion loss with isolation over the whole
frequency range reveals that the capacitance change of the shunt airbridge switch has
53
no eect at frequencies below 1 GHz and increases to almost 40 dB at 40 GHz. The
smaller 50 m wide version of the shunt airbridge switch in Fig. 3.20(b) shows similar
behavior. It has a slightly better return loss of 18 dB at 40 GHz but an isolation of
only 30 dB at 40 GHz. This is due to its smaller capacitance.
3.6.2 Experimental Results of the Toggle Switch
(a) Regular toggle switch (b) Small toggle switch with airbridge
(c) Cantilever tip and contact
pad of (a)
(d) Cantilever tip and con-
tact pad of (b)
(e) Inductive exible metal
band of (b)
Fig. 3.21: SEM micrographs of the two types of the toggle switches.
SEM micrographs of the fabricated toggle switches the regular and the small version
are depicted in Fig. 3.21. The regular toggle switch in Fig. 3.21(a) has a slightly
modied suspension of Au-Ni-Au compound which extends from the cantilever to the
mounting poles. The cantilever has three perforation holes in the tip for faster actua-
tion. The slightly darker part underneath the cantilever is the SiN cover on top of the
electrodes, where the larger is the pull electrode (towards the right) and the smaller
is the push electrode (towards the left and on the back part of the cantilever). On the
left hand side, the exible metal band that connects the cantilever to the signal line
can be seen. The DC leads for push and pull electrodes run underneath the bright
ground metal at the top of the photograph. The bright part on the bottom left is the
54
other ground line. The region of the contact, tip and pad, is magnied in Fig. 3.21(c).
One can clearly see that the contact is open. The height of the cantilever above the
pad is approximately 5 m.
In the small toggle switch of Fig. 3.21(b), the RF signal travels from the lower right
corner, over the 30 m long exible metal band, then over the cantilever, and up to the
upper left corner. The airbridge that runs diagonally across the perforated cantilever
is attached to the darker SiN isolations on top of the ground metal. The isolated DC
leads are located under the cantilever and run under the ground metal. Their contour
can barely be seen. Fig. 3.21(d) and (e) are magnied views of the cantilever tip on
top of the contact pad and the exible metal band, respectively.
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0
1
2
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,

r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation
reflection
(a) Regular toggle switch
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
1
2
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n
,

r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s
,

r
e
f
l
e
c
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation
reflection
(b) Small toggle switch
Fig. 3.22: S-parameter measurement results of the two dierent toggle switches de-
picted in Fig. 3.21.
The S-parameter measurement results for both toggle sizes in the on and o states
are given in Fig. 3.22. The regular toggle switch in Fig. 3.22(a) can be activated with
a voltage of 10 V. In this closed state, the insertion loss is below 0.8 dB up to 40 GHz
and the return loss is greater than 22 dB up to 35 GHz. Due to the high residual
stress in the cantilever, the contact opens when reducing the voltage to 0 V. With
an additional voltage at the push electrode, the distance between the cantilever and
contact paddle is increased. In this open position, the isolation decreases from above
50 dB at 1 GHz down to 13 dB at 40 GHz. The reection between 0.2 dB and 1.1 dB
indicates that most of the power is reected at the cantilever in the open state.
For the small toggle switch in Fig. 3.22(b), a voltage between 8 V and 15 V is needed
for actuation. In the closed state, the insertion loss increases almost linearly from 0.4
dB at 1 GHz up to 1.2 dB at 50 GHz. The return loss of the small toggle switch
decreases slightly more when compared to the regular toggle switch, from above 30 dB
55
at 1 GHz down to 15 dB at 50 GHz. The cantilever opens when reducing the actuation
voltage to 0 V. In the open state, the isolation is comparable to that of the regular
toggle switch and decreases from above 50 dB at 1 GHz down to 16 dB at 50 GHz.
The reection indicates that there is slightly more scattering at frequencies over 30
GHz with a maximum of 1.7 dB at 42 GHz. More measurement results of the toggle
switch can be found in the literature [98].
3.6.3 Experimental Results of the SPDT Switch
(a) SPDT switch composed of two regular
sized toggle switches
(b) Magnied view of the center of the SPDT
switch from (a)
(c) Magnied view of the contact paddles
from (b) shows an open (right) and a
closed contact (top)
(d) SPDT switch made of two small toggle
switches with ground airbridges crossing
over the cantilevers
Fig. 3.23: SEM micrograph of the SPDT switch.
Two dierent versions of the SPDT switches are fabricated. SEM micrographs of
dierent views are shown in Fig. 3.23. The SPDT switch design in Fig. 3.23(a) is
56
derived from the single toggle switch. Two of these toggle switches can be seen in the
center where the paths cross. The input port (port 1) is on the right. The signal can
travel straight to the left (port 2) or around 90 degrees (port 3) depending on which
toggle cantilever is activated. Additional shunt airbridge switches can be seen at both
output ports. When activated, they further increase the isolation to that port. One
can clearly see the SiN isolation under the shunt airbridge switches and the DC leads
on top of the ground lines. A magnied view of the two toggle cantilevers can be seen
in Fig. 3.23(b): port 1 is on the top, port 2 on the right, and port 3 on the bottom.
The large pull electrodes can be seen under the front of both cantilevers. They have
a SiN isolation cover, and their DC leads run underneath the ground lines. The push
electrodes on the back of the cantilevers are smaller but constructed identically to the
pull electrodes. More details of this structure can be seen by looking closely on the
contact region of another SPDT switch (Fig. 3.23(c)). The toggle switch at port 3 on
the right has an open contact, whereas the switch at port 2 is closed. In the SEM
micrograph, the contact is not closed by an activation voltage but due to a problem
during fabrication (nal photo resist removal process). However, it nicely illustrates
an open and closed contact under magnication. The airbridge that runs across the
ground metal is isolated by SiN and serves as an upper stop bar for the cantilever.
Fig. 3.23(d) shows an SDPT switch that is composed of two small toggle switches.
The input port 1 is on the top left, port 2 on the upper right, and port 3 on the
lower right. Similarities to the single small toggle switch in Fig. 3.21(b) can be seen.
However, this version has no perforation holes. As for all small toggle switches, the
suspension of the cantilever is mounted on separate poles instead of onto the ground
metal. The upper stop bar for the cantilever has on ohmic contact with the ground
because this suppresses higher order modes when the signal is routed around the 90
degree bend.
S-parameter results of the small toggle SPDT switch are depicted in Fig. 3.24. A
misalignment in the SiN isolation layer occurred during the fabrication process. This
caused a short circuit in the DC leads of the electrodes for both the cantilever and
the membrane. In this case, application of a voltage to either one of the electrodes
activates the toggle cantilever and shunt airbridge switch simultaneously. The addi-
tional activated shunt airbridge switch in the signal path increases the capacitance
and reduces the performance of the SPDT switch, especially at higher frequencies.
Therefore, an adapted S-parameter simulation is performed in order to compare the
measured results with simulations.
Due to the usage of a frequency dependent loss model, the simulation results and
the corresponding measurement results in Fig. 3.24 show very good agreement. Fig.
3.24(a) and (b) show the results for the signal routed from port 1 to port 2. Fig.
3.24(c) and (d) show the results for the signal routed from port 1 to port 3. Even in
this imperfect conguration for both signal paths, the insertion loss is below 0.6 dB
57
0
10
20
30
40
50
30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 3)
(a) Signal route from port 1 to port 2 (simulation)
0
10
20
30
40
50
30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 3)
(b) Signal route from port 1 to port 2 (measure-
ment)
0
10
20
30
40
50
30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 2)
(c) Signal route from port 1 to port 3 (simulation)
0
10
20
30
40
50
30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 2)
(d) Signal route from port 1 to port 3 (measure-
ment)
Fig. 3.24: S-parameter measurement together with adapted simulation results for
SPDT switch.
up to 30 GHz. The isolation to the non-switched port in both routing states is above
20 dB at 30 GHz and above 30 dB at 10 GHz. If the shunt airbridge switch in the
isolated path is closed, the isolation increases by the values measured from the single
shunt airbridge switch (Fig. 3.20)[14]. The return loss in the closed position is above
17 dB up to 30 GHz for both routing states.
The S-parameter performance of the small SPDT toggle switch with regards to return
loss, isolation, and insertion loss is strongly related to the single (SPST) small toggle
switch. This is because the same dimensions and geometry of the small toggle switch
were used for both structures. The only modication in the SPDT is a slightly longer
inductive matching line due to the additional airbridge that connects the ground met-
alization.
58
A detailed discussion of the performance of the combination of the toggle switch with
the shunt airbridge switch can be found in the literature [99]. The results show better
isolation at higher frequencies when compared to a single toggle switch.
For the system level simulation of the multi-band recongurable six-port receiver, the
measurement results of the small SPDT switch depicted in Fig. 3.24 are used.
3.6.4 Experimental Results of the RF Cross
The main diculties in the fabrication of the RF cross are the construction of the rel-
atively large airbridge faces, especially the removal of the sacricial photo resist layer
underneath them. Despite this fact, the SEM micrographs in Fig. 3.25 show nearly
perfect at airbridge faces with only slight undulation. No switching or moving parts
are involved in this structure.
(a) Upper shielding and ground lines. The
ports are towards the corner of the pho-
tograph
(b) Magnied view of the region where the sig-
nal line goes onto the cross signal airbridge
Fig. 3.25: SEM micrograph of the RF cross.
The depicted RF cross in Fig. 3.25(a) corresponds to the schematic illustration of Fig.
3.16: port 1 is on the lower left, port 2 on the upper left, port 3 on the upper right,
and port 4 on the lower right. The signal from port 1 to port 3 travels underneath the
upper shielding airbridge before it moves onto the cross signal airbridge in the center.
It again travels underneath an upper shielding airbridge as it moves towards port 2.
In the other signal path, the signal travels from port 2 to port 4 underneath a longer
upper shielding airbridge, then underneath the cross signal airbridge in the center, and
nally underneath the upper shielding airbridge to the lower right corner before it gets
to port 4. Fig. 3.16(b) shows a blow-up view of the region where the signal line leads
59
onto the cross signal airbridge. In the SEM micrograph, the lower shielding airbridge
can be seen underneath the cross signal airbridge. A small part of the signal line from
port 2 to port 4 appears at the top of the SEM micrograph running underneath the
lower shielding airbridge. The large bright areas at the top left and at the top right
are the upper shielding airbridges. The bright areas on bottom left and bottom right
corner of the picture are the ground metals.
The S-parameter measurement results of the RF cross given in Fig. 3.26 show good
agreement with the simulation results of Fig. 3.17. The signal route over the airbridge
from port 1 to port 3 shows an insertion loss smaller than 1 dB for frequencies up
to 30 GHz, and an insertion loss smaller than 1.5 dB for frequencies up to 40 GHz
(Fig. 3.26(a)). The return loss is greater than 20 dB for frequencies up to 30 GHz
and decreases towards 40 GHz. The isolation to port 2 is greater than 28 dB up to
40 GHz. The signal path from port 2 to port 4 shows a slightly higher insertion loss,
but still below 1.5 dB up to 37 GHz (Fig. 3.26(b)). The return loss is above 17 dB up
to 30 GHz. The isolation between the signal lines is almost identical for both routes.
For the signal route from port 2 to port 4, an isolation above 27 dB up to 40 GHz is
measured at port 3.
0
10
20
30
40
50
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 2)
(a) Signal routed over airbridge (port 1 to 3)
0
10
20
30
40
50
40 30 20 10 0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
r
e
t
u
r
n

l
o
s
s
,

i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
i
n
s
e
r
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
insertion loss
return loss
isolation (port 3)
(b) Signal routed along underpath (port 2 to 4)
Fig. 3.26: S-parameter measurement result of the RF cross for the two dierent
signal routes (representing the symmetric routing combinations).
For the system level simulation of the multi-band recongurable six-port receiver, the
measurement results of the RF cross depicted in Fig. 3.26 are used.
3.7 Additional Measurements and Reliability Results
In the following, additional measurements will be presented to characterize the perfor-
mance of the MEMS in more detail. The measurements include switching time, switch
60
cycles, RF power performance, and contact resistance characterization
3.7.1 Switching Time Measurement Results
A laser Doppler vibrometer (Polytec SMV300) was used to measure the cantilever
displacement and the switching time of the toggle and shunt airbridge switch. The
measurement is based on detection of the Doppler shift of coherent laser light that
is scattered from a small area of the test object. The object reects the light from
the laser beam and the Doppler frequency shift is used to measure the velocity of the
cantilever along the axis of the laser beam. A toggle switch with a gap of 10 m
between the cantilever tip and the contact paddle is used. The advantage of using
such a wide open structure is good optical control over the switch cycle.
A B
(a) Toggle in open state
A B
(b) Toggle in closed state
A
(c) Shunt airbridge switch
Fig. 3.27: SEM micrograph of the toggle and membrane switches. The laser marks
(A and B) of the vibrometer for the displacement measurements are
shown.
Fig. 3.27(a) and (b) indicate the laser marks of the measurement. Due to the gap
of 10 m, a pull-down voltage of 25 V is required. The measured switching time at
point A for rst contact (rst minimum) is 170 s. A quiet state is attained after
300 s (Fig. 3.28(a)). When reducing the pull-down voltage to 0 V, the cantilever
jumps back to its initial position. The release time to the rst maximum is 200 s,
and damped oscillations occur up to approximately 4 ms before reaching a quiet state
(Fig. 3.28(a)).
The relatively large actuation voltage of 25 V leads to a distortion of the cantilever
such that, at point B, it touches the electrode upon activation (Fig. 3.29(a)). Both
activation and release lead to damped oscillations. Because the cantilever is bent up,
a displacement of approximately 4 m at point B corresponds to a displacement of 10
m at point A. Both events need approximately 4 ms to quiet down (Fig. 3.29(b)).
Fig 3.30 shows the switching velocity of a membrane with gold metalization from the
up-state to the down-state measured in the center of the membrane as indicated in
61
0
5
10
400 300 200 100 0
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
170 s
(a) Toggle cantilever displacement at point A af-
ter activation (0 V to 25 V)
5
0
5
10
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
200 s
(b) Toggle cantilever displacement at point A af-
ter release (25 V to 0 V)
Fig. 3.28: Displacement of the toggle cantilever during activation and release.
(Laser position A is depicted in Fig. 3.27(a) and (b)).
0
2
4
6
8
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
(a) Toggle cantilever displacement at point B af-
ter activation (0V to 25 V)
5
0
5
4000 3000 2000 1000 0
d
i
s
p
l
a
c
e
m
e
n
t

[
m
]
time [s]
(b) Toggle cantilever displacement at point B af-
ter release (25 V)
Fig. 3.29: Displacement of the toggle cantilever during activation and release.
(Laser position B is depicted in Fig. 3.27(a) and (b)).
Fig. 3.27(c). Switching time (neglecting the bounce) is approximately 11 s. The
corresponding release (excluding oscillations) is in the order of 17 s. The release
process is completely independent of the actuation voltage that was originally applied
in order to pull the switch down and, instead, is solely dominated by the tensile force of
the membrane. This, of course, is only valid for an ideal dielectric layer which does not
exhibit any charging eects [105]. The results are in agreement with the theoretical
calculations and also with published data of similar switches [106].
In addition to DC switching, the RF switching behavior of the toggle switch is mea-
sured with the setup shown in Fig. 3.31. A 1 GHz RF signal with constant power is
applied to one port of the toggle switch and measured by a peak power meter at the
62
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
40 20 11 0
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
m
/
s
]
time [s]
(a) Membrane activation
20
15
10
5
0
5
10
15
20
60 40 17 0
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

[
m
m
/
s
]
time [s]
(b) Membrane release
Fig. 3.30: Membrane velocities of the shunt airbridge switch during activation and
release at point A indicated in Fig. 3.27(c).
RF source bias-T P PM bias-T P
DC
PM P
pulse generator circuit
RF probes
toggle switch (DUT)
peak power meter
Fig. 3.31: The measurement setup for the RF switching time measurement.
other port. A rectangular DC voltage signal with a rise time of 5 s is applied with a
transistor circuit. The capacitance in the bias-T increases the signal rise time to about
150 s. The switching time measurement results of the single toggle switch for closing
and for release are shown in Fig. 3.32. The distance between the cantilever tip and
the contact pad is approximately 3 m in the open state. A voltage of 20 V is needed
in the DC case to close the switch. During this switch time evaluation, slightly higher
DC voltages between -25 V and +3 V were applied by the pulse generator circuit.
The time to the rst contact of the membrane is 12 s and a stable state is achieved
directly without any oscillations. If the switch is opened, a stable state is achieved for
all switch cycles after 28 s. These values are consistent with other measurements on
toggle switches.
3.7.2 RF Power Measurement
RF power measurements are performed on two fabricated shunt airbridge switches and
two single toggle switches in order to investigate power handling capabilities. Power
handling of the shunt airbridge switch is limited by either excessive heating due to
high current densities on the transmission lines, or by the actuation of the membrane
63
0
10
20
30
100 50 12 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
p
o
w
e
r

[
d
B
m
]
time [s]
voltage
power
(a) Activating the toggle cantilever
0
10
20
30
100 50 28 0
0
10
20
30
40
50
v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
p
o
w
e
r

[
d
B
m
]
time [s]
voltage
power
(b) Releasing the toggle cantilever
Fig. 3.32: Switching times for RF power of the toggle switch.
due to a high average voltage between the signal line and membrane denoted as self-
biasing [86]. The electrostatic force acting on the membrane can be derived from
either negative or positive voltages. Since the relaxation time of free electrons in
metals is in the range of 10
14
s (Au:
Au
= 2.9 10
14
s, Al:
Au
= 0.8 10
14
s)
which corresponds to frequencies of 100 THz, the electrostatic force instantaneously
follows the applied high frequency electromagnetic eld. Therefore, the average voltage
level of the rectied sine wave on the CPW line attracts the membrane. The RF power
is related to this average voltage by the following simple equation:
U
0
=
2 U
eff
=
2RP =
2 50 10W = 31V. (3.30)

It can be seen that in a 50 CPW environment, a power of 10 W results in an aver-
age voltage of 31 V. To allow higher power handling, the switch needs to be designed
for higher actuation voltages (i.e. 25 W requires an actuation voltage larger than 50 V).
Characterization of power handling requires relatively expensive measurement equip-
ment, in particular a high power RF generator. This is why there is not much power
measurement data available in the literature. For the power measurements, a HP
83650 synthesizer and a type TWT 8010H15F00 amplier was used. The cascade
probe station was equipped with Picoprobe probes. The signal was attenuated with
20 dB attenuators before being detected by a HP 438A power sensor connected to a
HP 8487A power meter. For the shunt airbridge switch, an RF power up to 1 W at 30
GHz is applied. Fig. 3.33(a) shows that self-actuation on a suboptimal switch occurs
at 0.96 W, whereas an optimized switch shows no self-actuation at 1 W. Higher powers
at 30 GHz could not be applied due to limitations of the measurement equipment. For
the toggle switch, an RF power up to 2 W was applied at frequencies up to 18 GHz.
Fig. 3.33(b) shows that no power induced self actuation is found for the regular or
for the small toggle switch. However, the curves show the expected, and previously
64
0
5
10
30 20 10
P
o
u
t
/

P
i
n

[
d
B
]
input power P
in
[dBm]
nonoptimized
optimized
(a) Non-optimized (self actuation at 0.96 W
at 30 GHz) and optimized shunt airbridge
switch (no self-actuation up to 1 W)
15
20
25
30
35
25 20 15 10 5
i
s
o
l
a
t
i
o
n

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
regular toggle cantilever
small toggle cantilever
(b) Regular and small toggle switch (2 W RF
power applied)
Fig. 3.33: Self actuation of the toggle and shunt airbridge switches due to RF power.
discussed, decrease in isolation at higher frequencies.
Detailed investigations on the toggle switch were performed by IMST GmbH. It was
discovered that switches with higher actuation voltages can handle higher RF powers
before latching. This conrms Eqn. 3.30. The highest power handling capability was
found from a toggle switch with an actuation voltage of 50 V. The cantilever could be
switched several times at a power of 2.51 W at 5 GHz with an on-state signal time of
10 s. Four of six investigated switches could handle powers between 1 W and 2.5 W
in the frequency range from 5 GHz and 15 GHz. The power measurement results are
in good agreement with results reported in the literature [100][101][102][103].
3.7.3 Switch Cycle Measurement Results
Switch cycle measurements on a fabricated single toggle switch were performed to
investigate degradation of the membrane, the contact paddle, and the mounting sus-
pensions. The DC measurement set up depicted in Fig. 3.34 was used.
When the contact is closed by applying V
act
to the DC lead, there will be a voltage
V
1
between the two probes on the signal line. To avoid degradation of the contact
due to a high current, the measurement current I
meas
is limited 0.1 mA. A slightly
increased actuation voltage of 25 V is applied for the switch cycle measurement. The
measurement is automated using HP-VEE. The Keithley voltage source V
act
is alter-
nated between 0 V and 25 V with a period of 2 s. Unfortunately, the exible metal
band which connected the cantilever to the signal line became ripped o after 2.410
5
65
I
meas
V
act
V
3
V
2
V
1
V
V
V
contacts of probes
additional contacts for
voltage measurement
switch
Fig. 3.34: Experimental set up for switch cycle measurements to determine contact
degradation and contact resistance.
successful switching cycles. This indicates that the size of the exible metal band,
especially the area which connects it to the signal line, is too small.
A capacitance measurement is used to count the number of successful switch cycles of
the shunt airbridge switch. With a distinct change in the capacitance, the membrane
is successfully actuated more than 510
5
times. The measured capacitance in the
actuated state is 7 pF, while in the relaxed or neutral position, the capacitance is
at least a factor of 1000 below this value. Reported lifetimes for capacitive switches
found in the literature range from 10
4
to 10
8
switch actuations, demonstrating an
exponential relationship between lifetime and actuation voltage [105].
3.7.4 DC Contact Resistance
Three dierent test series are performed to extract the contact resistance of a single
toggle switch. Each tests includes 20 current-voltage measurements at the points
indicated in Fig. 3.34. A linear t was used to nd the related resistance:
V
1
: measurement lines and probes + toggle cantilever + contact 12.7
V
2
: measurement lines and probes + toggle cantilever 3.9
V
3
: measurement lines and probes 2.6
The resistance of the toggle cantilever is given by R
2
- R
3
= 1.3 . The extracted
pure contact resistance (R
C
) is given by R
1
- R
2
= 8.8 . The equivalent insertion
loss in a 50 environment (Z
L
) at DC is:
S
12
=
2
2 +
R
C
Z
L
= 0.36 dB. (3.31)
This value is slightly higher than the contact resistance of 2.1 calculated from
the insertion loss of 0.2 dB that was found from S-parameter measurements at low
frequencies. The switch under investigation here is dierent from the one that was
used for S-parameter measurements. This reveals variations in the contact resistance
of dierent switches due to fabrication.
66
3.7.5 Temperature Dependency and Reliability
Temperature measurements of two other fabricated single toggle switches were per-
formed to investigate temperature dependency of the actuation voltage and contact
resistance using the setup from Fig. 3.34.
100
90
80
70
60
50
100 80 60 40 20
20
15
10
5
0
a
c
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

V

[
V
]
c
o
n
t
a
c
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

R

[
]
temperature [
o
C]
heating cyc. V
heating cyc. R
cooling cyc. V
cooling cyc. R
(a) Change in the resistance
40
35
30
25
80 70 60 50 40 30 20
25
20
15
10
5
0
a
c
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

V

[
V
]
c
o
n
t
a
c
t

r
e
s
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

R

[
]
temperature [
o
C]
heating cyc. V
heating cyc. R
(b) Keeping the resistance constant
Fig. 3.35: Temperature dependency of the actuation voltage of a toggle switch. The
resistance is dependent upon the force applied by the actuation voltage,
even at constant temperature.
The results of a full heating and subsequent cooling cycle are shown in Fig. 3.35.
The measurement points show the reversibility of the process. The wafer sits on a
thermo-chuck during this on-wafer measurement. Only higher temperatures up to
100
C are applied due to condensation at room temperature (20
C). Two dierent

toggle switches with respect to actuation voltage were chosen: one with a relatively
high actuation voltage of 83 V at room temperature (Fig. 3.35(a)), and one with an
actuation voltage of 39 V at room temperature (Fig. 3.35(b)). Resistances found were
in the range of 5 to 16.5 . This is in good agreement with the detailed contact
resistance investigation above, even though the resistances here are not de-embedded
and include all resistances: the probes, the measurement lines, and the signal line.
However, it shows that the contact resistance of a toggle switch is strongly dependent
on temperature. While the cantilever metal gets softer at higher temperatures leading
to lower actuation voltages, higher temperatures also lead to higher resistances in the
metal of the signal line. In addition, contact resistances vary greatly from switch to
switch.
For the toggle switch with a gold cantilever in Fig. 3.35(a), a linear t results in a
gradient of -0.4 V/

C. The relatively large variation in the resistance values between
5 and 13 come from the characteristic switching behavior at dierent temper-
67
atures. At each temperature under investigation, the actuation voltage which results
in a clear drop in the voltage V
1
(see Fig. 3.34) is shown. Higher actuation voltages at
the same temperature can always decrease the contact resistance by the higher force
that is applied.
For the second toggle switch under investigation (depicted in Fig. 3.35(b)), the actu-
ation voltage is chosen in such a way that it leads to the same contact resistance of
approximately 16 over the entire temperature range from 20
C to 70
C. Actuation
voltages for this switch vary from 26 V to 39 V resulting in a gradient of -0.3 V/

C
on a linear t. The lower actuation voltages of this switch come from a smaller stress
gradient in the Au/Ni/Au-cantilever compound. Any gradient leads to a warping of
the cantilever. The higher the stress gradient, the larger the distance from the can-
tilever to the electrode, and therefore, the higher the actuation voltage. It is obvious
that this stress gradient also inuences the temperature dependency of the actuation
voltage as the warping of the cantilever changes due to temperature. The stress gra-
dient is dependent on sputtering process parameters and also on the used materials.
The process parameters that control the stress gradient are: gas pressure, the sputter
time, and power. It is expected that the invar compound a nickel-iron alloy with
35% Ni can reduce this temperature dependency.
A dice was mounted onto a carrier to evaluate the temperature dependency of the
actuation voltage of the shunt airbridge switch [86]. SPST shunt airbridge switches
are contacted with bond wires as depicted in Fig. 3.36(a). This allows measurements
in a low humidity chamber below room temperature. The results from 5 subsequent
heating and cooling cycles are shown in Fig. 3.36. A linear dependency of the actuation
on temperature can be seen in all cycles. The maximum actuation voltage of 44 V is
found at -30
C, and the minimum actuation voltage of 14 V is found at +80
C.
(a) dice on carrier
50
40
30
20
10
80 60 40 20 0 20
a
c
t
u
a
t
i
o
n

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

V

[
V
]
temperature [
o
C]
heating cyc. 1
heating cyc. 2
heating cyc. 3
heating cyc. 4
heating cyc. 5
(b) Activation voltage vs. temperature
Fig. 3.36: Temp. dependency of the activation voltage of a shunt airbridge switch.
68
4 The MEMS-Based Multi-Band
Six-Port Circuit
In this chapter it will be shown that recent developments in MEMS technology are very
well suited to design a multi-band, multi-standard transceiver. An application scenario
with the MEMS discussed in Chap. 3 will show their typical use in a multi-port RF
receiver front-end. In the receiving path, these MEMS SPDT switches are very well
suited to serve as antenna diplexers which can accomplish a switching between the RX
and TX path. Furthermore, these low loss MEMS routing elements allow switching the
RF signal between two dierent six-port circuit, each operating at dierent frequencies
one around 1.5 GHz and the other from 2 GHz to 25 GHz. To understand the
functional principle of RF multi-band interferometers in general, the design process
and measurement results of the 1.5 GHz six-port interferometer (SP1500) will be
discussed in the beginning. Subsequent to the discussion of the performance of the
second (broadband) six-port circuit, the complete RF MEMS-based re-congurable
multi-band receiver front-end is elaborated on.
4.1 Introduction to Passive RF Multi-Port
Interferometers
The rst reported six-port circuits were used as alternative network analyzers for the
measurement of complex scattering parameters [15][34][17][16][18]. In such reectome-
ter applications the six-port circuit has a small isolation between the LO and the DUT
(device under test) port. Whereas in a typical receiver application, the multi-port cir-
cuit requires a high isolation between the RF and LO port. Besides low attenuation,
one of the key requirement on the passive interferometer circuit of multi-port receivers
is the phase dierence between the LO and RF signal at the output port. Optimal
phase dierences are in multiples of 90
at the output ports. Depending on the circuit

design, this can be achieved over a relatively large frequency range, and a bandwidth of
many octaves is possible. However, modern broadcasting and high speed communica-
tions bands start in the upper MHz range (FM radio at around 100 MHz) and extend
to GHz frequencies (802.11a at around 5.35 GHz). Future high data rate standards
will make use of the industrial, scientic, and medical (ISM) bands at higher carrier
frequencies where extremely large bandwidths are available, extending the demand of
69
4 The MEMS-Based Multi-Band Six-Port Circuit
the front-end up to 24 GHz, 37 GHz, 60 GHz, or even higher (i.e. WIGWAM project
[128] and WiMax [129]). Such large frequency dierences cannot be covered by a
single passive circuit, and new systems have to be invented that utilize cost-eective
recongurable multi-standard front-ends which serve a large frequency range.
In the following, dierent multi-port realization schemes are sketched and discussed.
A simple, broadband six-port interferometer consists of a power divider and three 90
hybrid couplers. This six-port interferometer is looked at in detail showing its design
and simulation results. Measurement results of the same six-port architecture, that
is composed of composed of commercial blocks, are presented hereafter. This demon-
strates the possibility to design a broadband system.
In general, various designs for the multi-port front-end are possible. The circuit should
have as little attenuation as possible and achieve multiples of 90
phase shifts at
the output ports. Additionally, the power from both, RF and LO port, should be
equally distributed at the output ports. One distinctive feature is how the phase
shift is achieved. At higher frequencies (i.e. shorter wavelengths) simple delay lines
are advantageous; whereas at lower frequencies (i.e. larger wavelengths), these delay
lines get too long and cannot be practically implemented. Depending on the type of
substrate, the critical frequency for delay lines is around 2 GHz (i.e. a 90
phase shift
in a 50 line requires a length of approximately 1.5 cm on a substrate with a dielectric
constant
r
of 9.8). This fact makes the multi-port technology especially qualied for
extremely high frequencies. Six-port circuits have been reported up to a frequency
of 94 GHz for radar applications [107]. For frequencies in the lower MHz range, it
is advantageous to reduce size and cost by using lumped elements for the phase shift
[108]. However, this reduces the bandwidth and increases the loss of the circuit. The
1.5 GHz six-port demonstrator that is investigated in this chapter consists of delay
based couplers and a delay based power divider.
4.2 Options for the Multi-Port Architecture
4.2.1 The N-Port Interferometer
Fig. 4.1(a) shows the basic principle of multi-port circuits. The RF and LO signals
are split at the input ports, and the superposed signals are combined at output ports
3 through 6. If the bandwidth is not an issue, this design can be used to combine RF
and LO signal under any phase angle. Depending on the number of output ports, the
RF and LO signal power, P
RF
and P
LO
, decreases due to the inherent splitting loss of
the signal power (see Fig. 4.1(b)). This distribution or splitting loss A
P
is given by
A
P
[dB] = 10 log
10
P
n
/P
RF,LO
(4.1)
70
4.2 Options for the Multi-Port Architecture
n
-
w
a
y

p
o
w
e
r

d
i
v
i
d
e
r
n
-
w
a
y

p
o
w
e
r

d
i
v
i
d
e
r
i=3
LO (i=1) RF (i=2)
n
i-2
n-2
i=4
i=5
equal power combiner
(a) Simple multi-port design with two input
ports (LO(1), RF(2)) and n output ports
(3..n)
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
20 15 10 6 5 4 3
s
p
l
i
t
t
i
n
g

l
o
s
s

[
d
B
]
total number of output ports [GHz]
(b) Theoretical loss due to power distribution
as a function of the total number of output
ports
Fig. 4.1: An n-port interferometer is a passive circuit that superposes an LO signal
from port 1 and an RF signal from port 2 under dierent phase angles.
where P
n
is the power at any output port n. For example, in a six-port circuit for
example, the best theoretically achievable attenuation is 6 dB. Note that in the graphs,
the losses (as well as attenuation) are given by negative numbers. Also note, that
the text uses the terminology from Chap. 3 with positive dB values for losses and
attenuation. The voltage loss A
V
due to signal splitting is
A
V
[dB] = 20 log
10
V
n
/V
RF,LO
. (4.2)
Interferometer circuits, based on the design of Fig. 4.1, that probe the superposed
signals on delay lines have a rather small bandwidth. To achieve a larger bandwidth,
the designs need to utilize two arm or even multiple arm branch-line couplers (also
referred to as quadrature hybrids).
4.2.2 Five-Port and Six-Port Interferometers
Various designs for ve- and six-port circuits can be found in the literature which range
from microstrips [12] to LC lumped element designs for dierent operating frequencies
[108]. Simple structures with a sampled delay line are reported [109]. Others report on
a six-port interferometer that is composed of four quadrature hybrids [110] (see 4.2(d)).
Fig. 4.2(c) shows the layout of a broadband six-port circuit made from three standard
quadrature hybrid couplers and one power divider. One of the two requirements is that
power is split equally to the output ports for signals that originate from both input
ports. Uniform phase dierences (multiples of 90
) of the superpositions of the signals

from the LO and RF port are the second requirement. The latter can be achieved even
if the quadrature hybrids do not have a perfect 90
phase shift. This is because the

71
lines connecting the hybrids also account for a phase shift which can compensate for
the derivations of the quadrature hybrids. However, as mentioned earlier, using such
additional delay lines for phase shifting reduces the bandwidth. An advantage of multi-
port receiver is its calibration which can correct these imbalances up to a certain point.
90
o
RF
j LO
2 2
+
3
4
RF (2)
LO (1)
5
LO
j RF
2 2
+
) (
2
1
RF LO+
(a) Five-Port Circuit consisting of 1 quadra-
ture hybrid
90
o
90
o
RF
j LO
2 2
+
3
4
RF (2)
LO (1)
6
5
LO
j RF
2 2
+
) (
2
RF LO
j
+
) (
2
1
RF LO
90
o
(b) Six-Port Circuit consisting of 2 quadra-
ture hybrids
90
o
90
o
90
o
RF
j LO
2 2
+
3
4
RF (2)
LO (1)
6
5
LO
j RF
2 2
+ ) (
2
RF LO
j
+
) (
2
1
RF LO
(c) Six-Port Circuit consisting of 3 quadrature
hybrids
90
o
90
o
RF
j LO
2 2
+
3
4
RF (2)
LO (1)
6
5
LO
j RF
2 2
+
) (
2
1
RF LO+
) (
2
RF LO
j
90
o
LO (1)
90
o
90
o
(d) Six-Port Circuit consisting of 4 quadra-
ture hybrids [110]
Fig. 4.2: Possible designs for ve- and six-port interferometer circuits.
Fig. 4.2 shows various designs for ve-port and six-port circuit interferometers. In
the designs, the power dividers are subsequently replaced by quadrature hybrids. The
90
phase shift of the quadrature hybrid needs to be adjusted with additional delay
lines when using four quadrature hybrids (Fig. 4.2(d)). Using any three output ports
of the circuit in Fig. 4.2(c) makes the same circuit a ve-port interferometer. Simi-
lar ve-port designs can be made using directional couplers and phase shifters. The
whole circuit can even be simplied by constructing a ring with ve branches with
the appropriate isolation and transmission. Another intrinsic feature of the multi-port
interferometer is the permutability of the RF and the LO ports.
72
4.3 Design and Analysis of a 1.5 GHz Six-Port Interferometer (SP1500)
4.3 Design and Analysis of a 1.5 GHz Six-Port
Interferometer (SP1500)
In this section, the design, simulation, and measurement results of the six-port inter-
ferometer circuit for frequencies around 1.5 GHz (the carrier frequency of the GPS) is
presented. Fig. 4.3 shows the fabricated passive six-port interferometer that will be
discussed in detail.
1
2
3
4
6
7
5
Fig. 4.3: Photograph of SP1500. The RF and LO input ports (1,2) and output ports
(3,4,5,6) are marked.
This phase correlator superposes the input signals (the LO signal from port 1 and
the RF signal from port 2) creating four dierent phase combinations at output ports
3 through 6. Every combination is a sum of the input signals with dierent phase
shifts (0
, 90
, 180
, and 270
). The simple design of Fig. 4.2(c) with three quadrature

hybrids and one power divider has been chosen because the demand is relaxed on the
bandwidth for the 1.5 GHz demonstrator. The phase correlator is implemented using a
microstrip technique. For its design, Advanced Design System (ADS) and Momentum
from Agilent Technologies is used. Fig. 4.3 shows how the port numbers are assigned.
The LO input signal is fed into port 1, and the RF input signal is fed into port 2. The
output ports are 3, 4, 5, and 6 whereas the unused port 7 (not shown) is terminated
with an external 50 resistor.
73
4.3.1 Theoretical Background of the Electromagnetic Simulations
Advanced Design System (ADS) Simulator
The computer-aided design (CAD) software ADS from Agilent Technology is used for
analytical simulation of the microstrip structures. The software is a very useful tool
for fast simulation, analysis, and optimization of planar structures. Microwave cir-
cuits consisting of transmission lines, lumped elements, active devices, coupled lines,
wave-guides, and other components can be analyzed. The design process begins with
calculations of the targeted impedances of the transmission lines and their correspond-
ing lengths and widths on the substrate. The achieved results give rst insight into
the S-parameters of the structure. However, for a more accurate and realistic result, a
subsequent electromagnetic simulation that takes more parasitic eects into account
has to follow.
Momentum Simulator
After the ADS simulation of the schematic, the circuit is converted into its physical
layout and simulated with the microwave mode of the Momentum simulator from Agi-
lent Technology. This electromagnetic eld simulation tool solves Maxwells equations
for the 2.5-dimensional case based on the method of moments. It uses an adaptive
frequency sampling algorithm that allows fast and accurate simulation results. This
simulator is a standard popular and wide-spread tool. It calculates S-parameters for
any arbitrary planar geometrical pattern, and takes into account the electromagnetic
mechanisms such as:
1. Skin eect
2. Dielectric loss
3. Metalization loss
4. Dispersion
5. Radiation loss
4.3.2 Substrate and Microstrip Lines
The microstrip line is one of the most popular types of planar transmission lines,
primarily because it can be fabricated by photolithographic processes and is easily
integrated with other passive and active microwave devices. The geometry of a mi-
crostrip line is shown in Fig. 4.4. A conductor of width W is printed on a thin,
grounded dielectric substrate of thickness d
s
and relative permittivity
r
; a sketch of
74
d
s
substrate FR4
Cu metalization
W
d
c
E-field
H-field
Cu
Fig. 4.4: Electric and magnetic eld components in a microstrip line (geometric
parameters are indicated.)
the eld lines is shown in Fig. 4.4. Microstrip design keeps some of its eld lines in the
dielectric region (concentrated between the strip conductor and the ground plane) and
a certain fraction in the air region above the substrate. For this reason, the microstrip
line cannot support a pure TEM wave since the phase velocity of TEM elds in the di-
electric region is c/
r
; while the phase velocity of transversal electromagnetic (TEM)
elds in the air region is c. Thus, a phase match at the dielectric-air interface would
be impossible to attain for a TEM-type [112].
In reality, the exact elds of a microstrip line constitute a hybrid transversal magnetic
(TM)/ transversal electric (TE) wave, and require more advanced analysis techniques.
However, in most practical applications, the dielectric substrate is very thin compared
to the wavelength (d << ) and therefore, the elds are quasi-TEM. The phase velocity
v
p
and propagation constant can be expressed as
v
p
=
c
e
(4.3)
= k
0
e
(4.4)
where
e
is the eective dielectric constant of the microstrip line. Since some of the
eld lines are in the dielectric region and some are in the air, the dielectric constant
satises the relation
1 <
e
<
r
(4.5)
and is dependent on the substrate thickness d
s
and conductor width W.
Using the ADS line calculation tool, the values for the microstrip line width and length
at the desired frequency of 1.5 GHz are calculated with the given substrate thickness
H, the relative dielectric constant, the conductor thickness, and the dielectric loss
tangent. Tab. 4.1 shows the results for the dierent impedances of a regular 50 line,
a 50
2 (70.71 ) line (for the Wilkinson power divider), and a 50/
2 (35.36 )
line (for the quadrature hybrid).
75
application impedance Z 90
line length line width

[] [mm] [mm]
regular transmission line Z
0
=50 41.560 2.873
Wilkinson power divider Z
pd
=Z
0
2=70.71 42.720 1.500

quadrature hybrid Z
pd
=Z
0
/
2=35.36 40.504 4.923

Tab. 4.1: Widths and lengths of Cu microstrip lines on a FR4 substrate at 1.5
GHz (substrate thickness d
s
=1500 m,
r
=4.3, line thickness 25 m, Cu
conductivity 5.9610
7
1
m
1
, loss tangent 0.012).
4.3.3 Design and Simulation Results of the Power Divider
An important element in multi-port circuits is the power divider. The theory of the
Wilkinson power divider is based on even and odd mode analysis. In fact, this theory
shows how the the equal power split of -3 dB from port 1 to port 2 and from port 1 to
port 3 can be achieved having all the ports matched [112] while the phases are equal
at both output ports
LO (1)
2 3
100
resistor
/4-line
(70.71 )
/4-line
(70.71 )
50 -line
(a) Schematic
3
2
1
(b) Photograph
Fig. 4.5: The dimensions and geometry of the power divider.
Fig. 4.5 shows the layout of the designed, fabricated, and measured Wilkinson power
divider in its simplest version with an equal amplitude, two way split, and a single
stage. The arms are quarter-wave transformers of impedance
2 Z
0
. As a power
splitter, the Wilkinson power divider works as follows (note that when reversed, the
Wilkinson power divider becomes a power combiner). When a signal enters port 1,
it splits into equal amplitude and equal phase signals at output ports 2 and 3. Since
each end of the 100 resistor between port 2 and port 3 is at the same potential,
no current ows through it, and therefore, the resistor is decoupled from the input.
The two output port terminations will add in parallel at the input, so they must each
be transformed to 2 Z
0
each at the input port to combine to Z
0
. The quarter-wave
transformers in each leg accomplish this; without the quarter-wave transformers, the
76
combined impedance of the two outputs at port 1 would be Z
0
/2. The characteristic
impedance of the quarter-wave lines must be equal to
2 Z
0
so that the input is
matched when ports 2 and 3 are terminated with Z
0
. The bandwidth of the Wilkinson
power divider can be increased by adding more bows [111].
The S-parameter simulation results of the Wilkinson power divider are given in Fig.
4.6. At the center frequency of 1.5 GHz, the return loss is above 50 dB and the isolation
of port 2 and port 3 is larger than 40 dB. For the transmission, the theoretical power
split of -3 dB is found at the center frequency which drops to -3.5 dB at 0.5 GHz and
2.5 GHz. The phase shift in Fig. 4.6(b) is due to the delay caused by the /4-line plus
an extra phase shift from the connecting 50 lines.
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
S
1
1
,

S
2
3

[
d
B
]
S
1
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S11
S23
(a) Transmission S12, return loss S11, and isola-
tion S23
180
90
0
-90
-180
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
(b) Phase shift S12 from port 1 to port 2 (phase
shift S13 is identical)
Fig. 4.6: S-parameter simulation results of the 1.5 GHz power divider.
4.3.4 Design and Simulation Results of the Quadrature Hybrid
The quadrature hybrid, or branchline coupler (as shown in Fig. 4.7), is the simplest
type of quadrature coupler, since the circuitry is entirely planar. This element is the
other basic building block in the design of broadband multi-port circuits. As for the
Wilkinson power divider, its bandwidth can be increased by adding more sections (or
side arms) [111]. However, the tradeo for bandwidth is an additional loss and a
larger size of the overall structure. Using ideal transmission line impedances provides
an equal power split of -3 dB at the center frequency.
The designed, simulated, fabricated, and measured ideal single box branchline coupler
is shown in Fig. 4.7. Each transmission line is a quarter wavelength long. However,
3/4, 5/4 or 7/4 wavelengths (etc.) can also be used on each arm if required by the
circuit layout (the tradeo is a decreased bandwidth). A signal entering the top left
77
1
3
50
line
2
4
/4-line
(35.36 )
/4-line
(50 )
(a) Schematic
1 2
3 4
(b) Photograph
Fig. 4.7: The dimensions and geometry of the quadrature hybrid.
port (port 1 in Fig. 4.7) is split into two quadrature signals on the right (port 2
and port 3), with the remaining port 4 fully isolated from the input port at the center
frequency. Remember that the lower output port (port 3) has the most negative trans-
mission phase since it has the farthest path to travel. Using the ideal transmission line
impedances shown above provides an equal power split of -3 dB at the center frequency.
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
0
-3
-6
-9
S
1
1
,

S
1
4

[
d
B
]
S
1
2
,

S
1
3

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S13
S11
S14
(a) Transmission S12 and S13, return loss S11,
and isolation S14
180
90
0
-90
-180
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S13
S12-S13
(b) Absolute phases S12 and S13, and the phase
dierence between port 2 to port 3 (S12-S13)
Fig. 4.8: S-parameter simulation results of the 1.5 GHz quadrature hybrid.
The S-parameter simulation results of this quadrature hybrid are given in Fig. 4.8.
At the center frequency of 1.5 GHz, the return loss is above 30 dB and the isolation
between port 1 and port 4 is larger than 50 dB. For the straight transmission from port
1 to port 2 (S
12
), the theoretical power split of -3 dB is found at the center frequency
with a 1-dB bandwidth of approximately 500 MHz. The second transmission from
port 1 to port 3 (S
13
) has its -3 dB maximum at a slightly lower frequency and shows
a slightly higher 1 dB bandwidth of approximately 700 MHz. The absolute phase
shifts (S
12
and S
13
) in Fig. 4.8(b) are due to the delay caused by the /4-line plus an
extra phase shift from the connecting 50 lines. Their phase dierence (S
12
S
13
) is
78
shown with a solid line and has its targeted 90
between 1.4 GHz and 1.75 GHz.

4.3.5 Simulation and Measurement Results of SP1500
After the single components (the quadrature hybrid and the power divider) are success-
fully simulated and the targeted results are achieved, they can be arranged according
to the dierent schemes shown in Fig. 4.2. Because of its simplicity, and the fact that
an additional delay line can be avoided, the arrangement in a six-port interferometer
(SP1500) as depicted in Fig. 4.2(c) has been chosen for simulation and fabrication.
LO (1)
RF (2) 7
3
4 5
6
26.416 mm
Fig. 4.9: Momentum layout with dimensions of SP1500.
Fig. 4.9 shows the geometry and dimensions of SP1500. The 35.36 /4 arm of the
quadrature hybrid is 26.416 mm long. It is interesting to note that the nal relative
phase dierences at output ports 3 through 6 are independent of the length of the
50 transmission lines that connect the components. To achieve this, the power di-
vider and the quadrature hybrid in the middle need to be centered and symmetric.
The isolated port 7 is unused in all applications and terminated with an external 50
resistor. This six-port interferometer has been fabricated on FR4 substrate with
a standard lithographic process. The accuracy of the transmission lines is 10 m.
This uncertainty leads to only a minor imperceptible change in the S-parameters.
In the following, the simulated (dashed line) and measured (solid line) S-parameter
results will be presented. All measurement results show very good agreement with
the simulation results. The notation for the S-parameters is S
xy
, where x refers to
port 1 and y refers to port 2 of the two-port measurement (this is also valid for the
79
S-parameter simulation results). Transmission loss, return loss, and isolation will have
negative dB values in the graphs. In the text, they will be referred to as positive
numbers. This is the same notation that is used in Chap. 3.
Matching at Input Ports
Fig. 4.10 shows the simulated and measured return loss of SP1500. The return loss
is of interest at the two input ports, the LO port 1 and the RF port 2. Fig. 4.10(a)
shows the matching at the LO input port 1 of the power divider. The simulation and
measurement results are in agreement and correspond to the simulation results of the
single power divider from Fig. 4.6(a). The measured return loss S
11
is above 20 dB
between 1.45 GHz and 1.65 GHz, and above 10 dB between 1.3 GHz and 2 GHz. Fig.
4.10(b) shows the matching at the RF input port 2 of the quadrature hybrid. Again,
simulation and measurement results correspond to the simulation results of the single
quadrature hybrid from Fig. 4.8(a). However, the measured values are slightly shifted
towards higher frequencies. The measured return loss S
22
is above 20 dB between 1.45
GHz and 1.65 GHz and above 10 dB between 1.3 GHz and 1.8 GHz. One can see
that the input port of the power divider (port 1) shows slightly better matching. In a
typical receiver application it is advantageous to use the input port that has the lower
return loss as the RF port.
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
1

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(a) At the LO input port 1 (power divider)
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
2
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(b) At the RF input port 2 (quadrature hybrid)
Fig. 4.10: Simulated and measured return loss at the input ports of SP1500.
Isolation
The two input ports and the unused port 7 need to be well isolated so as to avoid
wasting power. Fig. 4.11(a) shows an isolation of greater 20 dB from 1.4 GHz through
80
1.65 GHz between the LO port and the RF port. The isolation stays greater than 15
dB for frequencies between 1 GHz and 2.5 GHz. Again, there is a good agreement
between the simulation and the measurement. Due to the symmetry of the structure,
the isolation from LO port to port 7 is identical. The isolation between the RF input
port and the unused port is mainly determined by the quadrature hybrid (see Fig.
4.8a) the isolation is larger than 20 dB between 1.4 GHz and 1.65 GHz, and larger
than 10 dB between 1.25 GHz and 1.75 GHz.
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(a) From the LO port to the RF port
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
2
7

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(b) From the RF port to port 7
Fig. 4.11: Simulated and measured isolation of SP1500.
Transmission
The purpose of the six-port circuit is to transfer power from the input to the output
port without any loss. However, due to the fact that power needs to be divided and
transfered equally to four dierent output ports, the signal is attenuated according to
the mechanisms described in Chap. 4.2.1.
Fig. 4.1 indicated earlier (when excluding other losses) that the signals from both
input ports, LO and RF, are attenuated by 6 dB at the output ports 3 through 6.
When looking at the simulation and measurement results of Fig. 4.12, one can see
that measurement results show an attenuation of approximately 7 dB. This 1 dB
higher loss is due to mismatch, substrate losses, and radiation. The transmission loss
from the LO port to port 3 is 7 dB (Fig. 4.12(a)), and 7.5 dB from the RF port
(Fig. 4.12(b)). As one can see, it is challenging to achieve a high bandwidth in this
parameter. For the LO signal, the transmission loss stays around 7 dB from 1.5 GHz
to 1.8 GHz but drops abruptly outside of this range. For the RF signal, this behavior
is even more exaggerated. Good transmission is found only at a 200 MHz bandwidth
around 1.5 GHz.
81
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
3

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(a) From the LO port to port 3
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
2
3

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
measured
simulated
(b) From the RF port to port 3
Fig. 4.12: Simulated and measured transmission of SP1500 from the LO and RF
ports to port 3.
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
3
,
S
1
4
,
S
1
5
,
S
1
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) From the LO port 1
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
2
3
,
S
2
4
,
S
2
5
,
S
2
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) From the RF port 2
Fig. 4.13: Measured transmission of SP1500 from the LO and RF ports to all output
ports.
Fig. 4.13 shows the transmission from the LO input port and the RF input port to all
output ports. Due to the symmetry of the structure, there are two pairs with equal
transmission originating from the LO input port (Fig. 4.13(a)). The outer transmis-
sions S
13
and S
16
(as well as the inner transmissions S
23
and S
26
) are equal. The inner
transmissions show a slightly smaller frequency dependency with an attenuation above
8 dB from 0.7 GHz to 2.2 GHz. As the structure is not symmtric for the signals from
the RF port, there are four dierent transmission curves S
2y
(Fig. 4.13(b)). In addition,
the frequency dependency is much stronger with an approximate transmission loss of
7 dB at 1.55 GHz for all curves.
82
Phase Shifts
To achieve the best possible reception quality, the phase dierence at the output ports
is the second most important specication for a multi-port receiver. We have seen that
the design goals is an uniform phase shift between LO and RF signals in multiples of
90
at output ports 3 through 6.

180
0
-180
-360
-540
-720
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
(a) From the LO port to port 3 (measured)
-180
-360
-540
-720
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S13 measured
S13 simulated
S23 measured
S23 simulated
(b) From the LO and RF port to port 3
Fig. 4.14: Simulated and measured absolute phase shifts between the LO and RF
ports and port 3. Note that the original phase transition in (a) from
-180
to +180
has been removed for better illustration and easier expla-

nation.
In all following phase relation graphs, the simulated and measured phases will be
drawn as explained in Fig. 4.14(a). For a clearer illustration, the phases that vary
between -180
and +180
are transformed to achieve a single continuous line. Fig.

4.14(a) shows the absolute measured phase shift from the LO input port 1 to the out-
put port 3. This includes all phase shifts: the signal leads as well as the transmission
lines between the hybrids and the power divider. Fig. 4.14(b) shows the simulated
and measured absolute phases between the LO port and port 3, and between the RF
port and port 3 with the same scheme. Simulation and measurement show good agree-
ment at the center frequency around 1.5 GHz, but vary greatly at other frequencies.
However, the aimed 90
phase dierence between the LO and RF signal at port 3 is

achieved. We will see in Chap. 5 that an exact phase dierence is not a prerequisite
for a functional multi-port interferometer. In fact, the intrinsic need for calibration
of multi-port interferometers removes this phase imbalance. However, for broadband
reception, the phase relations between the output ports must be maintained over the
designated frequency range.
As discussed earlier, the symmetry of the six-port structure leads to two pairs of equal
phase shifts for signals that originate from the LO port. These two pairs can be seen
83
in Fig. 4.15(a). At the center frequency of 1.5 GHz, the designated 90
phase shift is
fullled well (as marked with the arrow). Furthermore, the parallel characteristics of
the lines go from approximately 1.25 GHz to 1.75 GHz. The fact that the two pairs of
lines do not transect each other or have equal values at a certain frequency will allow
operation over the whole frequency range from 0.5 GHz through 2.5 GHz. However,
this requirement fails when looking at the phase relations for signals that originate
from the RF port. Phase shifts at two dierent output ports become the same at
1.075 GHz which results in the same phase information at these ports. They become
indistinguishable, and it is not possible to calibrate the six-port at this frequency.
Besides the phase perspective, the attenuation also drops steeply at this frequency.
This is another reason for the six-port to fail operation at this frequency (see Fig.
4.13).
-180
-360
-540
-720
-900
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) From the LO port to all output ports
-180
-360
-540
-720
-900
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) From the RF port to all output ports
Fig. 4.15: Measured phase shifts between LO and RF input ports and all output
ports. The 90
phase dierence between port 3 and port 4 (as well as port

6 and port 5) at the center frequency of 1.5 GHz is marked.
While Fig. 4.15 shows the absolute phase shifts at the output ports, Fig. 4.16 illus-
trates the phase dierence between the LO and RF signals at all output ports. This
allows for a better understanding of how the six-port actually functions. We have
seen in Chap. 2 that the multi-port theory demands superpositions of the LO and RF
signals under dierent phase angles. When looking at Fig. 4.16(a), we can see how
the designated phase shifts in increments of 90
agree well at the center frequency of

1.5 GHz. Fig. 4.16(b) demonstrates an even better picture of the phase relations as
all phase dierences are now referred to port 3 according to
i
=
(S
1i
) (S
2i
)
(S
13
) (S
23
)
. (4.6)
It can now be clearly seen, how the phase dierences are maintained over this frequency.
Phase imbalances become stronger when moving away from the center frequency of
84
4.4 Analysis of the 2 GHz to 25 GHz Six-Port Interferometer (SP40)
1.5 GHz. As seen earlier, the six-port fails to operate at 1.075 GHz and 2.16 GHz
when the phase information at the two dierent output ports becomes the same. In
this case, the phase dierence between the LO and RF signal becomes the same at
port 4 and port 5 at 1.1 GHz, as well as at port 4 and port 6 at 2.2 GHz. However,
the theory of multi-port receivers has shown that 3 dierent phases are enough for
calibration. In this case of critical frequencies, the six-port is reduced to a ve-port.
180
0
-180
-360
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
(a) Absolute dierence
0
-90
-180
-270
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
(b) Relative dierence (normalized with respect
to port 3)
Fig. 4.16: Measured phase dierences between the LO and RF input signals at all
output ports.
4.4 Analysis of the 2 GHz to 25 GHz Six-Port
Interferometer (SP40)
Wilkinson power divider quadrature hybrids power detectors
LO
RF
Fig. 4.17: Photograph of SP40 interferometer.
The second six-port interferometer (SP40) that allows an operation from 2 GHz to 25
GHz is composed of commercial components. However, the basic structure is the one
of Fig. 4.2(c). This six-port (as illustrated in Fig. 4.17) consists of extreme broadband
85
components: one Wilkinson power divider and three quadrature hybrids. S-parameter
measurement results will be presented in this section.
4.4.1 Guidelines for Broadband Power Divider Design
A broadband multi-port receiver design requires single broadband components. This
can be achieved by additional /4-bows in the Wilkinson power divider, each corre-
sponding to a dierent frequency range. Adding these bows increases the bandwidth
at the cost of transmission loss. The additional loss is due to the longer lines and
resistors that connect the bows between the path to port 2 and the path to port 3. A
detailed design description of a multiple bow power divider is given in elsewhere [111].
4.4.2 Measurement Results of a Broadband Power Divider
The bandwidth of a power divider is given by the frequency range of equal power split.
In addition, the phase shift between the input port and the two output ports should
be equal and smooth over the frequency range. The best theoretical power split of a
non-resistive power divider is -3 dB from the input port to both output ports (i.e. no
power is lost and the power is equally distributed at the output ports).
0
-10
-20
-30
5 10 15 20 25
0
-3
-6
-9
S
1
1
,

S
2
3

[
d
B
]
S
1
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S11
S23
(a) Return loss, transmission, and isolation
180
90
0
-90
-180
25 20 15 10 5 1
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
(b) Phase shift from port 1 to port 2 and 3
Fig. 4.18: S-parameter measurement result of the broadband (2 GHz through 25
GHz) power divider.
Fig. 4.18 shows S-parameter measurement results of the MITEQ D0289 power divider
that have an extremely broadband response. In Fig. 4.18(a), the transmission loss
from the input port to the output port is between 3.5 dB, and 4 dB over the entire
frequency range from 2 GHz to 25 GHz. Due to symmetry, the path that leads to
86
port 2 equals the path that leads to port 3 (S
12
=S
13
). The return loss S
11
is below 17
dB from 10 GHz to 25 GHz and decreases towards smaller frequencies. However, it is
still above 10 dB even at smaller frequencies. The isolation between the two output
ports, S
23
, is of minor importance for the six-port interferometer. The design of the
interferometer is such that the RF port is isolated against the LO port and only a small
amount of power will get from the RF port to the LO port. The isolation is above
19 dB from 10 GHz to 25 GHz and decreases steeply towards smaller frequencies, up
to 6 dB at 2 GHz. Fig. 4.18(b) shows the smooth run of the absolute phase from the
input port to both output ports 2 and 3.
4.4.3 Guidelines for Broadband Quadrature Hybrid Design
Similar to the design of the power divider in Chap. 4.4.1, the bandwidth of a quadrature
hybrid is increased by adding /4-arms to the structure. A detailed design description
is given elsewhere [111].
4.4.4 Measurement Results of a Broadband Quadrature Hybrid
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
25 20 15 10 5 1
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
S
1
1
,

S
1
4

[
d
B
]
S
1
2
,

S
1
3

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S13
S11
S14
(a) Return loss, transmission, and isolation
180
90
0
-90
-180
5 10 15 20 25
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S13
S12-S13
(b) Phase shift from port 1 to port 2 and 3, and
phase dierence between port 2 and port 3
Fig. 4.19: S-parameter measurement result of the broadband (2 GHz through 25
GHz) quadrature hybrid .
Fig. 4.19 shows the measurement results of a MCLI HB23 quadrature hybrid. The
transmission loss from port 1 to port 2 (S
12
) is between 3 dB to 5 dB from 3 GHz
to 25 GHz (Fig. 4.19(a)). Almost equal power splitting is achieved at this frequency
range. Towards 2 GHz, more power is transported to port 2 and less power gets to
port 3 (S
13
). Good matching is achieved over the entire frequency range from 2 GHz to
25 GHz; the return loss (S
11
) is above 18 dB. The isolation S
14
is another important
parameter. It is above 23 dB from 9 GHz to 25 GHz and decreases towards lower
87
frequency. However, it stays above 14 dB over the entire frequency range. The phase
behavior is plotted in Fig. 4.19(b). A smooth run of the absolute phases from port
1 to port 2 and 3 is achieved. The phase dierence between the output port is very
close to the theoretical 90
over the entire frequency range. This is an important

feature when looking at the design of the six-port interferometer. The behavior of
the phase is also very important for the understanding of the six-port and all other
multi-port interferometers. The single components do not need to hold the absolute
phase constant, but they need to have a smooth and constant phase dierence at the
output ports. In the case of the hybrid, the phase dierence between the output ports
needs to be constant.
4.4.5 Measurement Results of the SP40
Finally, the power divider and quadrature hybrid are connected with semi rigid lines
and K-connectors and become a six-port interferometer (Fig. 4.2(c) and Fig. 4.17). In
the following, the S-parameter measurement results will be presented.
Matching and Isolation
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
5 10 15 20 25
S
1
1
,

S
2
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S11
S22
(a) Return loss at port 1 and port 2
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
5 10 15 20 25
S
1
2
,

S
2
7

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S27
(b) Isolation between port 2 and port 1, and port
2 and port 7 (unused)
Fig. 4.20: Measured return loss at the input ports (1,2) and isolation of SP40.
First, good matching needs to be achieved at the LO and RF input ports. Fig. 4.20
shows the return loss at the LO port (S
11
) and the RF port (S
22
). It can be seen
that the overall matching corresponds to that of the single components, the power
divider, and the quadrature hybrid. The power divider is connected at the LO port.
Comparing Fig. 4.18(a) with Fig. 4.20(a) shows stronger scattering due to reections.
This behavior is also found at the RF port where the quadrature hybrid is connected
as well as in the transmission that will follow in the next section. The return loss at the
88
LO port is above 10 dB from 2 GHz through 25 GHz while at the RF port, the return
loss is better over the entire frequency range (above 17 dB). An isolation greater than
23 dB is found over the entire frequency range (Fig. 4.20(a)). The isolation between
the RF input port 2 and the unused isolated port 7 (S
27
) is important as all power
that gets to port 7 is wasted in a 50 termination. One can see that this isolation
gets below 20 dB only at frequencies between 2 GHz and 9 GHz (down to 14 dB at 3
GHz).
Transmission
Concerning power transfer, the transmission from the input ports to the output ports
is the most important parameter. The transmission S
1i
should be kept close to the
theoretical 6 dB transmission loss that is the sum of the 3 dB transmission loss at the
power divider and the 3 dB loss at the quadrature hybrid. The interconnects should
be as short as possible to avoid additional loss.
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
5 10 15 20 25
S
1
3
,

S
1
4
,

S
1
5
,

S
1
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) From the LO port to port 3 through 6
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
5 10 15 20 25
S
2
3
,

S
2
4
,

S
2
5
,

S
2
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) From the RF port to port 3 through 6
Fig. 4.21: Measured transmission from the input ports (1,2) to the output ports (3
through 6) of SP40.
Fig. 4.21(a) shows that a relatively good transmission between 6.5 dB and 8.5 dB from
the LO input port to any output port is achieved from 3 GHz to 25 GHz. The splitting
behavior at lower frequencies is due to the quadrature hybrid (see Fig. 4.19(a)). Also,
stronger scattering is found compared to the single components measurement.
The transmission from the RF port to any output port is similar to that from the LO
port (Fig. 4.21(b)). Good power distribution is found at frequencies between 3 GHz
and 25 GHz while frequencies below 3 GHz do not show equal power split. However,
the transmission loss is between 6 dB and 8.5 dB over the frequency range of interest.
89
Phase Shifts
Besides equal power distribution at the output ports with low signal attenuation, the
phase dierence at the output ports must also support the large frequency range. For a
broadband design, this phase dierence between the RF and LO signal at the output
ports needs to have parallel characteristics. Due to the extreme bandwidth from 2
GHz through 25 GHz, a meaningful illustration of the phase relations is needed.
180
90
0
-90
-180
5 10 15 20 25
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) From the LO port to port 3 through 6
0
-2500
-5000
5 10 15 20 25
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) From the RF port to port 3 through 6
Fig. 4.22: Measured phase shifts from input ports (1,2) to the output ports 3 through
6 of SP40. Due to its large bandwidth, the single lines can hardly be
distinguished, even in the non-zig-zag fashion (b).
Fig. 4.22(a) shows the absolute phases between LO input port 1 and the output ports
3 through 6. In this illustration, the phase varies between +180
and -180
. It can be
seen that two equal pairs of lines are measured at frequencies up to approximately 15
GHz . At higher frequencies, slightly dierent phases are measured at all output ports.
The absolute phases of the signals that originate from the RF input port in Fig. 4.22(b)
are depicted with straight lines according to the scheme from Fig. 4.14. It can be seen
that the absolute phases show a smooth run over the entire frequency range while S
23
and S
25
lie on top of each other.
As discussed earlier, the absolute phases from the input ports to the output ports
are of minor interest. The important parameter is the phase dierence between the
RF and LO signal at the output ports. These phase dierences are depicted in Fig.
4.23. In the illustration of the absolute phase dierences at the output ports in Fig.
4.23(a), the dierence between the single lines is of interest. This dierence is the
relative phase dierence. The theoretical value of a six-port interferometer is 90
.
This relative phase dierence can be seen very well when normalized with respect to
port 3. The results are shown in Fig. 4.23(b). It can be seen that the relative phases
90
4.5 The Recongurable MEMS-Based Multi-Band Front-End
have the theoretical 90
at 1 GHz. The theoretical 180
at port 4 is well maintained

over the entire frequency range. Also, the relative phases at port 5 and port 6 show
a parallel run. The relative drop of the phase of the two pairs, port 3 and 4 and
port 5 and 6, is due to the slightly dierent lengths of the semi rigid leads from the
power divider to the quadrature hybrid as depicted in Fig. 4.17. The dierent lengths
result in a delay that is dependent on the frequency. We will see that the six-port
interferometer can still be calibrated over the entire frequency range.
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
25 20 15 10 5 1
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
(a) Absolute phase dierence
0
-90
-180
-270
25 20 15 10 5 1
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
(b) Relative phase dierence (normalized with
respect to port 3)
Fig. 4.23: Measured phase dierences between input signals (LO and RF) at the
output ports 3 through 6 of SP40. The designated 90
phase dierence
becomes better towards lower frequencies.
4.5 The Recongurable MEMS-Based Multi-Band
Front-End
This chapter gives a short introduction to targeted applications of dierent RF MEMS
including the routing structures, and new elements such as resonators and low loss
transmission lines.
4.5.1 Targeted Applications of RF MEMS in Receiver Front-Ends
Fig. 4.24 shows an application scenario of RF MEMS in recongurable and in regular
receiver front-ends. The illustration shows a six-port receiver including power detec-
tors (PD), an ADC, a micro controller, and an FPGA. The use of RF MEMS also
leads to great improvements in conventional RF front-ends. The evaluation in Chap.
4.5.3 will focus on signal routing RF MEMS.
91
FPGA
A/D
converter
micro
controller
data
I
(
t
)
,

Q
(
t
)
d
e
m
o
d
u
-
l
a
t
i
o
n
d
i
g
i
t
a
l
f
i
l
t
e
r
i
n
g
50
90
o
90
o
90
o
power
divider
VCO
six-port
LNA
PD
PD
PD
PD
power detector
PD
Fig. 4.24: Application scenario for dierent RF MEMS including switches, high-Q
lters, and low-loss transmission lines in a six-port receiver architecture.
The processes that are used to fabricate the RF MEMS switches and the RF cross
can be slightly modied to produce deeply etched structures (dry chemical etching in
a LAM reactor). This leads to low loss transmission lines and cavity resonators. A
detailed description of their fabrication process and the measurement results is given
in [14]. These CPW transmission lines help to further decrease transmission loss and
would typically be applied in the relatively long lines of the interconnects of the single
elements in six-port interferometers. From an economic point of view, it is obvious
that a fabrication of a six-port interferometer on a Si wafer would only make sense for
higher frequencies due to the long /4 lines. Bandpass resonators or lters can be used
directly behind the antenna or in large lter banks where the signal is switched with
an SPDT or higher order switch. The depicted single shunt airbridge switch refers
to the possibility of creating phase shifts with a switchable (digital) capacity. This
has been carefully investigated in an application of a steerable antenna at 24 GHz [113].
The concept of using a MEMS capacitance for phase shifting has not been applied to
the broadband six-port front-end design. The reason for this is that the membrane
would become too large to achieve a meaningful change of the capacitance at low fre-
quencies around 2 GHz. Also, the use of SPDT structures in the quadrature hybrid
itself has been considered but not further investigated. One can think of two SPDT
switches in the quarter wavelength arms of the quadrature hybrid (or in the bows of
the power divider) to switch the signal over an additional delay line with a length that
depends on the operation frequency. However, the total number of SPDT switches
92
in such a structure (and its nal size) is disadvantageous in comparison to simply
route the signals through two separate six-port interferometers. Obviously, the two
interferometers can then be designed for dierent frequency ranges. This application
is indicated with the MEMS at the lower right of Fig. 4.24 and will be thoroughly in-
vestigated in the following. In addition to signal routing in the RF front-end, MEMS
resonators are a promising alternative for high Q lters [14][131] and low loss trans-
mission lines [132].
4.5.2 The MEMS-Based Recongurable Six-Port Front-End
SP1500 SP40
VCO1 VCO2
PA
D
PA
LNA LNA
ADC
LNA
PD
A DAC
SPDT
CROSS
MEMS
Fig. 4.25: The recongurable multi-band six-port receiver front-end under investi-
gation.
Fig. 4.25 shows the recongurable multi-band six-port receiver front-end which will
be characterized in Chap. 4.5.3. SP1500 has a center frequency of 1.5 GHz; SP40
covers the frequency range from 2 GHz to 25 GHz. RF MEMS SPDT switches are
used to route the signals from the two six-port interferometers to one set of power
detectors. In addition, an SPDT switch is applied as an RX/TX antenna switch.
Behind each power detector, an LNA is used to amplify the signal before AD con-
version. The algorithms for IQ data recovery that takes place in the digital domain
are not included in this picture. Chap. 5 will consider all aspects of the digital domain.
The transmitter itself is not looked at in detail. A standard transmitter is depicted
93
with an digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a lter, an amplier, and a mixer for
up-conversion. The mixer is fed by a LO signal from a common voltage controlled
oscillator (VCO). A power amplier (PA) is used to amplify the signal before it gets
to the air interface. The RF MEMS SPDT from Chap. 3.6.3 can be used directly as
an RX/TX switch. However, the switch time is limited to 12 s for activation and
28 s for release as discussed in Chap. 3.7.1. The block level design of the complete
SP1500 receiver is equivalent to that of the SP40 receiver.
4.5.3 Results of the MEMS-Based Recongurable Six-Port
Front-End
The system level simulation in this chapter is performed with Agilent ADS. Recorded S-
parameter measurement results are used for the system level simulation. This includes
both six-ports, as well as the RF MEMS SPDT switches and the RF cross. Prior to
the simulation, the S-parameter measurement results from two-port measurements of
both six-port interferometers as well as the RF MEMS SPDT switch and RF cross
are converted to three-port (s3p) and six-port (s6p) les with MATLAB according to
the touchstone format. These blocks can then be inserted directly on system level
and simulated. The simulation considers all scattering eects of the six-ports and
RF MEMS but neglects the connecting lines. This is a realistic assumption as the
measurement of all structures already includes some sort of connecting line. The design
of the nal front-end can be created in such a way as to avoid additional lines. Also
note that, transitions from micro-strip to CPW are not included in the simulations.
The actual measured S-parameter results from Chap. 4.3.5 and Chap. 4.4.5 are used
for both six-ports. The results from Chap. 3.6.3 and Chap. 3.6.4 are used for the RF
MEMS SPDT and RF cross. The MEMS SPDT RX/TX switch between BPF and
LNA will be discussed separately. The performance of this switch is the direct result
of the RF MEMS SPDT switch.
Signal Routed Through SP1500
Fig. 4.26 show the ADS block diagram including both six-ports, the RF MEMS SPDT
switches, and the RF cross. The position of the toggle switches in the SPDTs is such
that the signal is routed through SP1500 to output ports 3 through 6. In the block
diagram, the input ports of the broadband six-port (SP40) that covers the frequency
range from 2 GHz to 25 GHz are marked 7 for LO and 8 for RF signal.
94
6
5
4
3
LO
RF LO
RF
sixport_20GHz_item
X2
SP40

7
8
sixport_1500MHz_item
X1
S
P
1
5
0
0

1
2
S_Param
SP1
Step=5 MHz
Stop=2.50 GHz
Start=0.5 GHz
S-PARAMETERS
Term
Term8
Z=50 Ohm
Num=8
Term
Term7
Z=50 Ohm
Num=7
Term
Term2
Z=50 Ohm
Num=2
Term
Term1
Z=50 Ohm
Num=1
Term
Term3
Z=50 Ohm
Num=3
Term
Term4
Z=50 Ohm
Num=4
Term
Term5
Z=50 Ohm
Num=5
Term
Term6
Z=50 Ohm
Num=6
spdt13
X14
2
3 1
spdt13
X13
2
3 1
spdt13
X12
2
3 1
rfcross
X11
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X9
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X10
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X8
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X7
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X6
3
4
2
1
spdt13
X5
2
3 1
Fig. 4.26: The recongurable multi-band receiver front-end when the signals routed
through SP1500.
Fig. 4.27)(a) shows the matching at the LO port and the RF port of SP1500. It can
be seen that the results are comparable to those from Fig. 4.10 that do not have the
MEMS at the output ports. The return loss is larger than 30 dB at the center fre-
quency. Fig. 4.27(b) shows all relevant isolations. It can be seen that both input ports
of SP40 become well isolated by the use of the SPDTs. The isolation is greater than
40 dB from 0.5 GHz to 2.5 GHz. Again, the isolation between the LO port and the
RF port of SP1500 is similar to the results from the measurement without the MEMS.
The isolation between the input ports of SP40 and the output ports 3 through 6 can
be seen in Fig. 4.27. Fig. 4.27(a) shows the isolation of LO port 7 which is greater
than 40 dB for frequencies up to 2.2 GHz. The isolation of the RF port 8 of SP40
is comparable it stays greater than 40 dB for all frequencies up to 2.2 GHz (Fig.
4.27(b)).
95
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
1
,

S
2
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S11
S22
(a) Return loss at LO port 1 and RF port 2
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
2
,
S
1
7
,
S
2
7
,
S
1
8
,
S
2
8

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S12
S17
S18
S27
S28
(b) Isolation between port 1 and port 2, and iso-
lation to the input ports of SP2
Fig. 4.27: Return loss at the input ports (1,2) and relevant isolation of the multi-
band front-end when signals are routed through SP1500.
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
7
3
,
S
7
4
,
S
7
5
,
S
7
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S73
S74
S75
S76
(a) Isolation of LO port 7
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
8
3
,
S
8
4
,
S
8
5
,
S
8
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S83
S84
S85
S86
(b) Isolation of RF port 8
Fig. 4.28: Isolation of the input ports (7,8) of SP40 and output ports (3 through 6)
when signals are routed through SP1500.
Transmission
Fig. 4.29 shows the transmission of the LO signal from input port 1 (Fig. 4.29(a))
and the RF signal from input port 2 (Fig. 4.29(b)) of SP1500 to the output ports
3 through 6. The transmission is insignicantly inuenced by the application of the
MEMS. The curves show a comparable behavior to the results from Fig. 4.13 with an
additional loss from the MEMS. However, it can be seen that the symmetry (two pairs
of equal curves) is no longer well pronounced for the signals from the LO port. The
transmission loss from the LO port is now between 6.5 dB and 8 dB, and between 7
dB and 9 dB from the RF port.
96
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
1
3
,
S
1
4
,
S
1
5
,
S
1
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) From LO port 1
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
S
2
3
,
S
2
4
,
S
2
5
,
S
2
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) From RF port 2
Fig. 4.29: Transmission from the input ports (1,2) of SP1500 to the output ports
(3 through 6) when signals are routed through SP1500.
Phase Relations
180
0
-180
-360
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
0
-90
-180
-270
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
respect to port 3)
Fig. 4.30: Phase dierences from input ports (1,2) of SP1500 to output ports (3
through 6) when signals are routed through SP1500. The designated 90
at the center frequency is marked.

The phase relations at output ports 3 through 6 are plotted in Fig. 4.30 for the case
where the signals are routed through SP1500. Due to the application of the MEMS
at the output ports, the signal travels over an additional delay line which changes
the absolute phase. However, the phase dierence between the LO and RF signal at
the output port is the interesting parameter. In this application, both the LO and
RF signal will travel exactly the same path over the MEMS eld after leaving the
interferometer. In other words, adding any line behind the interferometer will not
change their phase dierence. Of course, this argument only holds if the reection at
97
the output port is small enough, and the reected signal does not interfere with the
incoming signals. The absolute and relative phase (Fig. 4.30(a) and (Fig. 4.30(b)) at
the output ports becomes only slightly modied by the use of the MEMS as the 90
phase dierence is still well pronounced around 1.5 GHz.

Signal Routed Through 2 GHz to 25 GHz Six-Port Circuit
RF
RF
6
5
4
3
LO
LO
sixport_20GHz_item
X2
SP40

7
8
sixport_1500MHz_item
X1
S
P
1
5
0
0

1
2
spdt12
X15
2
1 3
spdt12
X14
2
1 3
spdt12
X13
2
1 3
spdt12
X12
2
1 3
S_Param
SP1
Step=10 MHz
Stop=25.0 GHz
Start=0.5 GHz
S-PARAMETERS
Term
Term8
Z=50 Ohm
Num=8
Term
Term7
Z=50 Ohm
Num=7
Term
Term2
Z=50 Ohm
Num=2
Term
Term1
Z=50 Ohm
Num=1
Term
Term3
Z=50 Ohm
Num=3
Term
Term4
Z=50 Ohm
Num=4
Term
Term5
Z=50 Ohm
Num=5
Term
Term6
Z=50 Ohm
Num=6
rfcross
X11
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X9
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X10
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X8
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X7
3
4
2
1
rfcross
X6
3
4
2
1
Fig. 4.31: The recongurable multi-band receiver front-end when the signals routed
through SP40.
Fig. 4.31 shows the ADS simulation platform including both six-ports, the RF MEMS
SPDT switches, and the RF cross. The position of the toggle switches in the SPDTs
is such that the signal is routed from LO and RF ports 7 and 8 of SP40 to the output
ports 3 through 6.
98
Fig. 4.32(a) shows the insertion loss at the LO and RF input port 7 and 8 of SP40. The
scattering becomes more pronounced with deep peaks when compared to the version
without MEMS (Fig. 4.20). However, the return loss at the LO port (S
77
) is still above
10 dB at lower frequencies and above 13 dB at higher frequencies. Important isolation
values are given in Fig. 4.32(b). The isolation between the RF and LO input port of
SP40 stays above 20 dB over the entire frequency range. Apart from minor peaks that
come down to 10 dB at around 8 GHz, 12 GHz, and 23 GHz, the isolation between
RF and LO input port 7 and 8 of SP40 and the input RF port 2 of SP1500 stays well
above 20 dB.
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
5 10 15 20 25
S
7
7
,

S
8
8

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S77
S88
(a) Return loss at LO port 7 and RF port 8
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
5 10 15 20 25
S
7
8
,
S
7
1
,
S
7
2
,
S
8
1
,
S
8
2

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S78
S71
S72
S81
S82
(b) Isolation between port 7 and port 8, and
their isolation to the input ports of SP1500
Fig. 4.32: Return loss at input ports (7,8) and relevant isolation of the multi-band
front-end when signals are routed through SP40.
Fig. 4.33 shows the isolation between the input ports of SP1500 and the output ports
when the SPDTs connect SP2. It can be seen that apart from minor peaks at the
aforementioned frequencies, the isolation also stays well above 20 dB.
Transmission
The transmission loss of the LO and RF signals that run through SP40 and the MEMS
eld is depicted in Fig. 4.34. It can be seen that the use of the MEMS leads to
an additional scattering of the transmission values as mentioned earlier. Also, the
expected additional attenuation due to the MEMS (approximately 3 dB) can be seen
in both the LO (Fig. 4.34(a)) and the RF signals (Fig. 4.34(a)).
99
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
5 10 15 20 25
S
1
3
,
S
1
4
,
S
1
5
,
S
1
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S13
S14
S15
S16
(a) Isolation of the LO port 1
0
-20
-40
-60
-80
5 10 15 20 25
S
2
3
,
S
2
4
,
S
2
5
,
S
2
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S23
S24
S25
S26
(b) Isolation of the RF port 2
Fig. 4.33: Isolation of input ports (1,2) of SP1500 and output ports (3 through 6)
when signals are routed through SP40.
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
5 10 15 20 25
S
7
3
,
S
7
4
,
S
7
5
,
S
7
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S73
S74
S75
S76
(a) Transmission from LO port 7
0
-3
-6
-9
-12
-15
-18
5 10 15 20 25
S
8
3
,
S
8
4
,
S
8
5
,
S
8
6

[
d
B
]
frequency [GHz]
S83
S84
S85
S86
(b) Transmission from RF port 8
Fig. 4.34: Transmission from the input ports (7,8) of SP40 to the output ports (3
through 6) when signals are routed through SP40.
Phase Relations
Looking at the phase relations of the LO and RF signals when using the SP40 interfer-
ometer (Fig. 4.35), it becomes clear that the six-port can be calibrated over the entire
frequency range and will function properly.
In the graph of the relative phase dierence that is normalized with respect to port 3,
one can see the characteristic two pairs of parallel lines as discussed with Fig. 4.23(b).
The additional scattering due to reections can still be seen but is small enough so
that it does not interfere with other lines. However, at lower frequencies where the
scattering is relatively strong, a broadband operation might not be available.
100
0
-1000
-2000
-3000
25 20 15 10 5 1
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
0
-90
-180
-270
25 20 15 10 5 1
p
h
a
s
e

[
d
e
g
]
frequency [GHz]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
respect to port 3)
Fig. 4.35: Phase dierences from input ports (7,8) of SP40 to the output ports (3
through 6) when signals are routed through SP40.
4.5.4 The RF MEMS SPDT Antenna Switch
The RF MEMS SPDT switch is well described in Chap. 3. Its measurement results are
presented in Chap. 3.6.3. Its S-parameters are plotted in Fig. 3.24(b) and Fig. 3.24(d)
for the two dierent routing states of the toggle switches. This SPDT switch can
be directly applied as an RX/TX switch. Compared to PIN diode switches, the RF
MEMS SPDT switch is superior in power handling and decreased loss. A disadvantage
is the slower switching time due to the movement of mechanical parts. The switching
time for RF power is measured in Chap. 3.7.1 and is depicted in Fig. 3.32. The time
for activation is 12 s and the time for release is 28 s.
101
102
5 Performance of the Multi-Band
Six-Port Receiver
In this chapter, the multi-band six-port receiver will be evaluated by appropriate SER
measurements over the frequency range from 1 GHz to 40.0 GHz. The main focus
lies in the empirical proof of the concept of the developed multi-port SDR receiver,
especially its coverage of the large frequency range. Time domain simulation results
at a frequency of 1.5 GHz will be presented in the beginning to explain the basic
properties of the receiver front-end. For these time domain simulation, a fast and
exible C++ based system simulation tool called CppSim was used that includes
the RF path as well as the phase noise of the local oscillator.
5.1 Simulation Environment
5.1.1 Functional Principle of the Simulation Program CppSim
The computer simulation program CppSim is very suitable for the time domain sim-
ulation of the six-port receiver [22]. A short introduction in its functional principle
[115] will be given next.
The ability to represent systems in an object oriented manner allows an elegant frame-
work for their simulation. These facts make C++ the language of choice for maximal
freedom in the development of simulation code for the system under investigation.
The CppSim package removes the drawbacks of plain C++ programming by supply-
ing classes that allows for easy representation of system building blocks such as lters,
ampliers, voltage controlled oscillators (VCO), etc. It also supplies a netlist to C++
conversion utility that enables automatic code generation from a graphical description
using any of the mainstream schematic editor packages. Large systems can easily be
simulated in this manner.
The simulation approach taken with CppSim is to represent blocks in the system based
upon input, state, and output relationships, similar to the mainstream Simulink from
MathWorks. However, unlike Simulink, these relationships do not need to be placed
103
5 Performance of the Multi-Band Six-Port Receiver
in state-space form and conditional loops, rather than vectorized expressions, are sup-
ported. The blocks are represented in an object oriented manner. The simulation code
calculates the overall system behavior by computing the output of each block one at
a time for each sample point in the simulation. This approach has the advantage of
allowing for fast computation, a straightforward description of blocks, and the ability
to easily support multi-rate operation of dierent blocks in the system. The primary
disadvantage of CppSim is that it is limited to architectural investigation only. How-
ever, as we will see, the architectural investigation will model the transmitter and
six-port receiver behavior very well.
5.1.2 Simulation Set Up
The system level block diagram of the simulated transmitter and six-port receiver
is depicted in Fig. 5.1. The blocks are executed in the order from xi0 to xi25
(after running the code in each block, its outputs are updated according to the new
calculated values which are then used as the inputs of the subsequent block). For all
simulations, a sample time of 510
11
s with a total number of 210
7
time steps is
used. The RF frequency of the simulations is 1.5 GHz which is the center frequency
of the six-port described in Chap. 4.3. The symbol rate is 1 MHz, which results in a
data bit rate of 2 MBit/s for a QPSK signal.
In the transmitting path, a voltage controlled oscillator block vco at 100 MHz serves
as the clock signal for the phase locked loop (PLL) transmitter and the IQ samples for
the QPSK modulation. Its reference is set to zero phase noise as the focus of the simu-
lation platform is in the receiver part. The PLL transmitter (transmitter1500MHz)
itself is composed of a phase frequency detector (PFD), a charge pump, a loop lter,
and a divider (not shown). This allows for a very accurate simulation of the PLL
behavior as described in [114]. However, in this simulation, the components in the
transmitter are supposed to be ideal and all phase noise is set to zero. In this way,
the pure, noiseless RF signal has the form of a sine wave with four dierent phases
depending on the QPSK state. Small spikes are generated in the PLL transmitter at
the point where the phase is shifted by modulation. These spikes can later be seen in
the time domain baseband signal. The signal amplitude behind the transmitter is 1
V.
To introduce noise into the system, zero-mean additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN)
is added to the signal in the PLL transmitter. This is done by adding AWGN to
the baseband IQ values that are used to control the phase of the PLL. The noise in
the amplitude is added to the amplitude of the RF signal that comes out of the PLL
transmitter. AWGN is needed for the symbol error rate (SER) simulation that is per-
formed in Chap. 5.2.1. The magnitude of this noise is adjusted with the variance
2
N
.
Before the signal gets to the receiver input, it is attenuated by 50 dB to have a signal
104
5
.
1
S
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
E
n
v
i
r
o
n
m
e
n
t
a
m
p
l
i
t
u
d
e
i
n
t
h
e
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
i
c
r
e
g
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e
d
i
o
d
e
.
out1_adc
out2_adc
out3_adc
out4_adc
val=0
out
xi 0
constan t
vco
vctrl
squareout
sineout
freq=100e6 Hz
kvco=1 Hz/V
xi 1
xi 2
probes
clk
I
fd = 100 [^-1*fc]
Q
xi 3
transmitter1500MHz
q_in
i_in
RF_ou t
clk
var=awgn_channel_gl
nois e
out
xi 4
out i n1
in2
add2
xi 5
a y
gain=gain_rf_gl [dB]
xi 6
val=0
out
xi 7
constan t
var=phnoise_lo_gl
nois e
out
xi 8
xi 9
kvco = 30e6
0
90
180
270 vco_sixport_phase
fc = 1500.000e6
phase
vctrl
a y
gain=gain_lo_gl [dB]
xi10
a y
xi11
a y
xi12
a y
xi13
out in1
in2
add2
xi14
out in1
in2
add2
xi15
out in1
in2
add2
xi16
out in1
in2
add2
xi17
xi18
in out
_sys_power_detecto r
xi19
in out
xi20
in out
xi21
in out
a y
gain=gain_bb_g l
xi22
a y
gain=gain_bb_g l
xi23
a y
gain=gain_bb_gl
xi24
a y
gain=gain_bb_gl
xi25
F
i
g
.
5
.
1
:
B
l
o
c
k
d
i
a
g
r
a
m
o
f
C
p
p
S
i
m
s
i
x
-
p
o
r
t
r
e
c
e
i
v
e
r
s
i
m
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
.
1
0
5
The six-port receiver is realized by a VCO which produces sine wave outputs with
phases 0
, 90
, 180
, and 270
independent of the frequency. The magnitude of the

phase noise is controlled by the parameter phnoise lo gl. The LO frequency of the
receiver runs at 1.5 GHz. Before the LO and RF signals are added, the LO signal is
attenuated by 20 dB. The composed new signal (RF+LO) has the same frequency of
1.5 GHz, but an amplitude that depends on the phase dierence between the LO and
RF signal. This is discussed in detail in Chap. 2 and Chap. 4.
In the quadratic region of the power detector, the voltage level at the output is pro-
portional to the power of the input signal. This power detector is composed of the
diode schottky block that applies the formula out = 10
4
(e
in/0.025
) 1. After
this, the signal is low pass ltered by a standard RC lter with a corner frequency of
2 MHz. Behind the power detectors (sys power detector), the signal is amplied by
60 dB. The sampling of the baseband signal is realized by the trigger functionality
of CppSim which allows for storing the probed samples in an ASCII le. The trigger
frequency is set to 10 MHz which will result in 10 samples per symbol. This ADC
conversion (as well as all amplication and attenuation blocks) do not introduce any
noise into the system.
5.1.3 Simulation Run
A typical simulation run with the subsequent six-port calibration and demodulation
will be discussed in the following. The simulation run takes about 300 s to cover the
system time of 1 ms and produces 10,000 samples. With 10 samples/symbol, this
results in a total of 1,000 symbols.
1
0
1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
i
n
p
h
a
s
e
relative time [s]
1
0
1
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e
relative time [s]
Fig. 5.2: Snapshot of the sent in-phase
(I) and quadrature (Q) se-
quence (f
symb
=1 MHz).
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

o
u
t
p
u
t

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
relative time [s]
port 3
port 4
port 5
port 6
Fig. 5.3: Voltages at the outputs of the
4 baseband ampliers show
noise at the edges.
106
5.1 Simulation Environment
Fig. 5.2 shows a snapshot of the sent time sequence of the in-phase (I) and quadrature
(Q) components with a symbol rate of 1 MHz (no noise present). This IQ source is
used in the PLL transmitter to produce the modulated RF signal. After the simula-
tion of the various blocks (discussed in Chap. 5.1.2), the sampled output voltages of
the four baseband ampliers behind the diode detectors take the form shown in Fig.
5.3. The spikes that were caused by the PLL transmitter can be seen at the edges
between two samples. According to the six-port theory, the I and Q component can
be calculated from these four voltages after calibration. The voltage samples that are
used for the calculation of the I and Q component are taken at the position of 0.8 s
of the symbol duration.
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
inphase component (I)
(0) (1)
(2) (3)
Fig. 5.4: Symbols used for cali-
bration.
1.2
1.1
1
0.9
240 200 160 120 80 40 0
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

o
u
t
p
u
t

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

[
V
]
relative time [s]
(0) (3) (1) (2)
Fig. 5.5: Power levels of the calibration sequence
(see Fig. 5.3 for the legend).
The QPSK symbols (1,1), (-1,1), (1,-1), and (-1,-1) are labeled with numbers from (0)
to (3) as shown in Fig. 5.4. The detector output voltages V
i
that correspond to these
IQ states are depicted in Fig. 5.5. For the calibration sequence in the left part of Fig.
5.5, a symbol time of 40 s (40 times the data symbol time) is used to achieve a good
calibration by averaging over 400 samples. In this graph, the single sample points
are not plotted to dierentiate the line style for the four dierent output ports (see
legend in Fig. 5.3). In addition, these longer symbols can easily be found in the data
and recognized by the calibration algorithm. After the four dierent QPSK states of
the calibration sequence, another (in this case unused) 10 s long calibration sequence
follows before the actual random data samples start at 200 s. (Note that not all of
the 512 symbols of the sequence are shown in Fig. 5.5.)
We have seen in Chap. 2 that three output ports are actually sucient for the calibra-
tion of the multi-port receiver. Chap. 5.2.1 will present a comparison between six-port
and ve-port calibrations of the simulated output powers. The formulas used for the
107
calibration of the multi-port are
I(t) =
n
i=1
a
i
V
i
(5.1)
Q(t) =
n
i=1
a
i
V
i
(5.2)
where n=4 for the six-port calibration and n=3 for the four-port calibration. With
the four symbols and the 16 voltages from the four dierent ports, the above system
of linear equations can be solved by inversion of the voltage matrix and multiplication
by the sent IQ states. This will result in the calibration coecients, a
i
and b
i
, that
can be used to calculate the IQ states of the random symbols according to Eqn. 5.1.
An algorithm implemented in MATLAB was used for the calculation of the calibration
coecients and for the subsequent calculation of the IQ values.
A 20 s long section of the demodulated IQ values from the CppSim simulation is
shown in Fig. 5.6. Some AWGN was added to the channel for illustrative purposes.
Again, small spikes are formed at the edges (in between two dierent symbols) by the
PLL of the transmitter and are not caused by the receiver. This time domain sequence
is composed of all power samples, not only the ones at the position of 0.8 s that are
assigned to the nal IQ symbols.
1
0
1
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
i
n
p
h
a
s
e
relative time [s]
1
0
1
20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e
relative time [s]
Fig. 5.6: Snapshot of the received in-phase (I)
and quadrature (Q) sequence the
symbol frequency is 1 MHz.
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
Fig. 5.7: Demodulated I and Q
symbols show very lit-
tle noise.
Fig. 5.7 shows the nal demodulated constellation of symbols in the IQ space when
one out of ten samples of the power time sequence (the one at 0.8 s) is assigned to
the demodulated IQ symbol. By using this one sample, the spikes that are caused by
the transmitter are not visible in the demodulated symbol. It can be seen that with
108
5.2 Simulation of the Six-Port Receiver
the low noise that was introduced, the measured points can be mapped to the correct
symbol without any error.
Some basic principles of the multi-port receiver can be demonstrated with the sim-
ulation platform described in Chap. 5.1.2. In particular, these are: the inuence of
AWGN in the signal path, the frequency oset between the LO and RF signal, and
the phase noise of the LO signal on reception quality.
5.2.1 Inuence of Channel Noise
AWGN in the signal path causes a degradation of the symbol constellation and, there-
fore, increases the SER. A symbol error occurs when a demodulated and demapped
symbol is dierent from the one sent the symbol then appears in the wrong quadrant.
The intention of adding noise is to nd the SER that corresponds to a specied E
b
/N
0
ratio. The relationship between the E
b
/N
0
ratio and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR)
is given by
E
b
N
0
=
S
N
+ log(
B
rec
f
symb
) (5.3)
where the noise N is given by the variance of the added noise signal
2
N
, S is the signal
power, B
rec
is the receiver bandwidth (2 MHz), and f
symb
is the symbol data rate (1
MHz).
The SNR that belongs to a specic E
b
/N
0
ratio is calculated from the demodulated
samples by applying a statistical approach. This statistical calculation is used because
of the low numbers of samples available that would lead to a high uncertainty when
simply counting the wrong samples. In the statistical approach, a Gaussian distrib-
ution of the demodulated symbols in the IQ space is assumed. For each noisy cloud
of the demodulated symbols in the quadrants i=0..3 (see Fig. 5.4), the variance
2
k,i
of the demodulated symbols x
k,j
of a quadrant is calculated in the I and Q direction
(symbolized by the index k) according to:
2
k,i
=
1
n
n
j=1
(
k,i
x
k,j
)
2
, (5.4)
where
k,i
=
1
n
n
j=1
x
k,j
(5.5)
109
is the mean value of the symbol cloud in the direction k. The SER for symbol i in
direction k is then calculated by assuming the Gaussian distribution
G(x
k,j
,
k,i
,
k,i
) =
1
k,i
2
e
(x
k,j
k,i
)
2
2
2
k,i
. (5.6)
This integral is numerically evaluated by adaptive Lobatto quadrature [116]. Eqn. 5.6
is integrated for each symbol i and each direction k from or + up to I=0 or
Q=0, depending on the target quadrant.
The theoretical SER over the E
b
/N
0
ratio for QPSK transmission and coherent de-
modulation can be calculated from the symbol error probability
P
S
= erfc(
_
E
b
N
0
)
1
4
_
erfc(
_
E
b
N
0
)
_
2
. (5.7)
Fig. 5.8(a) shows this theoretical curve together with the simulated results. Because
the six-port receiver operates in its quadratic region where an optimum demodulation
is guaranteed and no other inaccuracies are included in the simulation (ideal case),
the simulated points are nearly identical to the theoretical values.
The noisy clouds in Fig. 5.8(b),(c), and (d) are samples that correspond to a single
point in the curve from Fig. 5.8(a). Fig. 5.8(b) shows that an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 19 dB
leads to only minor noise in the IQ constellation. The calculated SER from the sim-
ulated IQ symbols for this weak scattering is 1.310
30
. By increasing the noise, the
scattering of the demodulated IQ symbols becomes more pronounced with a SER of
5.110
15
in the case of an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 15 dB, and a SER of 8.110
6
in the case
of an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 10 dB.
A noise evaluation for the ve-port calibration is performed with the exact same col-
lected voltage samples which were used for the six-port calibration in Fig. 5.8. This will
help in understanding the inuence of the additional output port 6. In this ve-port
calibration, the power measurement value of output port 6 is neglected. Therefore, the
remaining ve-port has the output phases dierences: 0
, 90
, and 180
. Furthermore,
only three IQ states are considered for the calibration (symbols (0), (1), and (3) are
chosen).
The resulting dependency of AWGN in the signal path is depicted in Fig. 5.9. It is
interesting to see that, visually, the clouds show identical scattering when compared
to the six-port calibration. However, the cloud of symbol (2) is shifted away from
the center (1,-1). The shift of this cloud is the reason for a slightly higher SER
when compared to the simulation results of the six-port calibration in Fig. 5.8(a). The
shifting eect is caused by the disadvantageous calibration from only 3 known symbols
110
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
10
15
10
18
20 15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
simulation
theoretical limit
(a) SER versus E
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) E
b
/N
0
= 19 dB, SER = 1.310
30
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(c) E
b
/N
0
= 15 dB, SER = 5.110
15
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(d) E
b
/N
0
= 10 dB, SER = 8.110
6
Fig. 5.8: Inuence of AWGN in the signal path for the six-port calibration and the
calculated SER.
not using the entire equally distributed phase spectrum with the phase dierences of 0
,
120
, and 240
. This example of an imperfect calibration demonstrates the importance

and inuence of the calibration. Therefore, it is of great importance for the multi-
port receiver to have an accurate and reliable calibration process. Furthermore, the
calibration becomes more accurate by averaging many samples. There are several
ways to achieve a good calibration; they are all done with appropriate algorithms in
the digital domain. A starting point is to include, after an initial rough guess, all
correctly transmitted data points in the averaging process. This is another interesting
eld in the study of multi-port receivers, but it is not the focus of this work.
111
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
10
15
10
18
20 15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
simulation
theoretical limit
(a) SER versus E
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) E
b
/N
0
= 19 dB, SER = 3.610
26
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(c) E
b
/N
0
= 15 dB, SER = 2.610
13
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(d) E
b
/N
0
= 10 dB, SER = 1.310
5
Fig. 5.9: Inuence of AWGN in the signal path for the ve-port calibration and the
calculated SER.
5.2.2 Frequency Oset and Phase Noise Dependency
Simulations with a frequency oset between the LO and RF signal, as well as increased
phase noise of the LO signal, are performed to investigate their dependencies in a six-
port receiver. We have learned in Chap. 2 that, after calibration of the multi-port
receiver, any phase shift of either the LO or RF signal will directly translate to an
equivalent phase shift in the IQ plane. In fact, this is a prerequisite for the proper
functioning of the receiver. Phase noise of a VCO is, in principle, a series of very small
phase shifts
i
, where i refers to the LO or RF signal. Each of these small phase shifts
translates to phase inaccuracies in the IQ plane and add up to move the IQ signal
around in a circle with the radius which equals the amplitude
_
I
2
+Q
2
. Further-
more, since in general the phase noise of the LO and RF signal is uncorrelated, both
phase errors add up to become
LO
+
RF
in the IQ plane.
112
5.3 Characterization of the Schottky Diode Detectors
Fig. 5.10(a) shows the implication of a frequency oset of 0.1 kHz between the LO
and RF signal at a carrier frequency of 1.5 GHz. The angle that is indicated with the
two arrows is 36
, or 1/10 of the full circle. The phase oset of 0.1 kHz corresponds
directly to 1/10 of the system time which is 1 ms. The small gaps in between the four
sectors of the circle come from the 40 times longer calibration sequence that is also
included in the demodulated data.
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) Frequency oset 100 kHz
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) Increased phase noise of LO
Fig. 5.10: Inuence of the phase and frequency imbalances on the IQ constellation
at 1.5 GHz.
The phase noise simulation in Fig. 5.10(b) shows the same impact as a frequency o-
set. The demodulated symbols in the IQ plane bounce back and forth in small steps
in a circle around the origin. In addition to the small steps in the IQ plane, the entire
system of the four QPSK points move around in the same circle. It can be proven
that depending on the magnitude (standard deviation) of the phase noise
V CO

the symbols have, on average, completed a full circle in the IQ plane after 1/
V CO
.
A frequency oset between the LO and RF signal can be corrected completely in the
analog front-end [117][118], with a feed back from the digital domain to the analog
front-end [119] or completely in the digital domain [120]
5.3 Characterization of the Schottky Diode Detectors
Before the multi-band measurement results of the six-port receivers are presented in
Chap. 5.4, it is of great importance to have a closer look at the Schottky power detec-
113
tors that are used behind the interferometer circuit for frequency conversion.
We have seen in Chap. 2 that, up to a certain input power, the detector output voltage
V
out
is proportional to the input power P
RF
. This linear dependency is given in the
quadratic region of the diode, where the exponential behavior is described accurately
enough up to the square term of its power series. This square term then compensates
the square dependency of the input power to yield a linear dependency with the output
voltage.
0.1
1
10
100
1000
10 0 10 20 30
d
e
t
e
c
t
o
r

v
o
l
t
a
g
e

V
o
u
t

[
m
V
]
power P
RF
[dBm]
measured
quadratic fit
Fig. 5.11: Characteristics of the Schottky power detectors type MCLI.
The measured power detector characteristics are illustrated in Fig. 5.11 in its typical
double logarithmic plot. One can see that for the MCLI power detectors, the linear
relation is valid from very small powers on up to approximately -15 dBm. This up-
per limit denes the dynamic range of the diode when used for pure power detection.
With increasing power, non-linear higher order terms are generated and become larger
and degrade the power of the signal that is to be detected. However, the theory of
additive mixing with diodes (multi-port theory) states, that with a large LO and a
small RF signal, the receiver still operates in a linear manner as long as the square
law approximation is valid.
The minimum detectable signal power, or sensitivity, denes the lower end of the dy-
namic range. This parameter is more dicult to specify because it depends also on
all the other components in the receiving path such as band pass lter and LNA. The
six-port receiver under investigation here does not include these blocks and, therefore,
the rather low sensitivity of this system does not reect a general weakness of multi-
port receivers.
The bandwidths of the MCLI power detectors has been determined experimentally
114
5.4 Measurement Results of the Multi-Band Six-port Receiver
with a modulated RF signal and a spectrum analyzer. The measured bandwidth is
approximately 80 MHz. The sensitivity can then be estimated by subtracting the
thermal noise of the input resistor from -174 dBm/Hz [29]. This results in a noise
equivalent power of approximately -100 dBm/Hz at the input port which matches
experimental investigations. However, more investigations with a complete receiver
architecture are needed to specify the sensitivity in the receiver context, which is not
the main focus of this work. The main focus of this work is the demonstration and
feasibility of the six-port receiver for multiple standards at a large frequency range.
5.4 Measurement Results of the Multi-Band Six-port
Receiver
This chapter will present measurement results of the six-port receiver. The main ob-
jective is to demonstrate the feasibility of the multi-band receiver for frequencies up to
40.0 GHz. SER in dependency of the E
b
/N
0
ratio are performed at relevant frequency
bands. In the beginning, the general behavior of the six-port receiver measurement
set up is investigated and explained, following the identication of the inuence of
in-channel interferers with dierent powers and at dierent oset frequencies.
5.4.1 Measurement Set Up and Run
file
SP40
SP1500
R&S SMR40
HP83623A
signal generator
(IF)
RF source
MCLI ZD-5-X
power detector
MCLI ZD-5-X
power detector
MCLI ZD-5-X
power detector
MCLI ZD-5-X
power detector
R&S SMU200
I Q
LO source
RF (2)
LO (1)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6) PCI-DAS
4020/12
ADC
common 10 MHz reference clock
data stored to file
calibration
demodulation
I Q
six-port
IBM
compatible
micro
computer
file
comparison for SER evaluation
Fig. 5.12: Measurement Set Up for the Six-Port Receiver Characterization.
The measurement set up is depicted in Fig. 5.12. With this set up, the experimental
data that are collected from the ADC and stored to a le can be directly processed
115
with the same MATLAB code that is applied to the simulated data from CppSim. In
particular, the same calibration and data sequence is used.
The transmitter at the upper left corner of Fig. 5.12 is composed of a Rohde&Schwarz
(R&S ) SMU200 vector signal generator. The IQ data sequences with dierent E
b
/N
0
ratios that are copied to the device are generated with R&S WinIQSIM. The generator
is limited to 3 GHz. Except for the RF frequency of 1.075 GHz, where the output
of the SMU200 is directly fed into the RF input port of the six-port, the SMU200
generates an IF frequency of 333 MHz that is upconverted with a R&S SMR40 to the
RF frequency (up to 40.0 GHz). The LO source is a HP83623A signal generator. The
maximum frequency of the generator is 20.0 GHz. Higher LO frequencies are gener-
ated by using an external frequency doubler. Its conversion loss of approximately 10
dB is compensated by changing the output power of the HP83623A signal generator.
All signal generators as well as the ADC are fed by a common 10 MHz reference. This
is useful since the frequency tracking and compensation of the IQ values is another
major topic and its impact is avoided. By this means, a direct comparison of the
performance at dierent frequencies can be carried out without having to deal with
the implications of the software correction algorithm or a hardware correction circuit.
The LO and RF signal are fed into input ports 1 and 2 of the six-port interferometer
circuit. The switching between the two circuits the designed interferometer SP1500
for 1.5 GHz (see Chap. 4.3) and the hybrid broadband interferometer SP40 (see Chap.
4.4) is done manually be exchanging the circuits at their SMA connectors. At output
ports 3 through 6 of the six-port circuit, the same MCLI ZD-5-X power detectors are
used. Their inputs have a broadband ohmic 50 matching. Their outputs have a high
impedance. The input ports of the Measurement Computing PCI-DAS 4020/12 ADC
have an impedance of 1 M. The signals are sampled at 10 MHz with a resolution of
12 bit between -1 V and +1 V, i.e. a minimum voltage of 0.488 mV can be detected.
After analog-to-digital conversion, the data is stored in an ASCII le that is processed
o line with the previously described MATLAB code to nd the IQ symbols and the
calculate the corresponding SER. A six-port calibration is applied to all measurements.
The measurements of SP1500 and SP40 are performed with the following parameters:
IF frequency: f
IF
= 333 MHz
LO frequency: f
LO
= 1.5 GHz
symbol rate: f
symb
= 1 MHz
sampling rate: f
sample
= 10 MHz
To avoid the use of additional baseband ampliers, the output levels of the RF and
LO signal generators need to be high enough to stay above the resolution and mini-
mum detectable voltage of the ADC. With the relatively high RF power that is needed
116
to meet this requirement, the small signal approximation is not valid any longer. In
fact, this non-linear operation mode of the diode mixers produces higher order terms
that take away energy and degrade the linear behavior. According to the non-linear
additive mixing theory, there is not only a non-linear relationship between RF ampli-
tude and baseband amplitude, but also an additional intermodulation product that
stems from the modulated RF signal. The eects of a non-linear diode operation
are basically the same as for a non-linear amplier (compression point and intercept
point). It was found experimentally that the six-port theory described in Chap. 2 is
still accurate enough with an RF power of approximately 0 dBm at the RF port of the
six-port receiver (a maximum power of -6 dB can then reach the output ports of the
six-port receiver which is approximately 100 mV at the 50 termination). A strong
non-linear inuence would degrade the signal constellation. Furthermore, the uniform
distribution of noise in the IQ constellation demonstrates that the large RF power
does not aect the experimental results. The focus is on an empirical verication of
the bandwidth of the receiver. More investigations and a detailed analysis of noise in
six-port receivers could be the scope of a future work.
5.4.2 General Dependency of RF and LO Power on Reception
The major limitation of the measurement set up is given by the resolution of the
ADC. Fig. 5.13 shows the IQ constellation of the demodulated measured signals for
equal RF and LO powers from +4.1 dBm to -12.5 dBm. With the relatively larger
RF power in Fig. 5.13(a), the mixing process also produces higher order terms caused
by the non-linearity of the diode. However, it can be seen that the receiver can still
be calibrated and a perfect IQ constellation can be found. A perfect IQ constellation
with minimum inuences of the ADC quantization noise is still found for an RF power
of -6.1 dBm. An RF signal power of approximately 0 dBm has been chosen for the
evaluation of the six-port receiver. At this power, the non-linearities have practically
no inuence on the IQ constellation. The measured IQ constellation for small E
b
/N
0
ratios are very smooth and uniform when the six-port receiver operates in its ideal
range. This indicates the accurateness of this presumption.
By decreasing the input powers, the noise in the signal constellation increases and
shows the discrete states caused by the quantization noise of the ADC. This is very
strongly pronounced at P
RF
= P
LO
= -12.5 dBm ( Fig. 5.13(d)). This quantization
noise can be found in some of the BER measurements; this indicates an exceptionally
high attenuation caused by the six-port interferometer.
Fig. 5.14 shows measurement results with a low RF signal at dierent LO powers.
One can see nearly the same IQ constellation with similar noise. This indicates that
117
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) P
RF
= P
LO
= +4.1 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) P
RF
= P
LO
= -6.1 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(c) P
RF
= P
LO
= -8.8 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(d) P
RF
= P
LO
= -12.5 dBm
Fig. 5.13: Quantization noise of the ADC becomes visible when reducing RF and
LO power (SP1500, f
LO,RF
= 1.5 GHz, E
b
/N
0
= 80 dB).
for very low RF powers, the noise is independent of the applied LO power. At the
rather large LO powers (or RF powers), the current that ows through the diode can
no longer be neglected. In this region, the equation for the baseband signal (Eqn. 2.19
on page 15) found in Chap. 2.4.1 is no longer valid. The high powers strongly inuence
the matching of the diode detectors and lead to reections. However for large powers,
the maximum available gain (MAG) and the mixer conversion gain are similar and
have a constant value of approximately -5 dB. This is in good agreement with the
considerations described in [130] and [28].
118
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) P
RF
= -15.3 dBm, P
LO
= 0.0 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) P
RF
= -15.3 dBm, P
LO
=20.0 dBm
Fig. 5.14: IQ constellation with low RF and high LO power
(SP1500, f
LO,RF
= 1.5 GHz, E
b
/N
0
= 80 dB).
5.4.3 General Noise Behavior
Noise is added to the system on the baseband level at the IQ signal generator. Because
of the rather large RF and LO power, the noise that is introduced at the receiver can
be neglected due to the considerations explained earlier. Apart from minor deviations
caused by the six-port circuit, the IQ noise that is found in the demodulated signals in
Fig. 5.15 correspond directly to the E
b
/N
0
ratio. Perfect signal constellation is found
for an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 50 dB (the SER is practically zero). Noise with an E
b
/N
0
ratio
of 16 dB leads to a SER of 8.510
16
. When further reducing the E
b
/N
0
ratio, the
noise signicantly increases (the SER for E
b
/N
0
= 11 dB, the SER is 1.710
6
, and
for an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 6 dB, the SER is 5.810
3
)
5.4.4 General Phase Behavior
The six-port simulations conducted in Chap. 5.2.2 have shown that both a frequency
oset and a phase noise of the LO or RF signal lead to a circular movement of the IQ
values in the complex plane. The frequency of this circular movement equals exactly
the frequency oset. The phase noise behavior is slightly dierent not in the circular
motion of the IQ signals but rather in their angular extension. The size of an arc
section is determined by the magnitude of the phase noise as well as the duration of
the observation. A larger phase noise and a longer observation increase the length of
the arc sections.
Fig. 5.16 shows the phase noise in the IQ constellation at an RF and LO frequency of
24.0 GHz for a large E
b
/N
0
of 50 dB. Typically, the magnitude of the phase noise of
119
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) E
b
/N
0
= 50 dB
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) E
b
/N
0
= 16 dB
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(c) E
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(d) E
b
/N
0
= 6 dB
Fig. 5.15: IQ signal constellation at dierent E
b
/N
0
ratios shows scattering depen-
dency
(SP1500, f
LO,RF
= 1.5 GHz, P
RF
= -0.16 dBm, P
LO
= -0.12 dBm).
local oscillators is larger for higher frequencies. The higher phase noise comes mainly
from the PLL that locks the RF onto a lower frequency reference signal. In addition
to the relatively small steps that are caused by the high frequency component of the
phase noise, there is circular movement of the IQ constellation. The frequency of this
circular movement is related to the variance found from the signal spectrum. Because
of the rather short recording time of the samples (1 ms), the noise that can be seen in
Fig. 5.16(a) is dominated by its high frequency component. Another indication is that
the phase noise found in the IQ constellation is symmetric around the optimum IQ
coordinates. Fig. 5.16(b) indicates that for smaller E
b
/N
0
, not only is the amplitude
noise more pronounced, but the phase noise also leads to a larger deviation of the
signals from their optimum positions.
120
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) E
b
/N
0
= 50 dB
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) E
b
/N
0
= 16 dB
Fig. 5.16: IQ signal constellation for two dierent E
b
/N
0
ratios shows phase noise
and scattering (SP40, f
LO,RF
= 24.0 GHz, P
RF
= -0.31 dBm, P
LO
= 0.0
dBm).
5.4.5 Inuences of In-Band Interferers
In-band interferers signicantly inuence the signal constellation and decrease the
SER. This experiment has been conducted without any additional noise (E
b
/N
0
= 80
dB).
Fig. 5.17(a) through (d) shows the resulting IQ constellations due to a sine wave
interferer (no modulation) at a frequency oset of 5.6 MHz away from the carrier
frequency of 1.5 GHz. The resulting circles around the optimum IQ positions increase
when decreasing the ratio P
RF
/P
INF
between the RF power and the power of the
interferer P
INF
. At a P
RF
/P
INF
ratio of 6 dB (c) and -3 dBm (d), the resulting circles
show accumulations at 5 dierent positions around the optimum IQ values. These 5
dierent positions arise from the ratio of the symbol time to the oset frequency that
leads to exactly 5 dierent levels at the sampling instant.
5.4.6 Frequency Dependent SER Performance of Multi-Band
Receiver
One main dierence between a full functional six-port receiver and the experimental
set up is depicted in Fig. 5.18. Fig. 5.18(a) shows the typical blocks in a receiver
front-end. Once the RF signal is coupled into the 50 circuit, it needs to be amplied
by an LNA as early as possible. Any loss before amplication directly degrades the
SNR and E
b
/N
0
ratio. The high Q bandpass lter directly follows after this stage.
With the (diode) mixer, the signal is down converted into IF or baseband. Then, the
121
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(a) P
RF
/P
INF
= 21 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) P
RF
/P
INF
= 15 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(c) P
RF
/P
INF
= 6 dBm
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(d) P
RF
/P
INF
= -3 dBm
Fig. 5.17: Inuence of an in-band interferer with dierent power at a frequency
oset of 5.6 MHz (SP1500, f
LO,RF
= 1.5 GHz, E
b
/N
0
= 80 dB).
signal is low-pass ltered at the IF or baseband level and is nally demodulated. In
a full receiver, the LNA and BPF have a noise factor and they additionally degrade
the SNR from the antenna. In fact, the noise oor rises more and more as the signal
travels further through the various blocks in the receiver front-end. Therefore, BER
performance is a signicant parameter for the evaluation of the receiver.
The idealized experimental six-port receiver set up is shown in Fig. 5.18(b). The noise
with an E
b
/N
0
ratio is added to the signal at the baseband level by the SMU200. The
signal is attenuated by the six-port interferometer by at least 6 dB. Eventually, the
RF signal with its E
b
/N
0
ratio reaches the diode of the detectors. This added noise
is not equivalent to the situation we have in a real six-port receiver where the noise
is added by the real physical behavior of the channel and the blocks in the front-end.
What has been realize with this experimental set up is the application of an E
b
/N
0
122
E
b
/N
0
DEMOD
LO
LPF LNA BPF
SER
diode
(a) Typical blocks in a full six-port receiver front-end
E
b
/N
0
DEMOD
LO
LPF
SER
six-port
interferometer
diode
(b) Blocks included in the experimental six-port receiver set up (only
one path shown)
Fig. 5.18: Typical blocks in a full six-port receiver vs. experimental set up.
ratio that is added onto a large RF signal. An equivalent signal would typically be
found directly before the mixer stage in conventional receivers. Once there, the diode
mixer does not add signicant noise to the system at such large LO and RF powers.
Therefore, with an optimum six-port interferometer (with optimum signal attenuation
of 6 dB and uniform phase shifts), the measured resulting BER is very close to its
theoretical expectation.
With these considerations, we understand that the experimental set up analyzes the
multi-band issue of the receiver with minimal inuence from other typical receiver
blocks. However, the noise of the RF and LO is still present and inuences the BER,
especially at higher frequencies. The other limiting factor is the resolution of the ADC
(0.488 mV). When the signal attenuation by the six-port interferometer becomes too
large, quantization noise can be seen in the IQ constellation.
In the following, the frequency dependent SER performance of the two dierent six-
port interferometers will be presented. One set of diode detectors is used over the
entire frequency range. The gures for each frequency will contain two graphs: one
graph that shows the SER over E
b
/N
0
ratio, and a second graph that exemplarily
shows the corresponding clouds in the IQ constellation for a certain E
b
/N
0
ratio. The
experimental data that is collected and stored from each measurement is processed
with the MATLAB program as described earlier. A six-port calibration is applied. In
the frequency range from 1.075 GHz to 40.0 GHz, signicant frequencies are chosen:
SP1500: 1.075 GHz, 1.5 GHz, 2.16 GHz, 2.4 GHz
SP40: 2.4 GHz, 5.2 GHz, 10.0 GHz, 17.0 GHz, 20.0 GHz,
24.0 GHz, 30.0 GHz, 37.0 GHz, 40.0 GHz
123
The 1.5 GHz Six-Port (SP1500)
Fig. 5.19 through Fig. 5.22 show the SER measurement results of the 1.5 GHz six-port
interferometer. The SP1500 performs very well at its design center frequency of 1.5
GHz where the measurement results are very close to the theoretical expectations.
The reason for their good matching has been discussed earlier: it is mainly due to the
fact that the RF power with a certain E
b
/N
0
ratio is relatively high and the six-port
receiver itself does not add noise to it. The clouds in the IQ constellation are smooth
and uniform which indicates that there is no distortion due to non-linearities or quan-
tization noise.
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
(a) Symbol error rate vs. E
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
(b) IQ constellation at E
b
/N
0
= 8 dB
Fig. 5.19: Symbol error rate performance of SP1500 at f
LO,RF
= 1.5 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.16 dBm, P
LO
= -0.12 dBm).
The remaining 3 graphs for SP1500 are chosen according to critical frequencies that
have been found in the S-parameter measurements of Chap. 4.3. This will demon-
strate the bandwidth limits of the interferometer circuit. The rst critical frequency
is 1.075 GHz. We can see in the S-parameters of SP1500 (Fig. 4.13(b)) that, at this
frequency, the transmission loss is below 10 dB from the RF port to ports 3,5, and
6 and below -20 dB to port 4. In addition to the high signal attenuation, there is a
pole in the phase shift from the RF port to port 4 (Fig. 4.16). The IQ constellation
at this frequency for an E
b
/N
0
ratio of 11 dB shows quantization noise. This indicates
that the signal that comes to the diode detectors and nally to the ADC must be very
small. Therefore, the SER performance is far below its optimum performance at 1.5
GHz.
124
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 1.075 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.03 dBm, P
LO
= -0.12 dBm).
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 16 dB
LO,RF
= 2.16 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.31 dBm, P
LO
= -0.11 dBm).
Similar critical values are also found at 2.16 GHz where the phase information at
ports 4 and 6 is identical. This disadvantageous behavior of the interferometer circuit
leads to a strong distortion of the IQ values and a rather bad SER performance. At
the frequency of 2.4 GHz, the situation becomes better again as there is no phase
problem. However, the high attenuation of the interferometer still has eects on signal
constellation and SER performance.
125
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 2.4 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.22 dBm, P
LO
= -0.19 dBm).
The 2 GHz through 25 GHz Six-Port (SP40)
The SER measurement results of SP40 are depicted in Fig. 5.24 through Fig. 5.33.
Similar SER performance of the six-port SP40 is found at 5.2 GHz, 10 GHz, 17 GHz,
20 GHz, and 24 GHz. When looking at the S-parameters, one can see that the atten-
uation loss stays below 8 dB in this frequency range (Fig. 4.21(b)). The phase shifts
are very smooth and meet the 90
requirement very well (Fig. 4.23(b)). At higher

frequencies, the attenuation loss increases and, therefore, the SER performance de-
creases. At 40 GHz, the attenuation is large enough to make ADC quantization noise
appear in the IQ constellation. The gures are listed below.
When using the SP40 at frequencies below 3 GHz, the attenuation from the input
to the output ports varies greatly and power is unevenly distributed (see Fig. 4.21(a)
and (b)). The requirement for uniform phase shifts at the output ports is still fullled
(Fig. 4.23(b)). The SER at 2.0 GHz is much higher compared to all other frequencies
due to the disadvantageous attenuation.
Overview of Frequency Dependent BER Performance
One important result of the frequency dependent BER measurement is that both six-
ports can be calibrated and give results both in and beyond their specied frequency
range. All single SER over E
b
/N
0
graphs from Fig. 5.19 to Fig. 5.32 are included in
an overview in Fig. 5.23 for SP1500 and SP40.
126
SP1500 shows its best performance at its designed center frequency of 1.5 GHz. When
operating in its critical frequencies, the six-port receiver can still function but the SER
ends up decreasing signicantly.
The other six-port, SP40, shows a good SER performance for frequencies between 5.2
GHz and 24 GHz which is predicted from S-parameter measurements. At lower and
higher frequencies, the SER is decreased; this is in agreement with the S-parameter
measurement results. However, the SP40 can be calibrated over the entire frequency
range from 2 GHz to 40 GHz.
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
1.5 GHz
1.075 GHz
2.16 GHz
2.4 GHz
theory
(a) SP1500
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
2.0 GHz
2.4 GHz
5.2 GHz
10 GHz
17 GHz
20 GHz
24 GHz
30 GHz
37 GHz
theory
(b) SP40
Fig. 5.23: Symbol error rate vs. E
b
/N
0
ratio for all frequencies.
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 15 dB
LO,RF
= 2.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.03 dBm, P
LO
= -0.14 dBm).
127
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 2.4 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.57 dBm, P
LO
= -0.20 dBm).
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 5.2 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.04 dBm, P
LO
= -0.32 dBm).
128
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 10.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.36 dBm, P
LO
= -0.2 dBm).
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 17.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.31 dBm, P
LO
= -0.06 dBm).
129
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 20.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -1.29 dBm, P
LO
= -1.14 dBm).
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 24.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.31 dBm, P
LO
= 0.0 dBm).
130
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 30.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -1.38 dBm, P
LO
= -0.64 dBm).
10
0
10
3
10
6
10
9
10
12
15 10 5 0
s
y
m
b
o
l

e
r
r
o
r

r
a
t
e

(
S
E
R
)
E
b
/N
0
[dB]
measurement
theory
b
/N
0
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
b
/N
0
= 11 dB
LO,RF
= 37.0 GHz
(P
RF
= -0.53 dBm, P
LO
= -4.6 dBm).
131
2
1
0
1
2
2 1 0 1 2
q
u
a
d
r
a
t
u
r
e

c
o
m
p
o
n
e
n
t

(
Q
)
Fig. 5.33: IQ constellation of SP40 at f
LO,RF
= 40.0 GHz for E
b
/N
0
= 16 dB
(SER = 8.1 10
6
, P
RF
= -2.88 dBm, P
LO
= -4.2 dBm).
5.5 Alternative Applications of the Multi-Port Principle
Apart from network analyzers (or reectometers) and communications receivers, the
multi-port principle oers several other application areas. One interesting and promis-
ing approach is a smart antenna system that uses a total of four output ports to mea-
sure the direction of arrival, as well as amplitude and phase of a mm-wave signal at the
same time [121]. Other applications are radar [122][123][127][125][124] and distance
measurement devices [126]. In these elds, the six-port principle is very attractive as
it is a cost-eective method for down conversion of mm-waves.
132
6 Conclusion and Perspectives
This thesis presents a novel receiver architecture that covers the very large frequency
range from 1 GHz to 40 GHz and is suitable for multi-band, multi standard use. The
hardware design of the novel receiver becomes possible by combining RF MEMS with
multi-port technology. RF MEMS is an emerging technology. New suitable switches for
high power and low loss applications that are required in the recongurable hardware
receiver front-end are designed, fabricated, and thoroughly evaluated. The receiver
concept makes use of the SDR principle which shifts traditional hardware tasks (such
as demodulation) into the digital domain. The novel architecture is very exible and
not limited to todays standards. The combination of popular frequencies around 1
GHz with frequencies at 17 GHz, 24 GHz, and 37 GHz will become very interesting
in the future when new standards for these high carrier frequencies are established.
Frequencies above 10 GHz are envisaged, as large bandwidths are available. A smart
platform that can handle standards in the entire frequency spectrum and is recon-
gurable on the y oers great advantages such as avoiding complex and expensive
hardware.
The summary of this thesis is presented in the following. Furthermore, the main
innovations of this work and its contributions to the scientic community are listed.
Finally, the thesis ends with possible extensions of this work and an outlook for future
investigations.
6.1 Summary
In this work, a solution has been presented that oers the ability to receive commu-
nications standards over a frequency range from 1 GHz to 40 GHz. The thesis covers
the entire development process of the novel receiver front-end: from the theoretical
background of multi-port receivers and the specially developed RF MEMS switches to
the performance evaluation of the recongurable platform.
Chapter 1 outlines the motivation and need for a novel multi-band, multi-standard
receiver platform that can handle current and future communications standards. The
motivation is a cost-eective hardware solution that is recongurable on the y and
upgradeable. Software recongurability (implemented with SDR) and hardware re-
133
congurability (implemented with MEMS) is a prerequisite for the implementation of
these demands.
Chapter 2 starts with a short introduction to SDR in the context of multi-port re-
ceivers. Afterwards, the chapter covers a theoretical description of the semiconductor
diode, the diode (power) detector, the theory of additive mixing, and the frequency
conversion processes in multi-port receivers. At the end of the chapter, a theoreti-
cal basis of multi-port receivers is established that describes the diode detectors in
a dynamic environment. This includes a mathematical formulation of the resulting
baseband signal behind the diode detectors that stems from the modulation of the RF
signal.
Chapter 3 presents the latest achievements in RF MEMS technology. New signal
routing structures that are needed in the multi-band receiver front-end are developed
and characterized. The novel structures are a SPST toggle switch, a SPDT switch, and
an RF cross. The chapter covers the theoretical background of the mechanical prop-
erties of the movable parts, as well as the required mechanical and electro-magnetic
simulations, the fabrication process, and the achieved measurement results.
Chapter 4 commences with the description of possible designs of multi-port inter-
ferometers. The chosen six-port interferometer for the center frequency of 1.5 GHz
consists of three hybrid couplers and one power divider. Its design process is thor-
oughly explained. Together with measurement results of the broadband 2 GHz through
25 GHz six-port interferometer, this helps the reader to grasp the functional principle
of the interferometer circuit. The second part of this chapter is the application of the
MEMS in the interferometer circuit. Suitable system level simulations are performed
that include real S-parameter measurement results of the RF MEMS and both six-port
interferometers. It is found that the insertion of the RF MEMS into the RF lines of
the interferometer leads to only minor degradation of the signal power and signal phase.
Chapter 5 rounds o the performance evaluation of the multi-band, multi-standard
receiver in the signaling context. Symbol error rate performance is chosen as a suitable
evaluation method. The chapter starts with time domain simulations of the six-port
receiver that includes AWGN and phase noise. Finally, SER measurements at dier-
ent noise levels (E
b
/N
0
ratios) are performed at selected frequencies between 1 GHz
and 40 GHz. The measurement results verify the simulated, theoretical behavior.
Performance limitations are indicated.
134
6.2 Main Achievements and Outlook
6.2 Main Achievements and Outlook
This section summarizes the main achievements and contributions of the work pre-
sented in this thesis for further development of RF MEMS and multi-band SDRs
based on the multi-port principle.
RF MEMS:
Stable fabrication processes for new types of RF MEMS: an ohmic contact switch
(toggle switch), an SPDT switch, and an RF cross. All devices can be fabricated
on standard Si wafers with standard Si processes (CMOS compatibility).
RF performance of a new capacitive membrane switch: up to 40 GHz, the switch-
able attenuation is 35 dB with an insertion loss smaller than 0.4 dB. The power
handling is at least 1 W at 30 GHz.
RF performance of the toggle switch: up to 30 GHz, the insertion loss is below
0.5 dB, the return loss is above 25 dB, and the isolation is above 14 dB. The
power handling is at least 1 W at 30 GHz, 2 W at 18 GHz, and 2.5 W at 15
GHz.
RF performance of the SPDT switch: up to 30 GHz, the insertion loss is below
0.5 dB, the return loss is above 22 dB, and the isolation is above 22 dB.
RF performance of the RF cross: up to 30 GHz, the insertion loss of the two
signal routes are below 1 dB and 1.5 dB respectively.
A detailed reliability and performance analysis of the toggle and capacitive shunt
airbridge is given. This covers lifetime evaluation by switch cycles measurement,
DC contact resistance, and temperature dependency.
The measured RF performance of the MEMS is superior to conventional pin
diode switches.
SDR multi-port receivers:
A comprehensive and easier to understand mathematical description of multi-
port receivers is given. The approach combines the theory of additive mixing
with multi-port theory and gives insight into the frequency conversion processes.
It becomes clear why a multi-port requires at least three independent voltage
measurements at the output ports.
A new hardware for a six-port front-end that covers a very large bandwidth is
developed and evaluated. Advantages as well as disadvantages are discussed.
135
The understanding of multi-port theory and the functional principle of the in-
terferometer circuit was improved by giving a detailed description of the phase
relations in the interferometer circuit.
A functional proof of the multi-band, multi standard receiver is given by SER
measurements with dierent E
b
/N
0
ratios over a frequency range from 1 GHz
to 40 GHz (at selected frequencies). SER measurements covering such a large
frequency range in one single SDR receiver have not been published before.
The work presented in this thesis can be extended in several ways. The fabricated
MEMS show promising results and a stable fabrication process was established in this
work. However, the yield from a wafer needs to be improved in order to become eco-
nomically interesting. Concerning their application in the recongurable front-end,
the MEMS elements need to be put into a housing, or a six-port structure needs to be
implemented on a Si wafer. As for the multi-port receiver, a detailed noise evaluation
of semiconductor diodes is still missing in the literature. To accomplish a reliable
noise evaluation, a complete six-port receiver that includes LNA, BPF, and baseband
ampliers needs to be fabricated. This will also allow the characterization of the sen-
sitivity and the dynamic range.
New insights into multi-port receivers are presented within this thesis. The new multi-
band, multi-standard receiver oers an interesting approach and is a promising candi-
date for future mm-wave applications. The cut-o frequency of diodes is far above 100
GHz. With the technology that is available today, this makes diodes the only possibil-
ity for up and down conversion of such large frequencies. On the other hand, the diodes
also limit the use of the multi-port as a powerful communications receiver. Diodes have
an increased conversion loss when compared to conventional double-balanced mixers
(Gilbert cell). This reduces the capability of detecting very weak signals (i.e. decreased
sensitivity). The limitation is mainly given by the fact that, for a low conversion loss,
diode detectors need a relatively large input signal. The demand for a large input
signal, which is much larger than the signal input powers needed in transistor based
mixers, requires a higher amplication of the RF signal by an LNA. This increased
amplication can become very problematic at lower frequencies where frequency bands
are very close together and interferers are present. In such environments, the LNA
can easily be driven into its non-linear region by interferers. Low loss bandpass lters
with steep anks that could be applied before the LNA stage are not available today.
However, MEMS based resonators could help in this eld as well. Today, almost no
interferers are expected at higher carrier frequencies, as there are no mass market ap-
plications in the ISM bands. This area oers an interesting eld for the application of
multi-port receivers.
136
List of Figures
2.1 Dierent RF front-ends for SDR platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Multiplicative versus additive mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.3 Equivalent circuit of Schottky diode and its DC characteristics . . . . . 9
2.4 Simple power detector and its characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 Functional principle of multi-port receiver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Process of additive mixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 Process additive mixing in multi-port receivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.8 Comparison of complex and real frequency conversion . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.9 Spectral properties of complex and real frequency conversion . . . . . . 20
2.10 Spectrum after complex and real down conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.11 Principle of IF sampling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.12 Baseband spectrum after direct frequency conversion . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.13 Spectrum of the additive mixing process in multi-port receivers . . . . 23
3.1 Electrical models of the MEMS switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.2 Three-dimensional view of the shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.3 Cross-sectional view of the shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.4 Shape function simulation of a shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.5 Voltage deection function of a shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.6 Membrane displacement of the shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.7 Simulated S-parameter of the shunt airbridge switch . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.8 Three-dimensional view of the toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.9 Cross-section view of the toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.10 Mechanical displacement simulation of the toggle cantilever . . . . . . . 43
3.11 Membrane displacement of the toggle cantilever . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.12 Electric eld simulation of the regular toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.13 S-parameter simulation results of the toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.14 Three-dimensional view of the SPDT switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.15 S-parameter simulation of the SPDT switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.16 Three-dimensional view of the RF cross with electric eld . . . . . . . . 48
3.17 S-parameter simulation of the RF cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.18 Process ow for the fabrication of the MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.19 SEM micrograph of the shunt airbridge switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.20 S-parameter measurement results of the shunt airbridge switches . . . . 53
137
List of Figures
3.21 SEM micrographs of dierent toggle switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.22 Measurement results of dierent toggle switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.23 SEM micrograph of the SPDT switches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.24 Simulation and measurement results of the SPDT switch . . . . . . . . 58
3.25 SEM micrograph of the RF cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.26 Measurement results of the RF cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.27 SEM micrograph of the toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.28 Displacement of the toggle switch cantilever (at position A) . . . . . . 62
3.29 Displacement of the toggle switch cantilever (at position B) . . . . . . . 62
3.30 Membrane velocities of the shunt airbridge membrane . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.31 Measurement setup for the RF switching time measurement . . . . . . 63
3.32 Switching times for RF power of the toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.33 Self actuation of the toggle and shunt airbridge switch due to RF power 65
3.34 Experimental set up for switch cycle measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.35 Actuation voltage vs. temperature of a toggle switch . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.36 Activation voltage vs. temperature of a shunt airbridge switch . . . . . 68
4.1 S-parameter simulation results of the 1.5 GHz power divider . . . . . . 71
4.2 Possible designs for ve- and six-port interferometer circuits . . . . . . 72
4.3 Photograph of SP1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Electric and magnetic eld components in a microstrip line . . . . . . . 75
4.5 The dimensions and geometry of the power divider . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.6 S-parameter simulation results of the 1.5 GHz power divider . . . . . . 77
4.7 The dimensions and geometry of the quadrature hybrid . . . . . . . . . 78
4.8 S-parameter simulation results of the 1.5 GHz quadrature hybrid . . . 78
4.9 Momentum layout with dimensions of SP1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.10 Simulated and measured return loss of SP1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.11 Simulated and measured isolation of SP1500 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
4.12 Simulated and measured transmission of SP1500 to port 3 . . . . . . . 82
4.13 Measured transmission of SP1500 from LO and RF port all output ports 82
4.14 Absolute phase shifts between the LO and RF ports and port 3 . . . . 83
4.15 Measured phase shifts between the LO and RF ports and all output ports 84
4.16 Measured phase dierences between the LO and RF input signals . . . 85
4.17 Photograph of SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.18 S-parameter measurement result of the broadband power divider . . . . 86
4.19 S-parameter measurement results of the broadband quadrature hybrid . 87
4.20 Return loss and isolation of SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.21 Measured transmission of SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.22 Measured phase shifts of SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.23 Measured phase dierences between input and output ports SP40 . . . 91
4.24 Application scenario for dierent RF MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
4.25 The recongurable multi-band six-port receiver front-end . . . . . . . . 93
4.26 The recong. multi-band receiver front-end (SP1500 contacted) . . . . . 95
4.27 Return loss and isolation of the multi-band front-end (SP1500 contacted) 96
138
List of Figures
4.28 Isolation of the input ports of SP40 (SP1500 contacted) . . . . . . . . . 96
4.29 Transmission of SP1500 (SP1500 contacted) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.30 Phase dierences of SP1500 (SP1500 contacted) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
4.31 The recong. multi-band receiver front-end (SP40 contacted) . . . . . . 98
4.32 Return loss and isolation of the multi-band front-end (SP40 contacted) 99
4.33 Isolation of the input ports of SP1500 (SP40 contacted) . . . . . . . . . 100
4.34 Transmission of SP40 (SP40 contacted) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4.35 Phase dierences of SP40 (SP40 contacted) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5.1 Block diagram of CppSim six-port receiver simulation . . . . . . . . . . 105
5.2 Snapshot of the sent in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) sequence . . . . . 106
5.3 Voltages at the output of the power detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.4 Symbols used for calibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.5 Power levels of the calibration sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
5.6 Snapshot of the received in-phase (I) and quadrature (Q) sequence . . . 108
5.7 Demodulated I and Q symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
5.8 Inuence of AWGN in the signal path for the six-port calibration . . . 111
5.9 Inuence of AWGN in the signal path for the ve-port calibration . . . 112
5.10 Inuence of phase and frequency imbalances on IQ constellation . . . . 113
5.11 Characteristics of the Schottky power detectors . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.12 Measurement set up for the six-port receiver characterization . . . . . . 115
5.13 Quantization noise of the ADC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.14 IQ constellation with high LO power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.15 IQ signal constellation at dierent E
b
/N
0
ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.16 IQ signal constellation with increased phase noise . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.17 Inuence of in-band interferer at a frequency oset of 5.6 MHz . . . . . 122
5.18 Typical blocks in a real receiver vs. experimental six-port receiver set up123
5.19 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP1500 at 1.5 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
5.20 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP1500 at 1.075 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.21 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP1500 at 2.16 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
5.22 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP1500 at 2.4 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.23 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
ratio for all frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.24 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 2.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
5.25 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 2.4 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.26 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 5.2 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.27 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 10.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.28 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 17.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.29 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 20.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.30 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 24.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.31 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 30.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.32 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 37.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.33 SER vs. E
b
/N
0
of SP40 at 40.0 GHz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
139
List of Figures
140
Abbreviations
AC alternating current
ADC analog-digital converter
ADS Advanced Design System (Agilent)
AM amplitude modulation
ANSYS nite element computer simulation program
ASCII American Standard Code for Information Interchange
AWGN additive white gaussian noise
BPF bandpass lter
CAD computer-aided design
CDMA code division multiple access
CMOS complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor
CPD critical point drying
CPW coplanar waveguide
CW constant wave
DAB digital audio broadcast
DAC digital-to-analog converter
DC direct current
DSP digital signal processors
DUT device under test
DVB digital video broadcast
EM electromagnetic
EMPIRE fast three dimensional electromagnetic simulation program
ESA European Space Agency
FDTD nite dierence time domain
FM frequency modulation
FPGA eld-programmable gate arrays
GALILEO european global satellite navigation system
GHZ gigahertz
GPS Global Positioning System
GSM Global system for mobile communications
I in-phase
IF intermediate frequency
IQ in-phase/quadrature
141
List of Figures
ISM industrial, scientic, and medical
LAN local area network
LNA low noise ampliers
LO local oscillator
LPF low pass lter
MAG maximum available gain
MATLAB technical computing software
MEMS micro electro-mechanical system
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MMIC monolithic microwave integrated circuit
PA power amplier
PC personal computer
PCI Peripheral Component Interconnect
PD power detectors
PECVD plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition
PFD phase frequency detector
PIN positive/intrinsic/negative (diode prole)
PLL phase locked loop
PR photo resist
Q quadrature
QAM quadrature amplitude modulation
QPSK quadrature phase shift keying
RF radio frequency
RX/TX receive/transmit
S Scattering
SDARS satellite digital audio radio services
SDR software dened radio
SEM scanning electron microscope
SER symbol error rate
SNR signal to noise ratio
SP1500 six-port interferometer (center frequency 1.5 GHz)
SP40 six-port interferometer (2 -25 GHz)
SPDT single pole double throw
SPST single pole single throw
TE transverse electric
TEM transverse electromagnetic mode
TM transverse magnetic
TV television
VCO voltage controlled oscillator
142
Bibliography
[1] J. Mitola: Software Radio Architecture, Wiley & Sons, ISBN: 0-47138-492-5,
2000
[2] J.-F. Luy, T. Mack: Towards Software Congurable Millimeter Wave Architec-
tures, Proceedings of Radio and Wireless Conference (RAWCON), 2003
[3] J.-F. Luy, T. M uller, T. Mack, A. Terzis: Congurable RF Receiver Architec-
tures, IEEE Microwave Magazine, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 75-82, March 2004
[4] G. F. Engen, C. A. Hoer: Application of an Arbitrary 6-Port Junction to Power
Measurement Problems, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measure-
ment, Vol. IM-21, pp. 470-474, November 1972
[5] J.-U. J urgensen, D. Krupezevic, M. Ratni, Z. Wang: Baseband Aspects of a Di-
rect Conversion Receiver Concept Utilising Five-Port Technology, Proceedings
of 2nd Karlsruhe Workshop on Software Radios (WSR), Karlsruhe, 2002
[6] M. Abe, N. Sasho, V. Brankovic, and D. Krupezevic: Direct Conversion Re-
ceiver MMIC Based on Six-Port Technology, European Conference on Wireless
Technology (CNIT), Paris, October 2000
[7] F. R. Sousa, G. Neveux, B. G. Amante, B. Huyart: Five-Port Junction: In the
Way of General Public Applications, Proceedings of 32nd European Microwave
Conference (EuMC), Milan, 2002
[8] J. Li, R. G. Bosisio, K. Wu: A Six-Port Direct Digital Receiver, Digest of
IEEE MTT Symposium, Vol. 3, pp. 1659-1662, San Diego, May 1994
[9] X. Xu, K. Wu, R. G. Bosisio: Software Dened Radio Receiver Based on Six-
Port Technology, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave Symposium,
Vol. 2, Philadelphia, June 2003
[10] J. Li, R. G. Bosisio: Computer and Measurement Simulation of a New Digital
Receiver Operating Directly at Millimeter-Wave Frequencies, IEEE Transac-
tions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 43, No. 12, December 1995
143
Bibliography
[11] S. O. Tatu, E. Moldovan, K. Wu, R. G. Bosisio: A New Direct Millimeter-Wave
Six-Port Receiver, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. 49, No. 12, December 2001
[12] S. O. Tatu, E. Moldovan, G. Brehm, R. G. Bosisio: Ka-Band Direct Digital
Receiver, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 50,
No. 11, November 2002
[13] S. O. Tatu, E. Moldovan, G. Brehm, K. Wu, R. G. Bosisio: New Results on
MMIC Six-Ports used in Ka Band Direct Conversion Receivers, Digest of IEEE
MTT-S, International Microwave Symposium, Philadelphia, June 2003
[14] T. Mack, K. M. Strohm, B. Schauwecker, J.-F. Luy: RF MEMS Switches
and High Q Elements, XXVII International Union of Radio Science (URSI),
Maastricht, August 2002
[15] S. B. Cohn, N. P. Weinhouse: An Automatic Microwave Phase-Measurement
System, The Microwave Journal, February 1964
[16] G. F. Engen: The Six-Port Reectometer: An Alternative Network Analyzer,
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-25, No. 12,
pp. 1075-1080, December 1977
[17] C. A. Hoer, K. C. Roe: Using an Arbitrary Six-Port Junction to Measure Com-
plex Voltage Ratios, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques,
Vol. MTT-23, No. 12, December 1975
[18] C. A. Hoer: Performance of a Dual Six-Port Automatic Network Analyzer,
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-27, No. 12,
December 1979
[19] J. Hyyrylainen, L. Bogod, S. Kangasmaa, H.-O. Scheck, T. Ylamurto: Six-Port
Conversion Receiver, Proceedings of European Microwave Conference (EuMC),
Jerusalem, 1997
[20] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, T. Mack, W. Simon, J.-F. Luy: A Single-Pole-
Double-Throw Switch Based on the Toggle Switch, Electronics Letters, Vol. 39,
No. 8, pp. 668-670, 2003
[21] T. Mack, A. Honold, J.-F. Luy: An Extremely Broadband Software Cong-
urable Six-Port Receiver Platform, Proceedings of European Microwave Con-
ference (EuMC), Munich, October 2003
[22] M. H. Perrott: CppSim Behavioral Simulator Package, http://www-
mtl.mit.edu/researchgroups/perrottgroup/tools.html
[23] R. Murty: Software-Dened Recongurable Radios: Smart, Agile, Cognitive,
and Interoperable, Technology@Intel Magazine, July 2003
144
Bibliography
[24] T. M uller: Direktabtastende Architekturen f ur Hochfrequenzempfanger, Dis-
sertation, Technische Universitat M unchen (TUM), May 2002
[25] J. Hesselbarth, F. Wiedmann, B. Huyart: Two New Six-Port Reectometers
Covering Very Large Bandwidths, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement, Vol. 46, No. 4, December 1997
[26] M. Ratni, D. Krupezevic, Z. Wang, J.-U. J urgensen: Broadband Digital Direct
Down Conversion Receiver Suitable for Software Dened Radio, 13th IEEE In-
ternational Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications,
Vol. 1, pp 100-104, September 2002
[27] T. W. Crowe, R. J. Mattauch, H. P. Roser, W. L. Bishop, W. C. B. Peatman, X.
Liu: GaAs Schottky Diodes for THz Mixing Applications, Proceedings IEEE,
Vol. 80, No. 11, pp. 1827-1841, 1992
[28] S. A. Maas: Microwave Mixers, Artech House, Inc., ISBN: 0-89006-171-8, 1986
[29] Meinke, Gundlach: Taschenbuch der Hochfrequenztechnik, 5th Edition,
Springer Verlag, ISBN: 3-540-54717-7, 1992
[30] D. M. Pozar: Microwave and RF Design of Wireless Systems, John Wiley &
Sons, 1st edition, ISBN 0-471-32282-2, December 2000
[31] T. Hentschel: The Six-Port as a Communication Receiver, IEEE Transactions
on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. 53, No. 3, March 2005
[32] T. Mack, T. Eireiner: Frequency Conversion Processes in SDR Front-Ends,
MTT-S International Microwave Symposium, Workshop: RF Aspects of Soft-
ware Dened Radio, Long Beach, June 2005
[33] Y. Xu, R. G. Bosisio: Four-Port Digital Millimetric Receiver, Microwave and
Optical Technology Letters, Vol. 22, No. 5, September 1999
[34] G. F. Engen: Calibration of an Arbitrary Six-Port Junction for Measurement of
Active and Passive Circuit Parameters, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, Vol. IM-22, No. 4, December 1973
[35] G. F. Engen: Calibrating the Six-Port Reectometer by Means of Sliding Termi-
nations, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Techniques, Vol. MTT-
26, No. 12, December 1978
[36] F. Wiedmann, B. Huyart, E. Bergeault, L. Jallet: A New Robust Method for
Six-Port Reectometer Calibration, IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and
Measurement, Vol. 48, No. 5, December 1999
[37] M. Caron, F. Gagnon, N. Batani, D. J. Hindson, R. G. Bosisio: On Six-
Port Junction Based K-Band Direct Receivers, Second Ka-Band Utilization
Conference, Florence, Italy, September 1996
145
Bibliography
[38] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, W. Simon, J. Mehner, J.-F. Luy: A New Type
of High Bandwidth RF MEMS Switch Toggle Switch, Journal of Semiconductor
Technology and Science, Special Issue on MEMS, Vol. 2, No. 4, pp. 237-245,
December 2002
[39] W. Simon, B. Schauwecker, A. Lauer, A. Wien, I. Wol: EM Design of Broad-
band RF Multiport Toggle Switches, International Journal of RF and Mi-
crowave Computer-Aided Engineering, Vol. 14, Issue 4 , pp. 329-337, June 2004
[40] W. Simon, A. Lauer, B. Schauwecker, A. Wien: EM Design of an Isolated
Coplanar RF Cross for MEMS Switch Matrix Applications, Silicon Monolithic
Integrated Circuits in RF Systems, pp. 162-165, Greinau, April 2003
[41] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, J.-F. Luy: High Power RF-MEMS Switches,
IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave Symposium; Workshop notes: Advances
in RF MEMS: Components, Packaging Techniques, Reliability and Microphon-
ics; Phoenics, May 2001
[42] W. Simon, B. Schauwecker, A. Lauer, A. Wien: Designing a Novel RF MEMS
Switch for Broadband Power Applications, Vol. 2, pp. 519-522, European Mi-
crowave Conference (EuMC), Milan, 2002
[43] K. M. Strohm, B. Schauwecker, T. Mack, J.-F. Luy: System Implications Using
RF MEMS, Workshop WM1: Recent Developments in Si Micromachinig and
MEMS for High Frequency Applications, Milan, November 2002
[44] A. Margomenos, D. Peroulis, K. J. Herrick, L. Katehi: Silicon Micromachined
Packages for RF-MEMS Switches, European Microwave Conference (EuMC),
London 2001
[45] K. E. Petersen: Micromechanical Membrane Switches on Silicon, IBM Journal
of Research and Development, Vol. 23, pp. 376-385, 1979
[46] H. Hosaka, H. Kuwano, K. Yanagisawa: Electromagnetic Microrelays: Concepts
and Fundamental Characteristic, Sensors Actuators A, Vol. 40, pp. 41-47, 1994
[47] W. P. Taylor, M. G. Allen, C. R. Dauwa1ter: Batch Fabricated Electromagnetic
Microrelays, Proceedings of 45th Relay Conference, 1997
[48] W. P. Taylor, M. G. Allen: Integrated Magnetic Microrelays: Normally Open,
Normally Closed, and Multi-Pole Devices, Digest of International Conference
on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, pp. l149-1152, 1997
[49] H. A. C. Tilmans, E. Fullin, H. Ziad, M. D. J. Van de Peer, J. Kesters, E.
Van Geen, J. Bergqvist, M. Pantus, E. Beyne, K. Baert and F. Naso: A
Fully-Packaged Electromagnetic Microrelay, Digest of 12th IEEE International
Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, pp. 25-30, 1999
146
Bibliography
[50] J. A. Wright, Y.-C. Tai: Magnetostatic MEMS Relays for the Miniaturization of
Brushless DC Motor Controllers, Digest of 12th IEEE International Conference
on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, pp. 594-599, 1999
[51] M.-A. Gretillat, F. Gretillat, N. F. de Rooij: Micromechanical Relay with Elec-
trostatic Actuation and Metallic Contacts, Journal of Micromechanics and Mi-
croengineering, Vol. 9, pp. 324-33l, 1999
[52] C. Sanders: MCNC Thermally Actuated Microrelays, News Release MEMS
Technology Application Center MCNC, November 1998
[53] M. Beck, M.M. Ahmed, C. J. Brierley, A. P. Needham, S. P. Marsh: Mi-
crowave Filters and Switches Produced using Micro-Machining Techniques, In-
ternational Microwave Symposium, Boston, 2000
[54] L. E. Larson, R. H. Hackett, R. F. Lohr: Microactuators for GaAs-Based Mi-
crowave Integrated Circuits, Digest of 6th International Conference on Solid-
State Sensors and Actuators, pp. 743-746, 1991
[55] J. J. Yao, M. F. Chang: A Surface Micromachined Miniature Switch for
Telecommunications Applications with Signal Frequencies from DC up to 4
GHz, Digest of 8th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and Ac-
tuators, pp. 384-387, 1995
[56] I. Schiele, J. Huber, C. Evers, B. Hillerich, F. Kozlowski: Micromechanical
Relay with Electrostatic Actuation, Digest of International Conference on Solid-
State Sensors and Actuators, pp. 1165-1168, 1997
[57] H. J. De Los Santos, Y. H. Kao, A. L. Cajgoy, E. D. Ditmars: Microwave
and Mechanical Considerations in the Design of MEMS Switches for Aerospace
Applications, Proceedings IEEE Aerospace Conference, Vol. 3, pp. 235-254,
1997
[58] D. Hyman, A. Schmitz, B. Warneke, T. Y. Hsu, J. Lam, J. Brown, J. Schaner,
A. Walston, R.Y. Loo, G.L. Tangonan, M. Mehregany, J. Lee: Surface Micro-
machined RF MEMS Switches on GaAs Substrates International Journal RF
Microwave CAE, Vol. 9, pp. 348361, August 1999
[59] D. Hyman, A. Schmitz, B. Warneke, T.Y. Hsu, J. Lam, J. Brown, J. Schaner, A.
Walston, R.Y. Loo, G.L. Tangonan, M. Mehregany, J. Lee: GaAs-Compatible
Surface-Micromachined RF MEMS Switches, Electronics Letters, Vol. 35, pp.
224-226, 1999
[60] P. M. Zavracky, S. Majumder, N. E. McGruer: Micromechanical Switches Fab-
ricated using Nickel Surface Micromachining, IEEE Journal of MEMS, Vol. 6,
pp. 3-9, 1997
147
Bibliography
[61] S. Majumder, N. E. McGruer, P. M. Zavracky, G. G. Adams, R. H. Morrison,
J. Krim: Measurement and Modeling of Surface Micromachined, Electrostati-
cally Actuated Microswitches, Digest of International Conference on Solid-State
Sensors and Actuators, pp. 1145-1148, 1997
[62] N. E. McGruer, P. M. Zavracky, S. Majumder, R. H. Morrison, G. G. Adams:
Electrostatically Actuated Microswitches; Scaling Properties, Digest of Solid
State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, pp. 132-5, 1998
[63] H. F. Schlaak, F. Amdt, M. Hanke: Silicon-Microrelay A Small Signal Relay
With Electrostatic Actuator, Proceedings of 45th Relay Conference, pp. 10.1-
10.7, 1997
[64] K. Suzuki, S. Chen, T. Marumoto, A. Ara, R. Iwata: A Micromachined RF
Microswitch Applicable to Phased-Array Antennas, Digest of IEEE Microwave
Theory Techniques Symposium, pp. 1923-1926, 1999
[65] E. A. Sovero, R. Mihailovich, D. S. Deakin, J. A. Higgins, J. J. Yao, J. F.
DeNatale, J. H. Hong: Monolithic GaAs PHEMT MMICs Integrated with High
Performance MEMS Microrelays, Proceedings of IMOC, Rio de Janeiro, 1999
[66] J. B. Muldavin, G. M. Rebeiz: 30 GHz Tuned MEMS Switches, Digest of
IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Symposium, pp. 1511-1514, 1999
[67] C. Goldsmith, T.-H. Lin, B. Powers, W.-R. Wu, B. Norvell: Micromechanical
Membrane Switches for Microwave Applications, Digest of IEEE Microwave
Theory and Techniques Symposium, pp. 91-94, 1995
[68] C. Goldsmith, J. Randall, S. Eshelman, T.-H. Lin, D. Denniston, S. Chen, B.
Norvell: Characteristics of micromachined switches at microwave frequencies,
Digest of IEEE Microwave Theory and Techniques Symposium, pp. 1141, 1996
[69] Z. J. Yao, S. Chen, S. Eshelman, D. Denniston, C. Goldsmith: Micromachined
Low-Loss Microwave Switches, IEEE Journal of MEMS, Vol. 8, pp. 129-34,
1999
[70] S. Pacheco, C. T. Nguyen, L. P. B. Katehi: Micromachined Electrostatic K-
band Switches, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave Symposium,
pp. 1569-1572, 1998
[71] M. Sakata, Y. Komura, T. Seki, K. Kobayashi, K. Sano, S.Horiike: Micro-
machined Relay which Utilizes Single Crystal Silicon Electrostatic Actuator,
Digest of 12th IEEE International Conference on Micro Electro Mechanical Sys-
tems, pp. 21-24, 1999
[72] K. M. Hiltmann, B. Schmidt, H. Sandmaier, W. Lang: Development of Micro-
machined Switches with Increased Reliability, Digest of International Confer-
ence on Solid-State Sensors and Actuators, pp. 1157-1160, 1997
148
Bibliography
[73] J. Drake, H. Jerman, B. Lutze, M. Stuber: An Electrostatically Actuated
Micro-Relay, Digest of 8th International Conference on Solid-State Sensors and
Actuators, pp. 380-383, 1995
[74] M. Admschik, S. Ertl, P. Schmid, P. Gluche, A. Floter, E. Kohn: Electrostatic
Diamond Micro Switch, Digest of 8th International Conference on Solid-Slate
Sensors and Actuators, pp. 1284-1287, 1999
[75] M.-A. Gretillat, P. Thiebaud, C. Linder, N. F. de Rooij: Integrated Circuit
Compatible Polysilicon Microrelays, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengi-
neering, Vol. 5, pp. 156-160, 1995
[76] J. Simon, S. Saer, C. J. Kim: A Micromechanical Relay with a Thermally-
Driven Mercury Micro-Drop, Proceedings of IEEE 9th Anniversary Interna-
tional Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, pp. 515-520, 1996
[77] S. Saer, J. Simon, C. J. Kim: Mercury-Contact Switching with Gap-Closing
Microcantilever, Proceedings of SPIE, Vol. 2882, pp. 204-208, Austin, October
1996
[78] X. Q. Sun, K. R. Farmer, W. N. Carr: A Bistable Microrelay based on Two-
Segment Multimorph Cantilever Actuators, Proceedings of IEEE 11th Anniver-
sary International Workshop on Micro Electro Mechanical Systems, pp. 154-159,
1998
[79] E. J. J. Kruglick, K. S. J. Pister: Bistable MEMS Relays and Contact Charac-
terization, Digest of Solid State Sensor and Actuator Workshop, pp. 333-337,
1998
[80] I. Schiele, B. Hillerich: Comparison of Lateral and Vertical Switches for Appli-
cation as Microrelays, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, Vol.
9, 146-150, 1999
[81] B. Schauwecker, T. Mack, K. M. Strohm, W. Simon, J.-F. Luy: RF MEMS for
Advanced Automotive Applications, MSTNEWS Main Topic: MOEMS and
RF MEMS, Vol. 04, pp. 37-38, September 2003
[82] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, W. Simon, J.-F. Luy: RF-MEMS Components
for Broadband Applications, IV. Topical Meeting on Silicon Monolithic Inte-
grated Circuits in RF Systems, pp. 166169, Garmisch, April 2003
[83] E. J. J. Kruglick, K. S. J. Pister: Lateral MEMS Microcontact Considerations,
IEEE Journal of MEMS, Vol. 8, pp. 264-271, 1999
[84] S. Timoshenko, S. Woinowskey-Kreiger: Theory of Plates and Shells, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1959
149
Bibliography
[85] C. Truesdell: The Mechanical Foundations of Elasticity Theory, Springer-
Verlag, 1965
[86] B. Schauwecker, J. Mehner, K. Strohm, H. Haspeklo, J.-F. Luy: Investigations
on RF Shunt Airbridge Switches Among Dierent Environmental Conditions,
Sensors and Actuators A, Vol. 114, pp. 49-58, May 2004
[87] J. Mehner, F. Bennini, W. Dotzel: CAD for Microelectromechanical Systems.
System Design Automation - Fundamentals, Principles, Methods, Examples,
Kluwer Academic Publishers, pp. 111-132, 2000
[88] J. Mehner: Entwurf in der Mikrosystemtechnik, Dresden University Press,
2000
[89] B. Schauwecker, J. Mehner, J.-F. Luy: Modeling and Simulation Considera-
tions For a New Micro-Electro-Mechanical Switch - Toggle Switch, IV. Topical
Meeting on Silicon Monolithic Integrated Circuits in RF Systems, pp. 192-195,
Garmisch, April 2003
[90] J. Mehner, S. Kurth, D. Billep, et al.: Simulation of Gas Damping in Mi-
crostructures with Nontrivial Geometries, Proceedings of MEMS, pp. 172-177,
Heidelberg, 1998
[91] S. D. Senuria: Microsystem Design, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2001
[92] J. Mehner, L. Gabbay, S. D. Senturia: Computer-Aided Generation of Nonlin-
ear Reduced-Order Dynamic Macromodels: II. Stress-Stiened Case, Journal
of Microelectromechanical Systems, 2000
[93] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, W. Simon, J. Mehner, J.-F. Luy: Toggle-Switch
A New Type of RF MEMS Switch for Power Applications, IMS 2002, Vol. 1,
pp. 219-222, Seattle, June 2002
[94] D. Ostergaard, E. Antonova, J. Mehner, F. Vogel: Dynamic Macromodeling of
Electrostatic Actuated MEMS Structures, 20. International Congress on FEM-
Technology, Friedrichshafen, Germany 2002
[95] J. A. King: Materials Handbook of Hybrid Microelectronics, Artech House,
Boston, 1988
[96] B. Schauwecker, T. Mack, K. Strohm, W. Simon, J.-F. Luy: A Very Compact
RF MEMS Switch for Frequencies up to 50 GHz, Proceedings of European
Microwave Week, Munich, Germany, October 2003
[97] T. Mack: Si/SiGe Hetero-Feldeekt-Transistoren f ur Hochfrequenzanwendun-
gen, Diplomarbeit, Department of Semiconductor Physics, University of Ulm,
November 2001
150
Bibliography
[98] B. Schauwecker, W. Simon, K. M. Strohm, T. Mack, J.-F. Luy: New Measure-
ment Results of the RF MEMS Toggle Switch, Proceeding of the 4th Round
Table on Micro/Nano Technologies for Space, ESTEC, Noordwijk, May 2003
[99] B. Schauwecker, K. M. Strohm, T. Mack, W. Simon, J.-F. Luy: Serial Com-
bination of Ohmic and Capacitive RF MEMS Switches for Large Broadband
Applications, Electronics Letters, Vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 44-46, 2004
[100] E. R. Brown: RF-MEMS Switches for Recongurable Integrated Circuits,
IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Technique, Vol. 46, No. 11, pp.
1868-1880, November 1998
[101] J.H. Schaner, R.Y. Loo, A.E. Schmitz, Tsung-Yuan Hsu, D.J. Hyman, A. Wal-
ston, B.A. Warneke, G.L. Tangonan, S.W. Livingston: RF MEMS switches for
Tunable Filters and Antennas, Proceedings of 3rd International Conference on
Micro Opto Electro Mechanical Systems (MOEMS 99), pp. 244, Mainz, 1999
[102] B. Pillans, J. Kleber, C. Goldsmith, M. Eberly: RF Power Handling of Ca-
pacitive RF MEMS Devices, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave
Symposium, pp. 329-332, June 2002
[103] S.P. Pacheco, L.P.B. Katehi, and C.T.C. Nguyen: Design of Low Actuation
Voltage RF MEMS Switch Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave
Symposium, pp. 167170, Boston, June 2000
[104] N. Barker, G. Rebeiz: Distributed MEMS True-Time Delay Phase Shifters
and Wide-Band Switches, IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Tech-
niques, Vol. 46, No. 11, pp. 1881-1890, November 1998
[105] C. Goldsmith, J. Ehmke, A. Malczewski, B. Pillans, S. Eshelman, Z. Yao,
J. Brank, M. Eberly: Lifetime Characterization of Capacitive RF-MEMS
Switches, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International Microwave Symposium, pp.
227-230, May 2001
[106] M. Ulm, T. Walter, J. Schier, R. Mueller-Fiedler, E. Kasper: Microelectro-
mechanical Capacitive RF Switches on High Resistivity Silicon Substrates,
VDE World Microtechnologies Congress (MICRO.tec), pp. 93-96, Hannover,
September 2000
[107] E. Moldovan, S.-O. Tatu, T. Gaman, K. Wu, R. G. Bosisio: A New 94-GHz
Six-Port Collision-Avoidance Radar Sensor, IEEE Transactions on Microwave
Theory and Techniques, Vol. 52, No. 3, March 2004
[108] V. Bilik, V. Raaj, J. Bezek: A New Extremely Wideband Lumped Six-Port
Reectometer, Proceedings of 20th European Microwave Conference (EuMC),
Vol. 2, pp. 1473, Budapest, 1990
151
Bibliography
[109] S.

Ulker, R. M. Weikle: A Millimeter-Wave Six-Port Reectometer Based on
the Sampled-Transmission Line Architecture, IEEE Microwave and Wireless
Components Letters, Vol. 11, No. 8, August 2001
[110] A. S. Mohra: Six-Port Reectometer Based on Four 0
/180
Microstrip Ring
Couplers, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, Vol. 40, No. 2, September
2004
[111] M. H. W. Homann: Hochfrequenztechnik, Springer Verlag, ISBN: 3-540-
61667-5, 1997
[112] D. M. Pozar: Microwave Engineering, 2nd edition, John Wiley&Sons Inc.,
0-471-17096-8, 1998
[113] T. Wuchenauer: Nachf uhrbare Antennen mit Micromechanischen Phasen-
schiebern, Diplomarbeit, Universitat Ulm, September 2002
[114] M. H. Perrott: Fast and Accurate Behavioral Simulation of Fractional-N Fre-
quency Synthesizers and other PLL/DLL Circuits, Design Automation Confer-
ence, June 2002
[115] M. H. Perrott: CppSim Reference Manual, http://www-mtl.mit.edu/ perrott
[116] W. Gander, W. Gautschi: Adaptive Quadrature - Revisited, BIT, Vol. 40, pp.
84-101, 2000
[117] S. O. Tatu, E. Moldovan, K. Wu, R. G. Bosisio: A Rapid Carrier Recovery
Loop for Direct Conversion Receivers, Proceedings of IEEE Radio and Wireless
Conference (RAWCON), pp. 159-162, Boston, August 2003
[118] Y. Xu, R. G. Bosisio: Analog Carrier Recovery Circuits for Six-Port Direct
Digital Receivers, Microwave and Optical Technology Letters, Vol. 31, No. 6,
December 2001
[119] F. Rangel de Sousa, B. Huyart: Carrier Recovery in Five-Port Receivers,
European Conference on Wireless Technology (ECWT), Munich, October 2003
[120] O. Mireux, J.-J. Brault, R. G. Bosisio: Results on a Direct Digital Receiver
Operated with Fast Learning Networks, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International
Microwave Symposium, Seattle, 2002
[121] T. Mack, T. Eireiner, T. M uller, J.-F. Luy: A Digital mm-Wave Smart Antenna
Receiver Based on Six-Port Technology for Near Range Radar Applications,
Proceedings of European Microwave Conference (EuMC), Amsterdam, October
2004
[122] B. Huyart, J.-J Laurin, R. G. Bosisio, D. Roscoe: A Direction-Finding Antenna
System using an Integrated Six-Port Circuit, IEEE Transactions on Antennas
and Propagation, Vol. 43, No. 12, pp. 1508-1512, December 1995
152
Bibliography
[123] T.Yamaji, D. Kurose, O. Watanabe, S. Obayashi, T. Itakura: A Four-Input
Beam-Forming Downconverter for Adaptive Antennas, IEEE Journal of Solid-
State Circuits, Vol. 38, No. 10, October 2003
[124] C. G. Migelez, B. Huyart, E. Bergeault, L. P. Jallet: A New Automobile Radar
Based on the Six-Port Phase/ Frequency Discriminator, IEEE Transactions on
Vehicular Technology, Vol. 49, No. 4, pp. 1416-1423, July 2000
[125] A. Stelzer, C. G. Diskus, R. Weigel, H. W. Thim: Using a Six-Port Device in
an FM-CW Radar, Polytechnic International Press, pp. 323-326, ISBN 2-553-
00935-6.
[126] A. Stelzer, C. G. Diskus, R. Weigel: FM-CW Prazisionsradarsensor mit
Six-Port Technologie, Informationstagung Mikroelektronik, ME01, Wien,
Osterreichischer Verband f ur Elektrotechnik,

OVE-Schriftenreihe No. 26, pp.
197-202, 2001
[127] C. G. Diskus, A. Stelzer, C. Gamsjager, K. Lubke, E. Kolmhofer, H. W. Thim:
35 GHz Six-Port Receiver For Radar Applications, Proceedings of the SPIE -
The International Society for Optical Engineering, Vol. 3752, pp 355-365, Den-
ver, July 1999
[128] G. Fettweis, T. Hentschel, E. Zimmermann:WIGWAM A Wireless Gigabit
System with Advanced Multimedia Support, presented a the VDE Congress,
Berlin, October 2004
[129] http://www.wimax.com
[130] U. Tietze, Ch. Schenk: Halblerter-Schaltungstechnik, 12th edition, Springer
Verlag, ISBN 3-540-42849-6, 2002
[131] K. M. Strohm, F. J. Schm uckle, B. Schauwecker, J.-F. Luy, W. Heinrich: Silicon
Micromachined RF MEMS Resonators, Digest of IEEE MTT-S, International
Microwave Symposium, Vol. 2, pp. 1209-1212, Seattle, 2002
[132] K. M. Strohm, F. J. Schm uckle, B. Schauwecker, W. Heinrich, J.-F. Luy: Silicon
Micromachined CPW Transmission Lines, Proceedings of European Microwave
Conference (EuMC), Vol. 2, pp. 895-898, Milan, 2002
153
Bibliography
154
Kurzfassung
Die Zielsetzung dieser Arbeit ist das Design und die Evaluierung eines universellen,
rekongurierbaren Hochfrequenz- (HF) Empfangers f ur mehrere Kommunikations-
standards (Multi-Standard) bei unterschiedlichen Frequenzen (Multiband). Das
Front-End basiert auf
Software Dened Radio (SDR), was durch die Verlagerung

von traditionellen Hardwarestrukturen in den Digitalbereich eine signikante Komple-
xitatsreduzierung bedeutet. Zur Abwartsmischung dient das Multi-Tor-Prinzip. Dies
stellt eine elegante Moglichkeit dar, Frequenzen uber einen sehr groen Frequenzbe-
reich zu empfangen.
Die Original-Multi-Tor-Theorie bezieht sich ausschlielich auf alternative Netzwerk-
Analysatoren. Seit den spaten neunziger Jahren wurde das Prinzip auf HF-
Kommunikationsempfanger erweitert, jedoch wurde die zu Grunde liegende Theorie
nie ausreichend beschrieben. Deswegen soll mit dieser Arbeit auch eine exakte
mathematische Beschreibung der Frequenzumsetzung und der Demodulationsprozesse
in Multi-Tor-Empfangern etabliert werden, die auf eine anschauliche Art erklart
werden. Mit dieser neuen detaillierten Multi-Tor-Theorie kann dann die Evaluierung
des realisierten Sechs-Tores erfolgen und mit konventionellen Empfangerarchitekturen
verglichen werden.
Um gegenwartige und zuk unftige Frequenzbander zwischen einem und 40 Gi-
gahertz in einem einzigen Empfanger zu integrieren, muss die Hardware des
Multi-Tor-Interferometers selbst rekongurierbar gewahlt werden. Diese Hardware-
Rekongurierbarkeit im analogen Front-End setzt Strukturen voraus, die das
HF-Signal mit moglichst geringem Verlust umschalten konnen. Dies wird beispiels-
weise im Umschalter zwischen Sende- und Empfangspfad, aber auch zur Auswahl
verschiedener Sechs-Tor-Interferometer notwendig. Die Anforderung an solche Schalter
sind einerseits moglichst geringe Signaldampfung, um das Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhaltnis
nicht zu beeintrachtigen. Andererseits m ussen die Schalter sehr hohe Sendeleistungen
aushalten, wie sie in einem Umschalter zwischen Sende- und Empfangspfad auftreten.
Diese beiden Bedingungen sind mit herkommlichen Schaltern auf Basis von Dioden
nicht ausreichend realisierbar. Die Arbeit zeigt, wie mit der neuartigen Technologie
auf Basis mikro-elektromechanischer Strukturen (MEMS) genau solche Schalter
umgesetzt werden konnen. Weil Schalter mit geringem Verlust und hoher Leistun-
gresistenz das Schl usselelement in zuk unftigen Multi-Standard- und Multiband-
Empfangerarchitekturen darstellen, beschaftigt sich diese Arbeit ausf uhrlich mit dem
Herstellungsprozess und der Auswertung der Messwerte von HF-MEMS-Schaltern.
Dies ist insbesondere ein neuartiger einpoliger Umschalter (SPDT) mit ohmschem
Kontakt. Derartige Schalter konnen einen Frequenzbereich von null bis 40 Gigahertz
abdecken. Dabei bleibt die Einf ugedampfung unterhalb von einem Dezibel, wahrend
HF-Leistungen von mehreren Watt angewendet werden konnen.
Sobald die Leistungsfahigkeit der neuartigen MEMS-Schalter bekannt und bewertet
ist, konnen sie im Sechs-Tor-Empfanger eingesetzt werden. Zur genauen Evaluie-
rung des rekongurierbaren Sechs-Tor-Interferometers dienen Streuparameter, die
hinsichtlich Phasenlage und Signaldampfung ausgewertet werden. Da dieser Punkt
sehr ausf uhrlich erfolgt, wird dadurch auch das Verstandnis uber die Funktionsweise
des Multi-Tor-Prinzipes verbessert, insbesondere hinsichtlich der groen Frequenzab-
deckung des einzelnen Interferometers.
Letztlich muss das entwickelte Empfanger-Front-End auch den Anforderungen
moderner Kommunikationsstandards gen ugen. Zur ersten Abschatzung dienen hier
Rauschmessungen, bei denen die Symbolfehlerrate in Abhangigkeit vom Signal-zu-
Rausch-Verhaltnis pro Bit aufgezeigt wird. Es zeigt sich anhand der durchgef uhrten
Messungen, dass der Empfanger in der Lage ist, samtliche Frequenzen zwischen einem
und 40 Gigahertz mit guter Qualitat umzusetzen und Signale zu demodulieren.
Einleitung
Motivation und Stand der Technik
Die Kommunikationsindustrie steht heute der Herausforderung gegen uber, eine
wachsende Zahl von HF Kommunikationssystemen zu integrieren. Insbesondere im
Automobilbereich gibt es eine sehr groe Zahl an unterschiedlichen Empfangern,
angefangen bei Mittelwelle-Radio, uber Systeme zur elektronischen Mauterfassung
bei 5,7 GHz, bis hin zu Radarsystemen bei 79 GHz. Zuk unftige Kommunikations-
standards mit deutlich hoheren Datenraten, die sich die hohen Bandbreiten in den
Frequenzbandern bei 17 GHz, 24 GHz, und 60 GHz zu Nutze machen, werden folgen.
Stand der Technik ist heute die Verwendung einer speziellen Empfangerhardware, die
nur auf eine Frequenz angepasst ist. Mit derartigen Architekturen werden Multiband
Empfanger sehr komplex, inezient und teuer. Die Losung ist eine universelle
Hardware-Plattform f ur samtliche Standards.
Aus diesem Grunde ist es von hochstem Interesse, eine Empfangerarchitektur zu
entwickeln, die viele Frequenzbander und Standards bedienen kann. Diese Anfor-
derung kann dadurch erf ullt werden, dass traditionelle Hardware in den digitalen
Bereich verlagert wird. Diese Art von Empfanger nennt man Software Dened
Radio (SDR) [1]. Mit den Fortschritten in der CMOS Technologie, bei Analog-
Digital-Wandlern (ADC), programmierbaren digitalen Signalprozessoren (DSP) und
Hochgeschwindigkeits-Datenleitungen ist die Umsetzung des SDR-Prinzips heute aus
der Sicht der digitalen Datenverarbeitung moglich. Viel Forschungsarbeit wird auf
diesem Gebiet geleistet. Dennoch ist es unerlasslich, auch spezielle Hardware f ur
SDR-Anwendungen zu entwickeln. Darunter fallt der gesamte Pfad von der Antenne
bis zum ADC. Ein eektives und zuverlassig funktionierendes Prinzip muss gefunden
werden, um Frequenzumsetzungen uber einen sehr groen Bereich durchf uhren zu
konnen. Eine eigens daf ur entwickelte, vereinfachte Hardware-Architektur muss dann
exibel sein und unabhangig von der Modulationsart funktionieren.
Die Motivation dieser Arbeit ist das Design eines breitbandigen Empfangers f ur einen
Frequenzbereich von 1 GHz bis 40 GHz mit reduziertem Hardwareaufwand. Solche
breitbandigen Kommunikationsempfanger tauchen bis heute nicht in der Literatur auf.
Um dieses Ziel zu erreichen, werden zunachst alle moglichen Empfangerarchitekturen
in Hinblick auf SDR-Anwendungen untersucht [2][3]. Es zeigt sich, dass das Multi-
Tor-Prinzip [4] durch seine Breitbandigkeit und Einfachheit eine vielversprechende
Losung darstellt. Die in der Literatur aufgef uhrten Multi-Tore unterscheiden sich
vor allem in der Anzahl der Ausgangstore. Zu nden sind F unf-Tore [5][6][7] und
Sechs-Tore [8][9][10][11][12][13].
Der Sechs-Tor-Empfanger, der in dieser Arbeit genauer untersucht wird, verwen-
det ein Lokaloszillator (LO) und breitbandig angepasste Leistungsdetektoren zur
Frequenzumsetzung. Zur Demodulation tritt das SDR-Prinzip in Erscheinung. Um
jedoch den immensen Frequenzbereich abdecken zu konnen, muss die Hardware selbst
Moglichkeiten bieten, Signale zwischen zwei verschiedenen Sechs-Tor-Interferometern,
zwischen verschiedenen Antennen, und zwischen dem Sende- und Empfangspfad
umzuschalten. Diese Besonderheit wurde mit HF-MEMS-Schaltern umgesetzt [14].
Der Entwicklungsprozess dieser komplett neuartigen Schalter ist sehr komplex und
wurde in Rahmen eines von der ESA beauftragten Forschungsprojekts durchgef uhrt.
Die Projektbezeichnung lautet MEMOS:
Microwave Electrostatic Micro-Machined

Devices For On-Board Applications.
Wissenschaftlicher Beitrag der Arbeit und

Ubersicht
Die Arbeit zeigt die schrittweise Entwicklung der Multi-Standard- und Multi-
band Empfangerplattform, angefangen vom theoretischen Hintergrund des Multi-Tor
Empfangers bis hin zur messtechnischen Evaluierung der Daten ubertragung. Die Be-
sonderheit liegt in der Entwicklung der dazu notwendigen verlustarmen HF-Schalter,
die hohe Leistungen schalten konnen. Der Entwicklungsprozess ist ausf uhrlich in Ka-
pitel 3 beschrieben. Der wissenschaftliche Mehrwert dieser Untersuchungen ist durch
folgende Punkte gegeben:
Stabiler Herstellungsprozess neuartiger MEMS: ein ohmscher einpoliger Ein-
/Ausschalter, ein einpoliger Umschalter und ein
HF-Cross. Diese Strukturen

konnen auf Standard Silizium-Wafern hergestellt werden (CMOS-Kompatibilitat
ist gewahrleistet)
Durch ihre bessere Handhabung und die geringere Einf ugedampfung sind die
MEMS-Schalter den konventionellen PIN-Dioden-Schaltern uberlegen.
Neben S-Parameter Messungen bieten Leistungsmessung, Schaltzyklenmessung,
Kontaktwiderstandsmessungen und Messung der Temperaturabhangigkeit einen
Einblick in Performance und Zuverlassigkeitsuntersuchungen der Schalter.
Daneben werden im Hinblick auf Multi-Tor-Empfanger einige neue Erkenntnisse ge-
wonnen. Darunter fallen:
Eine umfassende und genaue mathematische Beschreibung der Multi-Tor-
Theorie, die auf dem Prinzip der additiven Mischung aufbaut. Dies erlaubt, die
Frequenzumsetzungsprozesse in Multi-Tor-Empfangern besser zu verstehen.
Ein neuartiges Sechs-Tor Front-End wird vorgestellt, das einen extrem groen
Frequenzbereich abdeckt.
Eine detaillierte Beschreibung der Phasenbeziehungen verbessert das Verstandnis
des Multi-Tor-Interferometers.
Symbol-Fehlerraten-Messungen bei unterschiedlichen Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhalt-
nissen werden uber den gesamten Frequenzbereich von einem bis 40 GHz durch-
gef uhrt.
Der wissenschaftliche Inhalt beginnt im nachsten Kapitel
Theoretischer Hintergrund
von Multi-Tor-Empfangern (Kapitel 2) mit einer kurzen Einf uhrung in SDR-
Empfanger im Zusammenhang mit dem Multi-Tor-Prinzip. Es folgt eine Beschreibung
des verwendeten Halbleiter-Diodendetektors. Dies ist essentiell, um spater die Fre-
quenzumsetzungsprozesse zu verstehen. Die Dioden sind letztlich die Abwartsmischer.
Es erfolgt eine gr undliche Ausarbeitung und Anwendung der Diodentheorie in
dieser Arbeit. Die Theorie fokussiert auf dem Multi-Tor-Prinzip im Kontext von
Kommunikationsempfangern, dies weist nur noch wenige Gemeinsamkeiten mit der
urspr unglichen Anwendung als Netzwerkanalysator auf. Jedoch bilden die fr uhen
Arbeiten zu Sechs-Tor-Reektometern von Cohn [16], Engen [4][17] und Hoer [18][19]
die Grundlage des heutigen Empfangers. Die heutige Empfangertheorie unterscheidet
sich dadurch, dass sie ein moduliertes Signal und damit den dynamischen Misch-
prozess beschreibt. Der neue Vorsto gibt tiefe Einblicke in die Funktionsweise
von Multi-Tor-Empfangern und betrachtet die Frequenzumsetzung nicht als
Black
Box[20].
Um den Sechs-Tor-Empfanger uber einen groen Frequenzbereich zu betreiben,
werden verlustarme HF-Schalter im analogen Front-End benotigt. In Kapitel 3,
HF-MEMS-Schalter zur Signalleitung, werden Moglichkeiten aufgezeigt, dieses

Problem mit Hilfe der MEMS-Technologie zu losen. Am Anfang des Kapitels steht
eine

Ubersicht uber den heutigen Stand dieser jungen Technologie. Das Prinzip
des einpoligen Umschalters (SPDT) wird erlautert. Dieser besteht aus einem neu-
artigen ohmschen einpoligen Ein-/Ausschalter, genannt
Toggle Schalter [21], in

Kombination mit einem kapazitiven einpoligen Ein-/Ausschalter, der erst bei hohen
Frequenzen zur Wirkung kommt. Der Entwicklungsprozess wird von mechanischen
und elektromagnetischen Simulationen begleitet. Design-
Anderungen sind notwendig,

um die MEMS auf ihre technologischen Fertigungsprozesse anzupassen und die
HF-Leistungsfahigkeit zu verbessern. Auf gute Streuparameter und Vertraglichkeit
von hoher HF-Leistung wurde dabei besonders geachtet. Zusatzliche Simulationen
und Messungen geben Einblick in die Zuverlassigkeit der Schalter.
Die entwickelten verlustarmen Schalter werden im rekongurierbaren Sechs-Tor-
Interferometer eingesetzt. Dies wird ausf uhrlich in Kapitel 4,
Die Multi-Band
Sechs-Tor-Schaltung auf MEMS-Basis, geschildert. Das Kapitel beginnt mit der
Einf uhrung verschiedener HF-Interferometer und deren Designrichtlinien. Um die
MEMS im Kontext der Multi-Tor-Anwendungen zu beleuchten, wurde ein 1,5 GHz
Sechs-Tor-Interferometer, bestehend aus einem Leistungsteiler und drei 90 Grad
Hybriden, konzipiert und vermessen. Da dies sehr ausf uhrlich erfolgt, soll der Leser
auch an die Funktionsweise des Interferometers und die sich daraus ergebenden Pha-
senbeziehungen herangef uhrt werden. Ein zweites Sechs-Tor wurde aus kommerziellen
Komponenten aufgebaut, das eine bemerkenswerte Bandbreite von 2 bis 25 GHz
abdeckt (der spatere Empfanger funktioniert sogar bei 40 GHz) [23]. Am Ende des
Kapitels wird die rekongurierbare Schaltung evaluiert. Dies gelingt mit Hilfe von
Agilent ADS, wobei die Messergebnisse der MEMS und der beiden Sechs-Tore in die
Simulation mit einieen.
Im Kapitel 5,
Messergebnisse des rekongurierbaren Sechs-Tor-Empfangers, wird

der Multi-Band-Empfanger in seinem vorgesehenen Frequenzbereich von einem bis
40 GHz. evaluiert. Dies gelingt durch die Auswertung der Symbolfehlerraten in
Abhangigkeit des Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhaltnisses von QPSK-modulierten Signalen.
Schottky Dioden, die zunachst charakterisiert werden, dienen wie in der Theorie
beschrieben zur Abwartsmischung des modulierten Signals. Simulationen zur Unter-
suchung von Kanalrauschen und Phasenrauschen des Lokaloszillators liegen in den
theoretischen Erwartungen. Die Simulationen werden im Zeitbereich durchgef uhrt,
was eine erhohte Geschwindigkeitsanforderung an die Simulationsumgebung stellt.
Ein neues auf C++ basierendes Computerprogramm (CppSim) [22], entwickelt
von Prof. Perrott am Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), leistet bei den
Systemsimulationen deutliche Geschwindigkeitsverbesserung. Es zeigt sich, dass die
Messungen den theoretischen und simulierten Ergebnissen entsprechen. Am Ende des
Kapitels wird auf weitere Anwendungsgebiete der Sechs-Tor-Technologie im Bereich
Distanzmessung, Radar und intelligente Antennen verwiesen.
Die Arbeit endet mit einer Zusammenfassung, der Angabe der erzielten Ergebnisse,
sowie den erwarteten Aussichten der vorgestellten neuen Technologie.
Inhaltsverzeichnis
1 Einleitung 1
1.1 Motivation und Stand der Technik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Wissenschaftlicher Beitrag der Arbeit und

Ubersicht . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2 Theorie von Multi-Tor-Empfangern 5
2.1 Das SDR-Konzept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Einf uhrung in SDR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 SDR-Architekturen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Theorie der Diodendetektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Ersatzschaltbild der Halbleiterdiode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.2 Diodendetektoren in Multi-Tor-Anwendungen . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Einfache Beschreibung des Multi-Tor-Empfangers . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.4 Mathematische Beschreibung des Multi-Tor-Empfangers . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.1 Theorie der Additiven Mischung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.4.2 Die Multi-Tor-Theorie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4.3 Kalibrierungsmethodik und IQ-Berechnung . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Frequenzkonversionsprozesse in Multi-Tor-Empfangern . . . . . . . . . 18
3 Routing von HF-Signalen mittels MEMS 25
3.1 Motivation und Einf uhrung in HF-MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.1.1 Typische Anwendungen von HF-MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2

Ubersicht der untersuchten HF-MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.3 Theoretischer Hintergrund der Simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.1 Mechanische Simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.3.2 Elektrostatische Simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3.3 Simulationen zum Einschwingverhalten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.3.4 Elektromagnetische Simulationen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.4 Design-Phase mit Simulationsergebnissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.1 Kapazitiver Br uckenschalter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.4.2 Toggle-Schalter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.4.3 Einpoliger Umschalter (SPDT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.4 HF-Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.5 Prozessfolge zur Herstellung der MEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.6 REM Aufnahmen und Ergebnisse aus experimentellen HF-Messungen . 52
i
Inhaltsverzeichnis
3.6.1 Experimentelle Ergebnisse des kapazitiven Br uckenschalters . . 52
3.6.2 Experimentelle Ergebnisse des Toggle-Schalters . . . . . . . . . 54
3.6.3 Experimentelle Ergebnisse des SPDT-Schalters . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.6.4 Experimentelle Ergebnisse des HF-Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.7 Zusatzliche Messungen und Zuverlassigkeitsuntersuchungen . . . . . . . 60
3.7.1 Ergebnisse der Schaltzeitmessung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.7.2 Vertraglichkeit mit hoher HF-Leistung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.7.3 Messung von Schaltzyklen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.7.4 Gleichstrom-Kontaktwiderstand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.7.5 Temperaturabhangigkeit und Zuverlassigkeit . . . . . . . . . . . 67
4 Die MEMS-basierende Multiband Sechs-Tor-Schaltung 69
4.1 Einf uhrung in das Gebiet passiver Multi-Tor-Interferometer . . . . . . . 69
4.2 Mogliche Multi-Tor-Architekturen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.1 Das N-Tor-Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
4.2.2 F unf-Tor und Sechs-Tor-Interferometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
4.3 Design und Analyse des 1,5 GHz Sechs-Tor-Interferometers (SP1500) . 73
4.3.1 Theoretischer Hintergrund der elektromagnetischen Simulationen 74
4.3.2 Substrat und Mikrostreifenleitung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.3.3 Design und Simulationsergebnisse des Leistungsteilers . . . . . . 76
4.3.4 Design und Simulationsergebnisse des 90 Grad Hybrids . . . . . 77
4.3.5 Simulations- und Messergebnisse des SP1500 . . . . . . . . . . . 79
4.4 Analyse des Sechs-Tor-Interferometers von 2 bis 25 GHz (SP40) . . . . 85
4.4.1 Herstellung eines breitbandigen Wilkinson-Leistungsteilers . . . 86
4.4.2 Messergebnisse des breitbandigen Wilkinson-Leistungsteilers . . 86
4.4.3 Herstellung eines breitbandigen 90 Grad Hybrids . . . . . . . . 87
4.4.4 Messergebnisse des breitbandigen 90 Grad Hybrids . . . . . . . 87
4.4.5 Messergebnisse des SP40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4.5 Das rekongurierbare MEMS-basierende Multiband-Front-End . . . . . 91
4.5.1 Mogliche Anwendungen von HF-MEMS in Empfanger-Front-Ends 91
4.5.2 Das MEMS-basierende rekongurierbare Sechs-Tor-Empfanger-
Front-End . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4.5.3 Simulationsergebnisse des MEMS-basierenden rekongurierba-
ren Sechs-Tor Empfanger-Front-Ends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4.5.4 Der HF-Umschalter zwischen Sende- und Empfangspfad . . . . 101
5 Messergebnisse des rekongurierbaren Sechs-Tor-Empfangers 103
5.1 Simulationsumgebung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
5.1.1 Funktionsprinzip des Simulationsprogramms CppSim . . . . . . 103
5.1.2 Aufbau der Simulationsplattform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.1.3 Ablauf der Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
5.2 Simulationsergebnisse des Sechs-Tor-Empfangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.1 Ein usse von Kanalrauschen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2.2 Auswirkungen eines Frequenz-Osets und Phasenrauschen . . . 112
ii
Inhaltsverzeichnis
5.3 Charakterisierung der Schottky-Diodendetektoren . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
5.4 Messergebnisse des Sechs-Tor-Empfangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.1 Messaufbau und Messablauf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.4.2 Generelle Auswirkungen von HF- und LO-Leistung auf die
Empfangsqualitat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.4.3 Generelles Rauschverhalten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.4 Generelles Verhalten bei Phasenrauschen . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.5 Ein usse von Storern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.4.6 Frequenzabhangige Symbolfehlerraten-Untersuchungen des
Multiband-Empfangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.5 Alternative Applikationen des Multi-Tor Prinzips . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
6 Erzielte Ergebnisse und Perspektiven 133
6.1 Zusammenfassung . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
6.2 Erzielte Ergebnisse und Ausblick . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Abbildungsverzeichnis 137
Abk urzungen:
IQ In-phase/ Quadrature
HF Hochfrequnz
MEMS Mikro-Elektromechanische Systeme
SDR Software Dened Radio
SPDT Single Pole Double Throw (einpoliger Umschalter)
REM Rasterelektronenmikroskop
DC Gleichstrom
GHz Gigahertz
SER Symbolfehlerrate
SP1500 Sechs-Tor-Interferometer mit Mittenfrequenz 1,5 GHz
SP20 Sechs-Tor-Interferometer f ur den Frequenzbereich von 2 GHz bis 25 GHz
QPSK Quadratur-Phasen-Modulation (quadrature phase shift keying)
iii
Ergebnisse und Perspektiven
Mit dieser Dissertation wird eine neuartige Empfangerarchitektur vorgestellt, die es
erlaubt, verschiedene Kommunikationsstandards im Frequenzbereich von 1 GHz bis
40 GHz zu empfangen. Die Arbeit deckt den gesamten Entwicklungsprozess von der
theoretischen, mathematischen Beschreibung von Multi-Tor-Empfangern bis hin zu
Symbolfehlerraten-Messungen an der rekongurierbaren Empfangerarchitektur ab.
Das dazu notwendig Hardware-Design wurde moglich, indem HF-MEMS-Schalter
mit der sehr breitbandigen Multi-Tor-Technologie kombiniert wurden. Die MEMS-
Technologie ist heute noch im Entwicklungsstadium. Neue geeignete Schalter f ur
hohe Leistungen mit geringem Verlust wurden eigens daf ur entwickelt, den gehobenen
Anforderungen in dem rekongurierbaren Empfanger-Front-End zu gen ugen. Die
Empfangerarchitektur macht sich das SDR-Konzept zu Nutze, bei dem traditionelle
Hardware (z.B. zur Demodulation) in den digitalen Bereich verlagert wird. Die
neuartige Architektur ist sehr exibel und nicht auf heutige Standards begrenzt. Um
eine gewisse Servicequalitat gewahrleisten zu konnen, ist eine Abwartskompatibilitat
zuk unftiger Standards bei 17 GHz, 24 GHz oder 37 GHz zu den heutigen, weit
verbreiteten Standards bei etwa zwei Gigahertz von entscheidender Bedeutung. Die
Ubertragung in Frequenzbandern oberhalb von 10 GHz bietet die Moglichkeit sehr

hoher Datenraten. Eine universelle Empfangerplattform, die samtliche Standards
bedienen kann und zwischen diesen auch sehr schnell umschaltbar ist ist wegen
der damit verbundenen Komplexitats- und Kostenreduktion von hochstem Interesse.
Zusammenfassung
Nachstehend erfolgt eine Zusammenfassung der einzelnen Kapitel dieser Arbeit, sowie
eine Auistung der erzielten Ergebnisse und deren Mehrwert f ur die Wissenschaft.
Zum Schluss werden mogliche Ankn upfungspunkte aufgef uhrt und der Ausblick dieser
Technologie diskutiert.
Kapitel 1 schildert die Notwendigkeit, eine universelle Empfangerplattform f ur den
gewaltigen Frequenzbereich von 1 GHz bis 40 GHz zu entwickeln. Die Motivation
ist eine kosteng unstige Hardwarelosung, die exibel und erweiterbar ist. Dazu sind
Software- und Hardware-Kongurierbarkeit ein Muss.
Kapitel 2 beginnt mit einer kurzen Einf uhrung in das SDR-Konzept im Zusam-
menhang mit Multi-Tor-Empfangern. Daran anschlieend erfolgt die theoretische
Beschreibung des Diodendetektors und der darin verwendeten Halbleiterdiode. Dies
ist Voraussetzung, um den Prozess der additiven Mischung und der Frequenz-
Umsetzungsprozesse in Multi-Tor-Empfangern zu verstehen. Mit diesem theoretischen
Hintergrund kann dann auch die mathematische Beschreibung des an den Detekto-
rausgangen anliegenden Basisbandsignals verstanden werden, wie es sich aus dem
modulierten HF-Signal ableiten lasst.
In Kapitel 3 werden aktuelle Erkenntnisse im Bereich MEMS prasentiert. Die
Entwicklung und die Evaluierung neuartiger Umschalter auf MEMS-Basis zur
Signalleitung, die den Anforderungen in der Multi-Tor-Technologie entsprechen,
werden detailliert aufgezeigt. Darunter sind neuartige Strukturen wie Toggle-Schalter,
ein einpoliger Ein-/Ausschalter und ein daraus abgeleiteter einpoliger Umschal-
ter, sowie ein
HF Cross. Der Theorieteil des Kapitels beschaftigt sich mit den

mechanischen Eigenschaften der bewegbaren Teile. Geeignete mechanische und
elektromagnetische Simulationen dienen in der Designphase zur Verbesserung der
spateren HF-Eigenschaften. Diese neuartigen Schalter wurden im Reinraum auf 4 Zoll
Wafer hergestellt und anschlieend messtechnisch genau charakterisiert.
Kapitel 4 kn upft dann mit der Beschreibung des Designs des Multi-Tor-Interferometers
an. Das designierte Sechs-Tor wurde f ur die Mittenfrequenz von 1,5 GHz entwickelt. Es
besteht aus einem Leistungsteiler und drei 90-Grad-Hybriden in Mikrostreifentechnik.
Der Designprozess ist ausf uhrlich beschrieben. Zusammen mit den Messergebnissen
des zweiten, breitbandigen Sechs-Tores, das f ur den Frequenzbereich von 2 bis 25
GHz ausgelegt ist, wird dem Leser das Funktionsprinzip des rekongurierbaren
Empfangers klar. Der zweite Teil des Kapitels besteht in der Anwendung der MEMS-
Schalter und des
HF-Cross zur Umschaltung zwischen den zwei Sechs-Toren. Dazu

werden geeignete Systemsimulationen durchgef uhrt, die die tatsachlich gemessenen
S-Parameter verwenden. Es stellt sich heraus, dass die zusatzliche Signaldampfung
und die Phasenanderungen verhaltnismaig gering sind, was somit den reibungslosen
Einsatz des Interferometers uber den gesamten Frequenzbereich ermoglicht.
Kapitel 5 schliet die Evaluierung des Multi-Standard- und Multiband-Empfangers
mit geeigneten Symbolfehlerraten-Messungen ab. Zunachst werden Systemsimu-
lationen des Empfangers im Zeitbereich durchgef uhrt und mit den theoretischen
Vorhersagen verglichen. Die Simulationen schlieen weies Gausches Rauschen und
Phasenrauschen des Lokaloszillators mit ein. Am Ende des Kapitels werden gemessene
Symbolfehlerraten-Kurven in Abhangigkeit des Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhaltnisses pro
Bit aufgezeigt. Um eine Aussage uber den Frequenzgang des Empfangers treen zu
konnen, wurden solche Symbolfehlerraten-Kurven bei allen relevanten Kommuni-
kationsfrequenzen zwischen 1 GHz und 40 GHz aufgezeichnet. Die Messergebnisse
bestatigen die theoretischen Erwartungen. Des Weiteren wird auch der Grenzbereich
des Empfangers hierbei ersichtlich.
Erzielte Ergebnisse und Ausblick
Im Folgenden werden die wichtigsten Erfolge und deren wissenschaftlicher Beitrag zur
Verbesserung des Kenntnisstandes auf dem Gebiet von HF-MEMS und breitbandigen
SDR-Empfanger auf Multi-Tor Basis aufgelistet.
HF-MEMS
Ein stabiler Herstellungsprozess f ur neuartige HF-MEMS konnte aufgebaut wer-
den. Mit diesem Herstellungsprozess lassen sich vor allem die kritischen, beweg-
baren und freischwebenden Teile des kapazitiven Schalters, des Toggle-Schalters,
des einpoligen Umschalters und des
HF-Cross zuverlassig wiederholen. Zudem

wurde auf CMOS-Kompatibilitat Wert gelegt.
HF-Verhalten des neuen kapazitiven einpoligen Ein-/Ausschalters: bis 40 GHz
erfolgt eine Signalabschwachung von 35 dB bei einer Einf ugedampfung von 0,4
dB.
HF-Verhalten des neuartigen ohmschen einpoligen Ein-/Ausschalters (Toggle-
Schalter): bis 30 GHz ist die Einf ugedampfung unterhalb von 0,5 dB, die An-
passung uber 25 dB und die Isolation uber 14 dB. Dabei halt der Schalter eine
HF-Leistung von 1 W bei 30 GHz, 2 W bei 18 GHz, und 2,5 W bei 15 GHz aus.
HF-Verhalten des neuartigen zweipoligen Umschalters: bis 30 GHz liegt die
Einf ugedampfung unter 0,5 dB, die Anpassung uber 22 dB und die Isolation
uber 22 dB.
HF-Verhalten des neuartigen
HF-Cross: bis 30 GHz liegt die Einf ugedampfung

unter 1 dB (obere Leitung) bzw. 1,5 dB (untere Leitung).
Die gemessenen HF-Parameter sind denen von konventionellen Diodenschaltern
uberlegen. Sie haben sehr geringe Schaltspannungen und eine vernachlassigbare
Stromaufnahme. Die Einf ugedampfung typischer GaAs PIN-Diodenschalter liegt
deutlich uber 1,5 dB bei 20 GHz. Zudem halten diese oftmals nur HF-Leistungen
unterhalb von 200 mW stand und sind nicht CMOS kompatibel.
Eine detaillierte Analyse des Toggle- und des kapazitiven Schalters wurde durch-
gef uhrt. Die Schalter zeigen erwartete Temperaturabhangigkeit, der Gleichstrom-
Kontaktwiderstand stimmt mit den Berechnungen aus HF-Messungen uberein. Mit
50.000 erfolgreich durchgef uhrten Schaltzyklen halt der Toggle-Schalter der ersten
Bewahrungsprobe f ur den Alltagseinsatz stand. Verstarkungen der Struktur sind
hier jedoch notwendig, was ein Ansatz f ur weitere Arbeiten auf diesem Gebiet darstellt.
SDR-Multi-Tor-Empfanger
Eine umfassende und einfach zu verstehende mathematische Beschreibung des
Multi-Tor-Empfangers ist aufgef uhrt. Der Ansatz wendet die Theorie des additi-
ven Mischens auf das Multi-Tor-Prinzip an und erlaubt Einsicht in die stattn-
denden Frequenzumsetzungsprozesse. Daraus wird dann auch klar, warum der
Multi-Tor-Empfanger nicht - wie herkommliche IQ Empfanger - mit nur zwei
Ausgangen auskommt.
Eine neue Hardwarebasis f ur SDR-Empfanger von 1 GHz bis 40 GHz wurde
entwickelt und die Funktion messtechnisch nachgewiesen.
Durch die detaillierten Messungen wurde auch das Verstandnis der

Uberlage-
rungsmechanismen im Multi-Tor-Interferometer verbessert.
Symbolfehlerraten-Messungen in Abhangigkeit des Signal-zu-Rausch-Verhaltnis-
ses pro Bit uber den Frequenzbereich von 1 GHz bis 40 GHz verizieren die Funk-
tion als Kommunikationsempfanger. Symbolfehlerraten-Messungen, die einen
solch weiten Frequenzbereich abdecken, wurden bisher noch an keinem anderen
Kommunikationsempfanger aufgezeigt.
Die f ur diese Dissertation durchgef uhrten Arbeiten konnen in verschiedenen Bereichen
erweitert werden. So konnte zwar ein stabiler Herstellungsprozess f ur die MEMS
erzielt werden, jedoch ist der Ertrag pro Wafer noch gering. F ur eine Vermarktung
dieser hervorragenden HF-Schalter ist jedoch auch ein wirtschaftlicher Herstellungs-
prozess notwendig. Die Ausf uhrungen zum rekongurierbaren HF-Interferometer
sollen als Tauglichkeitsnachweis aufgefasst werden. Untersuchungen mit integrierten
Strukturen, moglichst ein Interferometer auf Si Basis, m ussen folgen. Eine genaue
Rauschuntersuchung, sowie Empndlichkeits- und Dynamikbewertung der Dioden-
detektoren steht aus. Dazu ist es unerlasslich, den kompletten HF-Pfad aufzubauen.
Dies beinhaltet den LNA, einen Bandpasslter, sowie Basisband-Verstarker.
Diese Dissertation erlaubt neue Einsichten in Multi-Tor-Empfanger. Der vorgestellte
Multi-Standard- und Multiband-Empfanger ist eine interessante und vielversprechende
Methode zur Frequenzumsetzung bei der Kommunikation im Millimeterwellenbereich.
Die Grenzfrequenz der Dioden liegt dabei bei mehreren hundert Gigahertz. Damit
bieten Dioden heute die einzige Technologie, um Frequenzen im oberen Millimeter-
wellenbereich umzusetzen. Auf der anderen Seite jedoch haben gerade die Dioden
auch Nachteile in Multi-Tor-Empfangern. Dioden haben im Vergleich zu heute
erhaltlichen Transistoren-Mischern einen deutlich hoheren Konversionsverlust. Dies
limitiert die Detektion von sehr schwachen Signalen deutlich (sie haben eine geringe
Empndlichkeit). Die Limitierung ergibt sich vor allem dadurch, dass die Dioden eine
hohe Vorverstarkung des Signals benotigen. Der dazu verwendete LNA kann dann
jedoch sehr leicht in seinen nichtlinearen Bereich getrieben werden, weil Kanalstorer
zu erwarten sind. Bandpass-Filter mit sehr hohen G ute- und geringen Dampfungs-
werten sind notwendig, um diese Storer noch vor dem LNA abzutrennen. Solche
Filter gibt es heute nicht. Die MEMS-Technologie konnte aber auch hier wiederum
helfen. Erste Ansatze sind in dieser Arbeit erwahnt. Dabei zeigt sich der Engpass
von Kommunikationselektronik auch beim Multi-Tor: Die Leistungsfahigkeit heutiger
Empfanger hangt mageblich von der G ute der Bandpasslter, der Linearitat der
Vorverstarker und nicht zuletzt vom Phasenrauschen des Lokaloszillators ab. Jedoch
sind heute noch keine groen Storein usse im Millimeterwellenbereich zu erwarten,
weil es noch keine Massenmarkt-Anwendungen gibt. Deswegen ist es vielversprechend,
Multi-Tor-Empfanger f ur diesen Frequenzbereich auszulegen.
Lebenslauf
Torsten Mack
geboren am 13. Dezember 1972
in Ulm-Soingen
06.92 Abitur am Hans und Sophie Scholl Gymnasium Ulm
08.92-11.93 Zivildienst
Studium Physik
01.94-07.94 Central Connecticut State University, New Britain, CT, USA
10.94-07.96 Universitat Ulm (Vordiplom Physik)
09.96-07.97 University of Leeds, England (Bachelor of Science)
09.97-02.02 Universitat Ulm (Physik Diplom)
Promotion Elektrotechnik
10.01-10.04 Doktorand bei der DaimlerChrysler Forschung in Ulm,
Abteilung Mikrowellentechnik
11.03-05.04 Gaststudent am Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT),
Research Laboratory of Electronics,
Cambridge, USA
15.06.05 Antrag auf Zulassung zur Promotion am
Lehrstuhl f ur technische Elektronik
der Universitat Erlangen-N urnberg
11.08.05 Tag der Promotion
seit 11.04 Entwicklungsingenieur bei der DaimlerChrysler AG

Dissertation Torsten Mack

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Dissertation Torsten Mack

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A MEMS-Based Recongurable RF Receiver

Front-End Utilizing Multi-Port Technology

, the output ports show the

phase shifted counterpart sin(

between the two LO signals are

phase shifted version of Eqn. 2.31: cos(

is not necessary to obtain I(t) and Q(t) as long as the phase

C for 60 s in preparation for processing.

C. Then, the photo resist

2 50 10W = 31V. (3.30)

C are applied due to condensation at room temperature (20

C). Two dierent

C, and the minimum actuation voltage of 14 V is found at +80

at the output ports. Depending on the circuit

) of the superpositions of the signals

phase shift. This is because the

). The simple design of Fig. 4.2(c) with three quadrature

2 (70.71 ) line (for the Wilkinson power divider), and a 50/

line length line width

2=70.71 42.720 1.500

2=35.36 40.504 4.923

between 1.4 GHz and 1.75 GHz.

at output ports 3 through 6.

has been removed for better illustration and easier expla-

are transformed to achieve a single continuous line. Fig.

phase dierence between the LO and RF signal at port 3 is

phase dierence between port 3 and port 4 (as well as port

agree well at the center frequency of

over the entire frequency range. This is an important

at 1 GHz. The theoretical 180

at port 4 is well maintained

at the center frequency is marked.

phase dierence is still well pronounced around 1.5 GHz.

independent of the frequency. The magnitude of the

. This example of an imperfect calibration demonstrates the importance

requirement very well (Fig. 4.23(b)). At higher

Osterreichischer Verband f ur Elektrotechnik,

Software Dened Radio (SDR), was durch die Verlagerung

Microwave Electrostatic Micro-Machined

HF-Cross. Diese Strukturen

HF-MEMS-Schalter zur Signalleitung, werden Moglichkeiten aufgezeigt, dieses

Toggle Schalter [21], in

Anderungen sind notwendig,

Messergebnisse des rekongurierbaren Sechs-Tor-Empfangers, wird

Ubertragung in Frequenzbandern oberhalb von 10 GHz bietet die Moglichkeit sehr

HF Cross. Der Theorieteil des Kapitels beschaftigt sich mit den

HF-Cross zur Umschaltung zwischen den zwei Sechs-Toren. Dazu

HF-Cross zuverlassig wiederholen. Zudem

HF-Cross: bis 30 GHz liegt die Einf ugedampfung

You might also like