A2 Biology Module 2804: Central Concepts

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Module 2804: Central Concepts


5.4.1 Energy and Respiration

(a) outline the need for energy in living organisms as illustrated by
anabolic reactions, active transport, movement and the maintenance of
body temperature.

Energy needed to perform work in living organisms:
Anabolic reactions: making big molecules from small ones
Active transport: need energy as against concentration gradient
Movement: mechanical work
Maintenance of body temperature: thermal energy

(b) describe the structure of ATP as a phosphorylated nucleotide.



(c) describe the universal role of ATP as the energy currency in all living
organisms.

ATP made, moved around and used in most cells:
ATP produced using energy from respiration reactions
Breaks down to release energy when required ATP ADP + P
i
+ energy
It is an immediate source of energy released in small packets
Rapid turnover of ATP with anabolic and catabolic processes
Uses eg. active transport/Na pump/cell division/phosphorylation

(d) explain that the synthesis of ATP is associated with the electron
transport chain on the membranes of the mitochondrion.

Any reduced NAD/FAD formed during glycolysis/link reaction/krebs cycle is
used in oxidative phosphorylation (electron transport chain) to generate ATP
across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion

X: Adenine (base)
Y: Ribose (pentose sugar)
P: Phosphate
A2 Biology Module 2804: Central Concepts
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(e) outline glycolysis as phosphorylation of glucose and the subsequent
splitting of hexose phosphate (6C) into two triose phosphate molecules
which are then further oxidised with a small yield of ATP and reduced
NAD.
















(f) explain that, when oxygen is available, pyruvate is converted into
acetyl (2C) coenzyme A, which then combines with oxaloacetate (4C) to
form citrate (6C).

Pyruvate enters the mitochondrion (actively using ATP) across the
membranes using protein carriers (glucose cannot enter mitochondrion)

The link reaction occurs in the mitochondrial matrix:
Pyruvate + CoA + NAD Acetyl CoA + CO
2
+ reduced NAD
This reaction uses decarboxylation to remove C as CO
2

Also uses dehydrogenation to remove H to reduce NAD

(g) outline the Krebs cycle, explaining that citrate is reconverted to
oxaloacetate in a series of small steps in the matrix of the
mitochondrion. (No further details are required.)

The Krebs cycle is a series of steps catalysed by enzymes in the matrix:
2C Acetyl CoA enters the cycle and accepted by 4C oxaloacetate to form
6C Citrate as the first intermediate
Cycle turns twice for each original glucose molecule (2 x pyruvate etc)
A series of reactions cycle back to 4C oxaloacetate
1 x ATP is produced directly by phosphorylation of ADP
Decarboxylation as 2 x C atoms are released in 2 x CO
2
molecules
Dehydrogenation as 4 pairs of H atoms are removed
3 x NAD and 1 x FAD act as hydrogen acceptors and become reduced
H in reduced NAD/FAD will be released in oxidative phosphorylation
Amino acids and fatty acids can be broken down and fed into cycle
Intermediates of the cycle can form other molecules
Glucose (6C hexose)

(ATPADP)

Hexose Phosphate (6C)

(ATPADP)

2 x Triose Phosphate (3C)

(4 x ADPATP)
(2 x NADreduced NAD)

2 x Pyruvate
Glycolysis occurs in the
cytoplasm:
ATP is used in the first two steps
to phosphorylate glucose to
hexose bisphosphate
ATP is made later in glycolysis
Reduced NAD (NADH
2
) is made
as H is removed from triose
phosphate
Net gain from glycolysis:
2 x ATP
2 x reduced NAD

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(h) explain that these processes involve decarboxylation and
dehydrogenation, and describe the role of NAD.

Decarboxylation: Removal of a carbon from a molecule forming CO
2

Dehydrogenation: Removal of hydrogen
NAD: Can accept hydrogen (reversible) to form reduced NAD (NADH
2
)

(i) outline the process of oxidative phosphorylation, including the role of
oxygen. (No details of the carriers are required.)

Oxidative phosphorylation occurs at the inner mitochondrial membrane:
Dehydrogenase enzymes remove the hydrogen from reduced NAD/FAD
and split it into H
+
(proton) and e
-
(electron)
e
-
flow through the cytochrome carriers (redox reactions) releasing energy
at each lower energy level
H
+
pumped across inner membrane (proton pump) into inter membrane
space creating an electrochemical gradient (chemiosmosis)
H
+
diffuse back through protein channels with stalked particles containing
ATP synthase forming ATP from ADP + P
i

O
2
acts as the final H
+
and e
-
acceptor forming H
2
O

(j) explain the production of a small yield of ATP from anaerobic
respiration and the formation of ethanol in yeast and lactate in
mammals.

Under anaerobic conditions the reduced NAD cannot be oxidized using
oxygen. But, without it being oxidized, glycolysis will stop and no ATP formed.
Need to recycle the reduced NAD back to NAD for glycolysis to continue.

Oxidation of NAD in muscle tissue:
H from reduced NAD (NADH
2
)
combines with pyruvate (3C) to form
lactate (3C)
Enzyme is lactate dehydrogenase


Pyruvate

(Reduced NAD NAD)

Lactate

Oxidation of NAD in yeast:
Pyruvate (3C) converted first to
ethanal (2C) with the loss of CO
2

(decarboxylation)
H from reduced NAD (NADH
2
)
combines with ethanal (2C) to form
ethanol (2C)
Enzyme is alcohol dehydrogenase
Pyruvate

(CO
2
)

Ethanal

(Reduced NAD NAD)

Ethanol

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(k) explain the relative energy values of carbohydrate, lipid and protein
as respiratory substrates.

The Greater number of hydrogens present, the greater the energy value.
Lipids have higher energy density than carbohydrates.
Could use a calorimeter to burn different substrates to compare the rise in
water temperature.

(l) define the term respiratory quotient (RQ).

Ratio of the volume of CO
2
give out to O
2
taken in:
RQ =CO
2
/O
2
Calculate from respiration equation
Respiration of Glucose: C
6
H
12
O
6
+ 6O
2
6CO
2
+ 6O
2
so RQ= 6/6 = 1
Lipid: eg. C
18
H
34
O
2
+ 25.5O
2
18CO
2
+ 17H
2
O RQ= 18/25.5 = 0.7
Protein=0.9
Anaerobic respiration (no O
2
used): eg fermentation of glucose RQ =
High RQ value indicates increased anaerobic respiration

(m) carry out investigations, using simple respirometers, to measure RQ
and the effect of temperature on respiration rate.

Respirometer: measures volume of O
2
used by organism:
Soda lime absorbs CO
2
produced by aerobic respiration
Volume of O
2
used is measured in manometer capillary tube
Measure distance traveled by meniscus over time. As area of capillary
tube is known, can calculate mean rate of O
2
uptake in mm
3
min
-1

Important to equilibrate equipment/organism to temperature
Use a control to make sure differences not due to temperature/pressure
If testing plants, then need to be in dark to prevent photosynthesis