A Summer Project Report on

TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A 39-BUS SYSTEM

Submitted to


Amity University Uttar Pradesh


in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree
of

Master of Technology
in
Power Systems
By
SHILPI SAINI
(A2327212010)

Under the guidance of

Mr. Sumeet Sehrawat (Asst. Professor)


DEPARTMENTOF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
AMITYSCHOOL OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AMITYUNIVERSITY UTTAR PRADESH
NOIDA (U.P.)
May-June 2013
1

DECLARATION

I, SHILPI SAINI, student of M.Tech (Power System) hereby declare that the summer
project report titled Transient Stability Analysis of a 39-bus system which is
submitted by me to Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Amity School
of Engineering and Technology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, in partial
fulfillment of requirement for the award of the degree of Master of Technology in Power
System, has not been previously formed the basis for the award of any degree, diploma
or other similar title or recognition.





Noida
Signature:
Name: Shilpi Saini
Roll No: A2327212010
Date:






2

CERTIFICATE

On the basis of declaration submitted by SHILPI SAINI, student of M. Tech Power
System, I hereby certify that the summer project report titled Transient Stability
Analysis of a 39-bus system which is submitted to Department of Electrical and
Electronic Engineering, Amity School of Engineering and Technology, Amity
University Uttar Pradesh, Noida, in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of the degree of Master of Technology in Power System, is an original
contribution with existing knowledge and faithful record of work carried out by her
under my guidance and supervision.
To the best of my knowledge this work has not been submitted in part or full for any
Degree or Diploma to this University or elsewhere.



Noida
Date Faculty Guide:
(Mr. SUMEET SEHRAWAT)
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering
Amity School of Engineering and Technology
Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Noida



3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT


The preparation of this summer project report work has been successful due to the help
and inspiration received from various sources. I would like to express my gratitude to all
those who gave me the opportunity to complete the project entitled Transient Stability
Analysis of a 39-bus system
I am very thankful to Mr. SUMEET SEHRAWAT for his valuable suggestions. This
constant, sincere inspirations and liberal co-operation in all respects are really
unforgettable experience for me. I have been very much benefited from his technical
advice and support during the period of my work on this summer project.













4


ABSTRACT

Traditionally, harmonics are ignored in overall efficiency and energy usage studies.
However, in the modern era, power systems contain levels of harmonics which can no
longer be ignored by engineers, planners, energy conservationists and economists. The
directions of power flows have to be considered when harmonics are present in the power
network. A methodology and new formulae for individual and overall efficiency and energy
usage is developed at each frequency (f1, h and H) and forms the main contribution to
research in this field.

A simulated case study of distributed system in IEEE 519 is been used here. For the
simulated case study, a network was investigated using the MiPower software package.
Their results were compared with IEEE results and it was found that MiPower software is
the preferred package for power results.

It was found that the total harmonic distortion limit for voltage in the simulated network
exceeded an acceptable level. The harmonic mitigation solution chosen was to design a
passive filter to decrease the distortion by shifting the resonance point of the network. The
method to design the passive filter and its impact on efficiency and energy usage is included
in the thesis.


5

CONTENTS

Declaration.i
Certificate......ii
Acknowledgement....iii
Abstract.....iv
1) Introduction..3
1.1 Power Angle Relationship....4
1.1.1 Swing Equation...5
1.1.2 Equal Area Criterion...............7
2) Material and Methods....10
2.1 Overview of MiPower software......10
2.2 System Modeling....11
2.2.1 Two winding transformer parameters conversion....12
2.2.2 Transmission line parameter conversion......14
2.2.3 Generator parameter conversion...............15
2.2.4 Synchronous machine modeling...16
2.2.5 Load Modeling..16
2.3 Load Flow Analysis....17
2.3.1 Methods of Load Flow..17
2.4 Transient Stability Analysis....20
2.4.1 Rotor Dynamics and Swing Equation...............21
2.4.2 Significance of Inertia Constant....21
2.4.3 Two Machine Stability..21
2.4.4 Multi- machine stability....23
3) System Description.........25
4) Results and Discussion...26
6

a) Generator Outage..26
Swing Curve..26
Frequency Curve...27
Terminal Voltage Curve...27
Current Curve28
b) Three phase to ground fault..29
Swing Curve..29
Frequency Curve...30
Terminal Voltage Curve...30
Current Curve31
c) Change in Load data.32
Swing Curve..32
Frequency Curve...33
Terminal Voltage Curve...33
Current Curve34
5) Conclusion ..35
6) Future Research implications36
Appendix 1
Appendix 2
Appendix 3
References





7

1. INTRODUCTION
Traditionally, efficiency investigations in power systems consider only distortion-free
waveforms, that is, the voltage and current waveforms are assumed to be sinusoidal Thus, when
calculating energy and efficiency, only power at the fundamental frequency is usually
considered. Energy is thus traditionally calculated by the formula:
E = P t (joules)
where: E1 = electrical energy consumed in time t (secs)
P1 = electrical power at fundamental frequency (f1).
Efficiency is defined as:


where: % Poutput = electrical or mechanical power
= the efficiency expressed in percentage
P1 (input) = P1 in equation
As energy is directly proportional to power, there is a relationship between energy and
efficiency. Power is defined as the rate of doing work, while energy is defined as electrical
power multiplied by time taken for which current flows in seconds. Distribution networks
generally contain various types of components (elements), each with their own energy usage and
individual efficiency. Together, however, they contribute to the total energy usage and overall
network efficiency.

Power networks in the modern world have voltage and current waveforms that are distorted and
thus contain harmonics (h). A harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave having a
frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency. A number indicating the
harmonic frequency is called the harmonic order; the 1st harmonic is the fundamental
frequency, 3rd harmonic is three times and the 5th harmonic is five times the fundamental
frequency, etc.

In systems characteristic harmonic (h) components are found and are typically currents
harmonics injected by 6 pulse rectifiers. They have a harmonic order such as:
h = np 1
h= harmonic order

p= number of pulse

n= whole number

8

Today, power networks contain multiple harmonic sources, such as adjustable speed drives
ASDs), compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs), computers, etc. and they cause harmonics to
penetrate network elements Harmonics (h>1) can cause additional heat losses (I2R) to that
produced by the fundamental frequency component (h=1) and influence total energy usage, as
well as overall system efficiency.
In todays world, systems contain levels of harmonics, which can no longer be ignored by
planners, engineers, energy conservationists and economists . In power networks containing
active and passive elements, linear and/or non-linear devices, methods and formulae for
calculating total energy usage and overall efficiency when harmonics are present is unknown.
The role of ASDs is of particular importance when investigating energy efficiency.


An ASD consists of two main components - the drive and the motor it controls. Each component
has an efficiency rating. The motor has a mechanical power output and electrical power input,
while for the drive; output and input powers are electrical, as shown in Figure above. These two
efficiencies need to be treated separately and then together when conducting efficiency
investigations. When an ASD is connected to a power system it absorbs power (P1) at
fundamental frequency (f1) from the network source while at the same time injecting harmonics
into the system producing powers at h>1 in the network components. Thus powers come from
both the network source as well as the harmonic source, therefore investigating the directions of
power flows is important

A further concern is that power networks contain capacitor banks and have the potential to cause
harmonic resonance. It is therefore, also becoming prominent to mitigate harmonic levels. The
impact of a mitigation solution on energy usage and overall efficiency remains unknown. A
further shortcoming is that many distribution networks use inefficient incandescent lighting.
Today, there are many new energy efficient technologies available and studies on their impacts
are awaited .





9

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1 Overview of MiPower Package

MiPower package aids the power system engineer during operational or planning stages of a
power system. This package is extensively useful for power utilities, industries, research and
educational institutions. The package is designed to work with all operating systems. The
package offers the following features:

User-friendly GUI to generate power system single line diagrams and reports.
A centralised database to store power system elements information.
Automatic single line diagram generation for a given network topology.
Plotting of linear/semi-log/log curves with multiple X/Y variables.
Batch mode facility to create a centralized database for very large networks.
The package is interfaced with many power system application modules.
Print/Plot support for single line diagrams and reports.
Porting of single line diagram to/from AutoCAD.

The package comes with an interface to the following power system applications

Power Flow Analysis
Fault Analysis
Optimal Power Flow
Contingency Analysis.
Over Current Relay co-ordination
Stability Analysis
- Transient Stability Analysis
- Dynamic Stability Analysis
- Voltage Instability Analysis
- Network Reduction
- Sub-Synchronous Resonance
Electro-Magnetic Transient Analysis
Harmonic Analysis
Long Term Load Forecast
Line Parameter Calculation
Cable Parameter Calculation

Power flow analysis program computes the voltage magnitudes, phase angles and power flows
(MW/kW, MVA/kVA, MVAr/kVAr) for a network under steady state operating conditions.

Stability programs are used to study dynamics of power systems under disturbance conditions
to determine whether synchronous generators and motors remain in synchronism. System
disturbances may be caused by the sudden loss of a generator or
transmission line, by sudden load increase or decrease and by short circuits and switching
operations. The stability program combines power flow equations and machine dynamic
equations to compute the angular swings of machines during disturbances. The program also
computes the critical clearing times for network faults and allows the engineer to investigate the
10

effects of various machine parameters, network modifications, disturbance types and control
schemes.

2.2 System Modeling

Power transmission lines/cables, generators, transformers and an assortment of other elements
are operated at various voltage levels where kilovolts is the most convenient unit to express
voltage. The amount of power transmitted is in terms of kilowatts or megawatts and kilo
amperes or Mega amperes. However the quantities, currents and ohms are often expressed as a
percent or per unit of base. The per unit (pu) value of any quantity is defined as the ratio of the
quantity to its base value expressed as a decimal. The ratio in percent is 100 times the value in
pu. Both the percent and the per unit methods of calculation are simpler than the use of actual
amperes, ohms and volts.

Voltage, Current, Kilovoltamperes and impedance are so related that selection of base values for
any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. For single phase systems or a
three phase systems, the term current refers to line current and the term voltage refers to voltage
to neutral.

The per unit value of a line to neutral voltage on the line to neutral voltage base is equal to the
per unit value of the line-to-line voltage at the same point on the line-to-line voltage base if the
system is balanced. Similarly the three phase kva is three times the kVA per phase and the three
phase kva base is three times the base kVA per phase. Therefore the per unit value of the three
phase kva on the three phase kVA base is identical to the per unit value of the kva per phase on
the kva per phase base. Base impedance and base current can be computed directly from three
phase values of base kilovolts and base kilovoltamperes. If we interpret base kilovoltamperes
and base voltage in kilovolts to mean base kilovoltamperes for the total of the three phases and
base voltage from line to line, we find








Sometimes the perunit impedance of a component of a system is expressed on a base other than
the one selected as base for the part of the system in which the component is located. Since all
impedances in any one part of a system must be expressed on the same impedance base when
making computations, it is necessary to have a means of converting per unit impedances from
one base to another. The per unit impedance is given by equation




which shows that per unit impedance is directly proportional to base megavoltamperes
and inversely proportional to the square of the base voltage. Therefore to change from
per unit impedance on a given base to per unit impedance on a new base, the following equation
is used:

11

The
ohmic values of resistance and leakage reactance of a transformer depends on whether they are
measured from the LT side or HT side of a transformer. If they are expressed in pu, the base
MVA is the MVA rating of the transformer which is same as referred from HT side or LT side.
The base kV is selected as the voltage of LT winding, if the ohmic values are referring to LT
side, else it is selected as voltage of HT winding, if the ohmic values are referring to HT side of
transformer. Whereas the PU values remains same regardless of whether they are determined
from HT side or LT side.

The advantages of the PU method are

The PU impedance of machines of same type and widely different ratings usually lie
within a narrow range, although the ohmic values differ for machines of different ratings.
For this reason, when the impedance is not known definitely, it is generally possible to
select from the tabulated average values a PU impedance which will be reasonably
correct.

When impedance in ohms is specified in an equivalent circuit, each impedance must be
referred to the same circuit by multiplying it by the square of the ratio of rated voltages
of the two sides of a transformer. The PU impedance, once expressed in proper base,
remains same either referring from HT side or LT side.

The way in which transformers are connected in three phase circuits does not affect the
PU impedances of the equivalent circuit, although the transformer connection does
determine the relation between the voltage bases on the two sides of the transformer.


2.2.1 Two Winding Transformer Parameter Conversions

Manufacturers usually specify the impedance of a piece of apparatus in percent or per unit on
the base of the nameplate rating. It is converted to common base using MVA rating and the
voltage rating of transformer. Sometimes the voltage ratings of the transformer does not match
exactly with the base voltage on their respective sides, in that
case the transformer parameters are converted to the base values of voltage and MVA.
To begin with, assuming that transformer tap is on primary side (HV side), the given
impedance is converted to common base as





If the transformer parameters are given in actual units (ohms), then the values are converted to
common base as





Base kV is the voltage referred to the side at which measurements are made. The transformer
R/X ratio is used to separate the transformer resistance and reactance values from the
12

impedance. If number of units are in parallel then the effective equivalent impedance is
computed by dividing the impedance by units.





The minimum tap value is computed as





The maximum tap value is computed as





The tap step value (pu) is computed as





Nominal tap value (pu) is computed as




The transformer vector
group information is required for 3-phase load flow and unbalanced fault studies. The different
vector groups used are

Star with neutral isolated.
Star with neutral grounded.
Star with neutral impedance.
Delta connected.

The zero sequence impedances differ greatly depending on the type of connection and the
construction of the transformers. Conductors connected to transformer windings with delta
connection or with star with an insulated neutral point cannot carry a zero sequence
current. The zero sequence impedance is therefore infinite. When the neutral point of a star
winding is earthed or connected, zero sequence currents can flow in the associated system. If the
transformer is star connected with neutral impedance then the zero sequence impedance of the
transformer is incremented by three times the neutral impedance. If the transformer is star
connected on primary side and delta connected on
secondary side, then shunt impedance will exists from primary node to ground and viceversa.

The neutral impedance given in ohms, converted to common base as
13











The two winding transformer is modeled as a (PI) equivalent circuit for the analysis,
the Pi network is



Depending on the winding connection on both the sides the zero sequence equivalent
circuit is formulated as

2.2.2 Transmission Line Parameter Conversions

For a transmission line, line resistance, reactance and the susceptance of the line are given in
actual units (ohms) per km length of the line per circuit. Zero sequence impedance denotes the
impedance of zero sequence system of a three phase line per phase in which equal and in-phase
14

currents are flowing through the three phase conductors of the system. The operative zero
sequence impedance is affected by, among
other things, the electrical conductivity of the earth and the presence of earth wires. The
same formulae are used for both positive sequence and zero sequence parameter conversion.
The line positive sequence parameters are converted to per unit on common
base values as














2.2.3 Generator Parameter Conversions

Generator resistance, direct axis reactance, transient and sub-transient reactance etc., are
specified in pu on its own rating. The reactance values are converted to PU on common base as









By using the above formula, the transient direct axis reactance, sub-transient direct axis
reactance, steady state direct axis reactance, negative sequence reactance and zero sequence
values are converted to PU on common base.

The generator specified voltage is in actual units (kV). It is converted to pu by dividing it
by the base Voltage.




Tdo - No-load time constant determines the excitation and de-magnetization with open
stator circuit.

Td - Transient time constant determines the excitation and de-magnetization with three
phase short circuited stator circuit.


15

2.2.4 Synchronous Machine Modeling

The synchronous machines are modeled during stability studies as

Infinite Bus OR Classical Modeling - The classical model is a simple constant voltage
behind constant transient reactance. This model neglects the following factors assuming
that :

Shaft mechanical power remains constant
Field flux linkages remain constant
Damping is nonexistent
Constant voltage and reactance are not affected by speed variations
Rotor mechanical angle coincides with the phase angle of internal voltage

Transient Modeling - The classical model is improved by one step by considering
variation of machine impedance with time from its initial value, Xd to a steady state
value of Xd. The variation is exponential described by time constant Tdo. The effect of
damper is ignored.

Sub-Transient Modeling - The effect of dampers is added which predominates during
fast changing conditions, i.e. sub-transient state.

NOTE : The saliency of the rotor will be represented by the quadrature axis parameters,
Xq, Xq and Xq and the associated time constants Tqo and Tqo.

2.2.5 Load Modeling

Loads are modeled as - Constant power load, Constant current load, Constant
impedance load, combination of all including the Frequency dependency. Modeling of the load
is determined by the load characteristic number. If the load characteristic number is zero, then
the loads are modeled as constant power type. At any bus i, the expressions for loads are given
by







16

2.3 Load Flow Analysis

Load Flow Analysis is one of the most common computational procedures used in power system
analysis. The load flow problem can be defined as: Given the load power consumption at all
buses of a known electric power system configuration and the power generation at each
generator, find the power flow in each line and transformer of the interconnecting network and
the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus.

Analysing the solution of this problem for numerous conditions helps to ensure that the power
system is designed to satisfy its performance criteria while incurring the most favourable
investment and operation costs. Planning, design and operation of power systems require such
calculations to

Analyse steady-state performance of the power system under various operating
conditions.

Study the effects of change in equipment configuration.

Given the power consumption at all buses of a known electric power system configuration and
the power production at each generator, load flow analysis program, PowerLFA calculates the
power flow in each line and transformer of the interconnecting network and the voltage
magnitude and angle at each bus.

Load flow programs are divided into two types - static (off-line) and dynamic (real time).Most
load flow studies for system analysis are based on static network models. Real time load flows
that incorporate data inputs from the actual networks are typically used by utilities in
Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such systems are used primarily
as operating tools for optimisation of generation, var control, dispatch, losses and tie-line
control. Since load flow problem pertains to balanced, steady state operation of power systems,
a single phase, positive sequence model of the power system is used.

2.3.1 Methods of Load Flow

There are two basic techniques that are in widespread use - Gauss-Seidel technique and Newton-
Raphson technique. Both these techniques solve bus equations in admittance form. This system
of equations has gained widespread application because of the simplicity of data preparation and
the ease at which matrix can be formed and changed in
subsequent cases.

Basic requirements
The primary parameters considered in a load flow study are

P Active power into the network
Q Reactive power into the network
|V| Magnitude of bus voltage
Angle of bus voltage referred to a common reference
In order to define the load flow problem to be solved, at least two of the four quantities need to
be specified at each bus. For generating units, P and |V| are specified since these
quantities are controllable through governor and excitation controls, respectively. For loads
generally P and Q are specified. The generator specification of keeping the voltage
17

constant and calculating the reactive power limits will be altered if the reactive power exceeds
the limits specified. In such cases, the reactive power will be held at the respective limit and the
bus voltage is allowed to vary.

Slack Bus Concept

Since there are losses in the transmission system and the losses are not known before a load flow
solution is obtained, it is necessary to retain one bus where P is not specified as
a slack bus. At this bus |V| and (reference angle for the system) are defined. This bus is
also called as swing bus or reference bus. Since P and Q are not specified, the swing bus
is free to cover transmission losses in the system.

Comparison of Load Flow Algorithms

Gauss- Seidal Newton Raphson (NR) Fast Decoupled NR
Time/Iteration
Less


More. Computation of
elements of Jacobian takes
more time.


More. Computation of
elements of Jacobian
takes more time.

Rate of Convergence

Slow.
Proportionately
increases with
system size

Fast. Independent of system
size.

Fast. Independent of
system size.


Data Requirements
Load flow analysis program, PowerLFA requires the following data

System specification data indicating the total number of elements present.

Total number of load flow iterations, real and reactive power tolerances to determine
when load flow iterations has to end. Load flow ends if it has converged to specified
tolerances or the total number of iterations has been exceeded.

Specified minimum voltage in pu after which the load behaviour changes.

Bus details specifying the minimum and maximum voltage limits in pu.

Positive sequence impedance values in pu (on a common MVA base), for all series
elements, namely two winding transformers, three winding transformers,
transmission lines, series reactors, series capacitors.

Transformer tap details i.e., minimum, nominal, maximum and step values for taps in pu.
This is required for improving voltages at desired buses by tap modifications.

Thermal rating of transmission lines to compute overloading of lines.

Generator Data :
18


o Scheduled Power in MW, specified voltage at the bus in pu, minimum and
maximum reactive power limits for that generator, Generator capability curve
details if present, MVA rating. Participation factor, bias setting for frequency
dependent load flow, cost coefficients C0, C1, C2 for real power optimization.

o Generator Capability Curve Data consisting of curve points - MW generation in
pu and the corresponding minimum and maximum reactive power generation
limits.

Load Data

o Real power in MW and reactive power in Mvar, fixed compensation Mvar,
minimum and maximum variable compensation Mvar, compensation step in
Mvar for reactive power optimization.

o Load Characteristic Data Factors for

Constant power factor, constant current factor and constant impedance factor
of real power, constant power factor, constant current factor and constant
impedance factor of reactive power load.
Constant frequency factor for real power, frequency factor for reactive power.

Bus Coupler Data includes the buses between which the coupler is connected. Circuit
breaker resistance and reactance values have to be specified by the user.

HVDC and DC Link Data Consists of converter transformer details, number of poles,
number of bridges, type of control etc. DC link resistance has to be mentioned along
with negligible reactance and capacitance.

Tie Line Schedule Data : In an interconnected system, for load changes in the internal
area, generators in that area should act to control the frequency and tie-line interchange.
Zone/area number is the number from which the net tie-line interchange to other areas is
to be specified.

Net tie-line schedule, which is the scheduled total real power exchange from
the above area to all other areas, has to be given. If the net tie-line interchange
deviates from the schedule, generators participating in the secondary control
act to bring the net tie line interchange to the scheduled value.

Error tolerance has to be specified to terminate the iterative technique of
controlling the tie-line interchange.

Filter Data have to be specified with each branch details.

Analysis of Results

Load flow studies determine the voltage profile and the power flows in the system for various
load and generation conditions. A number of operating procedures can be analysed including
contingency conditions such as loss of generator, transmission line or a load. Contingency
rankings will be given by the program for all the desired cases.

These studies will alert the user to conditions that may cause equipment overloads or poor
voltage levels. Load flow studies are essential in planning the future development of the system,
19

because satisfactory operation of the system depends on knowing the effects of interconnections
with power systems, new loads, new generating stations and new transmission lines before they
are installed. In general, load flow studies are performed to check the operation of an existing
system under normal or outage conditions, to see if the existing system is capable of supplying
planned additional loads, or to check and compare new alternatives for system additions to
supply new load or improve system performance.


2.4 Harmonic Analysis Studies

2.4.1. Introduction:

Traditionally, the main source of harmonics in power systems has been the static power
converter used as rectifiers for various industrial processes; however, the static power
converter
is now used in a variety of additional applications such as adjustable speed drives,
switched-mode supplies, frequency changers for induction heating, etc. Semiconductor
devices are being increasingly used as static switches that modulate the voltage applied
to loads. Examples of these are soft starters for motors, static var compensators, light
dimmers, electronic ballasts for arc-discharge lamps, etc. Other examples are devices
with nonlinear voltage-current characteristics such as arc furnaces or saturable
electromagnetic devices.

Since nonlinear loads represent an ever-increasing percentage of the total load of an
industrial or commercial power system, harmonic studies have become an important part
of overall system design and operation. Fortunately, the available software for harmonic
analysis has also grown. Guidelines for the acceptance of harmonic distortion are well-
defined in IEEE Std 519-1992.

By modeling power system impedances as a function of frequency, a study can be made
to determine the effect of the harmonic contributions from nonlinear loads on the
voltages and currents in the power system. Most commercial software for harmonic
analysis offer the following:


Calculation of harmonic bus voltages and branch current flows in the network
due to harmonic sources,

Resonances in the existing or planned system,

Performance indices that calculate the effects of harmonics on voltage or current
waveform distortion, telephone interference, etc.

The software can also help in selecting and locating capacitors or passive filters to
optimize system performance. Details of system modeling and applicable standards are
discussed. The treatment described here particularly applies to industrial and commercial
systems at low and medium voltages, but the basics are also applicable to other systems
and higher voltages.

20

It may be said at the outset that the harmonic filter design is very closely linked to power
factor (PF) requirements of the system (based on utility tariffs) and both must be
considered a the same time. In the past, many PF compensation studies have been made
without regard to the possible resonances in the system or harmonic absorption by the
capacitors. IEEE Std 519-1992 should be referred to for general information and
particularly for harmonic generation from static power converters and other harmonic
sources.

2.4.2. Background

As a matter of definition, any load or device that does not draw a sinusoidal current
when excited by a sinusoidal voltage of the same frequency is termed a nonlinear load.
The most common are switching devices, such as solid-state converters, which force the
conduction of currents for only certain periods and, to a lesser extent, saturable
impedance devices such as transformers with nonlinear voltage vs. impedance
characteristics. A nonlinear load is considered a source of harmonic currents, where
harmonic frequencies are generally considered to be integer multiples of the system
frequency. However, certain nonlinear loads, such as an arc furnace or a cycloconverter,
may also have non-integer harmonic frequencies in addition to the expected integer
harmonics.

Harmonics, by definition, occur in every cycle of the fundamental current and are
calculated as part of the steady-state solution. However, exceptions exist, and harmonics
may vary from cycle to cycle. These are termed time-varying harmonics. Also,
harmonics appear in quasisteady-state or transient situations, such as in magnetization
inrush current of a transformer.

An ideal current source is one which provides a constant current irrespective of the
system impedance seen by the source. In most studies for industrial applications, the
nonlinear load or the harmonic source is considered an ideal current source without a
Nortons impedance across the source (i.e., Norton impedance is assumed to be infinite).
This approximation is generally reasonable and yields satisfactory results. When the
nonlinear device acts like a voltage source [e.g., a pulse-width-modulated (PWM)
inverter], a Norton equivalent current source model may still be used since most
computer programs are based on the current injection method.

Since the system is subjected to current injections at multiple frequencies, the network is
solved for voltage and current at each frequency separately. The total voltage or current
in an element is then found either by a root-mean-square sum or arithmetic sum, using
the principle of superposition.

Since the system is subjected to current injections at multiple frequencies, the network is
solved for voltage and current at each frequency separately. The total voltage or current
in an element is then found either by a root-mean-square sum or arithmetic sum, using
the principle of superposition.

The generated harmonic frequencies are dependent upon the type of nonlinear load. Most
nonlinear loads produce odd harmonics with small even harmonics. However, loads
such as arc furnaces produce the entire spectrum of harmonics: odd, even, and non-
integer harmonics in between (non-integer harmonics are also referred as inter
21

harmonics). Generally, the amplitude of the harmonics decreases as the frequency (or
the harmonic order) increases. The effect of harmonic current propagation through the
network, including the power source, produces distortion of the voltage waveform
depending upon harmonic voltage drops in various series elements of the network.
Therefore, the voltage distortion at a given bus is dependent on the equivalent source
impedance; the smaller the impedance, the better the voltage quality. Note that the
harmonic sources, which are nonlinear loads, are not the sources of power, but are the
cause of additional active and reactive power losses in the system.


2.4.3. Purpose of harmonic study


With the growing proliferation of nonlinear loads in commercial buildings and industrial
plants, which may be in the range of 30% to 50% of the total load, the effects of
harmonics within the system and their impact on the utility and neighboring loads needs
to be examined before any complaints are made, equipment is damaged, or production is
lost.The following situations may necessitate a harmonic study, which should include
recommendations for mitigating the effects of harmonics :

Compliance with IEEE Std 519-1992, which defines the current distortion limits a
user should meet at the point of common coupling (PCC) with the utility. Voltage
distortion limits are also defined as a basis for the system design. The voltage
distortion limits are primarily intended for the utility to provide a good sine wave
voltage;however, an individual user is expected to use the voltage limits as a basis
for the system design. The chances are that if the current distortion limits are met,
the voltage distortion limits will also be met, except in some unusual circumstances.

A history of harmonic-related problems, such as failure of power-factor
compensation capacitors, overheating of cables, transformers, motors, etc., or
misoperation of protective relays or control devices.

Plant expansion where significant nonlinear loads are added or where a significant
amount of capacitance is added.

Design of a new facility or power system, where the load-flow, power factor
compensation, and harmonic analyses are considered as one integrated study to
determine how to meet the reactive power demands and harmonic performance
limits. When harmonics appear to be the cause of system problems, it is necessary
to determine the resonant frequencies at the problem sites. With power-factor
correction capacitor banks, a parallel system resonance can occur at or near one of
the lower harmonic orders (3, 5 ). This resonance can be critical if excited by a
harmonic current injection at that frequency.







22


2.4.3.1 Harmonic sources

All harmonic sources are referred to as nonlinear loads because they draw non-
sinusoidal currents when a sinusoidal voltage is applied. The non-sinusoidal current
may be due to the inherent characteristic of the load (e.g., arc furnaces), or due to a
switching circuit (e.g., a 6-pulse converter that forces conduction of currents for only
certain periods). In industrial and commercial power systems there may be many
such harmonic sources distributed throughout the system. The harmonic study
requires knowledge of the harmonic currents generated by nonlinear loads. There are
three options open to the analytical engineer:

Measure the generated harmonics at each source,
Calculate the generated harmonics by a mathematical analysis where possible,
such as at converters or static var compensators, and
Use typical values based on similar applications or published data.

In practice, all three methods are used and provide reasonable results. Since the
system configuration and load continually change, the harmonics also change and it
would be a formidable task to study all such conditions. Usually, the worst operating
condition is determined, and the design is based on the worst-generated harmonics.

However, It needs to be recognized that even with the worst generated harmonic
case, the harmonic flows within different elements of the network can be different
depending upon the number of transformers or tie breakers in service. This
necessitates that for the worst generated case, the worst operating cases(s) must
be analyzed. One other difficulty in the analysis arises from the fact that when
multiple harmonic sources are connected to the same bus (or different buses), the
phase angles between the harmonics of the same order are usually not known. This,
generally speaking, leads to arithmetic addition of harmonic magnitudes, which may
be reasonable if the harmonic sources are similar and have similar operating load
points. However, this approach can lead to a more conservative filter design and
distortion calculations, if the sources are different or operate at different load points.
Determination of phase angles of harmonics and vectorial addition can be quite a
complex and expensive approach for general industrial application. This is often
resolved by simplifying assumptions based on experience or by field measurements.
More advanced techniques are used in high-voltage dc transmission and other utility
applications where accuracy is important

Industrial harmonic studies are usually represented on a single-phase basis, i.e.,
based on the assumption that the system is balanced and positive sequence analysis
applies. A three-phase study is warranted only if the system or the load is severely
unbalanced or a four-wire system with single-phase loads exist. In such a situation it
will be very desirable to determine the harmonics generated in all three phases. If the
harmonic generation is assumed to be balanced and the system is considered
unbalanced, a three-phase study may not serve the full purpose. The cost of a three-
phase study could be higher than a single-phase study and should be used only when
such an expense and purpose can be justified.


23

2.4.3.2 Effects of harmonics

The effects of harmonics are described here only in the context of the analytical
harmonic system study, details of these effects can be found in referenced literature.
IEEE Std 519-1992. The effects of harmonics in a power system are pervasive in that
they influence system losses, system operation, and system performance. Unless the
harmonics are controlled to acceptable limits, the power equipment and, even more
so, the electronic equipment may be damaged resulting in and costly system outages.

The effects of harmonics are due to both current and voltage, although current-
produced effects are more likely to be seen in day-to-day performance. Voltage
effects are more likely to degrade the insulation and hence shorten the life of the
equipment. The following describes some of the common effects of harmonics:

Increased losses within the equipment and associated cables, lines, etc.,
Pulsating and reduced torque in rotating equipment,
Premature aging due to increased stress in the equipment insulation,
Increased audible noise from rotating and static equipment,
Misoperation of equipment sensitive to waveforms,
Substantial amplification of currents and voltages due to resonances, and
Communication interference due to inductive coupling between power and
communication circuits.

Generally, harmonic studies involving harmonic flows and filter design do not
involve detailed analysis of the effects of harmonics if the limits imposed by the user
or by a standard are met. However, in specific cases, analysis of harmonics
penetrating into rotating equipment, causing relay misoperation, or interfering with
communication circuits may require a separate study.


2.4.4. Resonance

Most power system circuit elements are primarily inductive and, therefore, the presence
of shunt capacitors used for power-factor correction or harmonic filtering can cause
cyclic energy transfer between the inductive and capacitive elements at the natural
frequency of resonance. At this frequency the inductive and capacitive reactances are
equal.

The combination of inductive (L) and capacitive (C) elements as viewed from a bus of
interest, generally the bus at which harmonic currents are injected by a nonlinear load
(source bus), can result in either a series resonance (L and C in series) or a parallel
resonance (L and C in parallel). As shown in the following sections, the series resonance
results in low impedance and parallel resonance in high impedance. At either series or
parallel resonance, the net impedance is resistive. In harmonic studies, it is essential that
the driving-point impedance, as seen from the harmonic source bus (or other bus of
interest), be examined to identify the series and parallel resonance frequencies and
resulting impedances.

In practical electrical systems, PF correction capacitors are utilized to offset the power
factor penalty imposed by the utility. This can create an abnormal situation, because the
24

combination of capacitors and inductive elements in the system can result in either series
or parallel resonance or a combination of both depending upon the system configuration.
Usually parallel resonance occurs more often because capacitor banks act in parallel
with system impedance (inductive); this can be a matter of concern if the resonant
frequency happens to be close to one of the frequencies generated by the harmonic
sources in the system. The result of a series resonance may be the flow of unexpected
amounts of harmonic currents through certain elements. A common manifestation of
excessive harmonic current flow is inadvertent relay operation, burned fuses, and
overheating of cables, etc.

The result of a parallel resonance may be the presence of excessive harmonic voltages
across network elements. A common manifestation of excessive harmonic voltages is
capacitor or insulation failure.


a. Series resonance

An example of series resonant circuit is shown in Figure below. Each circuit element
is described in terms of its impedance. The equivalent impedance of the circuit and
the current flow are expressed by Equations (10-1) and (10-2). This circuit is said to
be in resonance when the inductive reactance XL is equal to the capacitive reactance
XC

.
Z=R+ j(XL XC)










Given the relatively low values of series resistance usually found in power
equipment, the magnitude of the current in the above Equation can be large at
resonance.











25

Graph below shows the equivalent impedance of the circuit in Figure above as a
function of frequency.

The element values are R = 2 , L = 3.98 mH, and C = 36.09 mF. It is clear from
that the impedance appears capacitive at low frequencies and becomes inductive as
the frequency increases, and that resonance occurs at 420 Hz (7th harmonic for a 60
Hz system). A general measure of th e shape of the impedance plot is often given in
terms of the quality factor Q. For a series resonant circuit, the Q is defined in
Equation (10-4) at any angular frequency w




At the resonant frequency, the Q is generally approximated to the ratio of woL/RL
since R RL as capacitors have negligible resistance. As will be demonstrated in
10.6, the parameter Q often plays an important role in filter design because most
single-tuned harmonic filters are simple RLC series-resonant circuits. In general, a
higher Q produces a more pronounced dip in the plot. A lower Q results in a more
rounded shape. In most filter applications, the natural quality factor (with no
intentional resistance) is relatively high (>100 at resonant frequency). In special
applications it may be necessary to intentionally reduce the Q
.



26

b. Parallel resonance

There are many forms of parallel resonant circuits. In general, an inductor must be in
parallel with a capacitor to produce parallel resonance. A typical parallel-resonant
circuit encountered in power systems is shown in Figure 10-4. Each element is
described by its impedance. This circuit is said to be in parallel resonance when
XL=XC as in the case of series resonance.
























The equivalent impedance seen by the current source for a parallel resonance is given
by Z below. Note that at a particular frequency, XL=XC and the denominator is
reduced to R. This frequency is the resonant frequency and is given by equation
wo=1/LC. The voltage across the complete circuit is given by equation















In most cases, the resistance of power circuits is relatively small. It can be seen from
Equation below that resonances can produce very large equivalent impedances at or
near the resonant frequency, since R is generally small. Using the previous values
(R= 2 W, L= 3.98 mH, and C= 36.09 mF), a plot of the magnitude of the impedance
is below. The sharpness of Figure 10-5 can be more conveniently calculated by the
27

current gain factor (rho,r ) as the ratio of current in either the inductive branch or
the capacitive branch to the injected current.






























One unique property of the parallel resonant circuit is that when excited from a
current source at this frequency, a high circulating current will flow in the
capacitance-inductance loop even though the source current is small in comparison.
The current in the loop circuit is amplified to a level depending only upon the quality
factor Q of the circuit.


















28

Parallel resonance can produce undesirable overvoltages. From Figure above and
equation, a current of 1.0 A at 60 Hz will produce a voltage of approximately 2.6 V
across the capacitor (the net impedance being capacitive, Z= 2.55 @ 35.3).
However, the same 1.0 A current at 420 Hz (near the resonant frequency) will
produce approximately 55 V (the net impedance being inductive or close to
resistive, Z = 55.13 @ 10.8). This reasoning is often combined with known current
injections for motor drives, rectifiers, etc., to predict potential harmonic
overvoltages in power systems.

Parallel resonance typically involves the following:

The leakage inductance of large transformers and/or the equivalent
inductance of the utility system, and
The power factor correction capacitors. Figure above shows a possible one-
line for parallel resonance.


2.4.5. Fourier Series:

The sum of pure sinusoidal waveforms is known as a distorted waveform). This sum of
sinusoidal waveforms is expressed as a Fourier Series and is universally applied for
analysing harmonic problems as a system can be analysed separately at each harmonic.
When both the positive and negative half cycles of a distorted waveform are identical,
the Fourier Series contains only odd harmonics, such as the 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th etc
named as characteristic harmonics (h). If even harmonics are found, this is an indication
something may be wrong with the system, as most harmonic sources generate odd
harmonics if the supply voltage to the device is symmetrical.

Under ideal supply voltage conditions a harmonic source (e.g. convertor) draws a
periodic current waveform in each phase. The magnitude of each harmonic current
component (Ih) is inversely proportional to:





where: h is the harmonic number and is equal to (h) when only characteristic harmonics
are present, I1 is the magnitude of the current at fundamental frequency (f1). If f1 is
called the first harmonic then f1 = h1 and h1 can be used instead of f1 where it makes
explanation easier. I5 is the magnitude at the fifth harmonic (h= 5), etc.











29

In a three-phase system the characteristic harmonic currents are

















At each frequency in the series a three-phase set is found and within each set magnitudes
are equal. Above Equations are used to determine the waveform for the complex current
(Itot) of the red phase. These values are then used to draw the distorted waveform in
below figure which also shows the individual harmonic component waveforms.




























30

The complex waveform is similar to the distorted current waveform typically found at
the terminals of a six-pulse converter that contains 5th and 7th harmonics. There are
usually additional harmonics (hch) that would impose a further distortion. The
magnitudes of the other harmonics, (e.g. 11th, 13th 17th, 19th, etc) are usually smaller
and therefore, do not change the shape of the complex waveform too much.


2.4.6. Harmonic indices

The total harmonic distortion (THD) is a measure of the effective value of the harmonic
components of a distorted waveform. It can be calculated for either voltage or current
distortion as follows:









Where Fh is the rms value of harmonic component h of the quantity F (voltage or
current) and F1, the magnitude at h=1. The distortion level caused by individual
harmonic components (voltage or current magnitudes) is expressed as a percentage of
the fundamental component magnitude and used as a measure of observing which
harmonic component contributes more to the total harmonic distortion. The formula for
its calculation is:






Therefore, equations above can be expressed in terms of voltage and current as follows:

















31


2.4.7. Telephone Interference


The presence of harmonic currents or voltages in circuitry associated with power
conversion apparatus can produce magnetic and electric elds that will impair the
satisfactory performance of communication systems that, by virtue of their proximity
and susceptibility, can be disturbed. For a given physical arrangement, it is apparent that
the disturbance is a function of both the amplitude and the frequency of the disturbing
component in the conversion apparatus.

The study of means for minimizing the interference that power systems might cause in
communication systems is a proper subject of inductive coordination, which had been
actively pursued by the Joint Subcommittee for Development and Research of the
Edison Electric Institute and The Bell Telephone System. Since a primary source of
interference is the presence of harmonic currents or voltages in the power system, a task
force of the above joint subcommittee has revised the weighting factors to be placed
upon the harmonic frequency components to bring them up-to-date with the improved
state of the communication systems in 1960, following the introduction of the 500-type
telephone set. By subjective and objective listening tests on a group of individuals,
relative weights were established for the various harmonic frequencies that indicate the
disturbance to voice frequency communication that the injection of a signal of the
harmonic frequency into the communication network will produce relative to that which
would be produced by a 1000 Hz signal similarly injected.

Even harmonics found in the power system are usually weak as the effect of symmetrical
waveforms causes them to cancel out. Third order harmonics can be present if unbalance
exists depending on network configurations, and thus they appear as zero sequence
components. However, characteristic harmonics are mostly found in power systems and
they are the odd harmonics, namely: 5th, 7th, 11th, 13th, etc.


TIF Weighting Factor

The TIF weighting is a combination of the C message weighting characteristic, which
accounts for the relative interfering effect of various frequencies in the voice band
(including the response of the telephone set and the ear), and a capacitor, which provides
weighting that is directly proportional to frequency to account for the assumed coupling
function. TIF is a dimensionless quantity that is indicative of the waveform and not the
amplitude and is given by

The TIF weighting function, Wf, which reflects the present C message weighting and the
coupling (proportionality component) normalized to 1 kHz, is given by

W f = 5Pf f

Where:
5 = constant
Pf = C message weighting at frequency f
f = frequency under consideration
32


In practice, telephone interference is often expressed as a product of the current and the
TIF, i.e., the I*T product, where the I is rms current in amperes and T is TIF.
Alternatively, it is sometimes expressed as a product of the voltage and the TIF
weighting, where the voltage is in rms kV, i.e., the kV*T product.


2.4.8. Harmonic Eliminations Solution methods:

Different strategies are offered for harmonic mitigation to meet the standard regulation
limits. No uniform harmonic mitigation standard exists for the buses inside a plant; the
appropriate technology is that meets the needs of client. The following are the more
popular technologies to eliminate harmonics or mitigate its effects.

Phase Shifting Transformers
The best way to eliminate harmonics is to use a technique known as Phase Shifting.
The concept of phase shifting involves separating the electrical supply into several
outputs; each output being phase shifted with the other outputs with an appropriate angle
for the harmonics to be eliminated. The idea is to displace the harmonic currents in order
to bring them to a 180 phase shift so that they cancel each other out

Passive Filter
A passive filter is simply a filter that uses no amplifying elements (transistors,
operational amplifiers, etc.). And it is made up of passive components: resistors,
capacitors and inductors so they are referred to as passive filters.. In this respect, it is the
simplest (in terms of the number of necessary components) implementation of a given
transfer function. Passive filters have other advantages as well. Because they have no
active components, passive filters require no power supplies. Since they are not
restricted by the bandwidth limitations of op amps, they can be handled by active
devices. Passive filters also generate little noise when compared with circuits using
active gain elements. The noise that they produce is simply the thermal noise from the
resistive components, and, with careful design, the amplitude of this noise can be very
low.

Active Filters
Active filters use amplifying elements, especially op amps, with resistors and capacitors
in their feedback loops, to synthesize the desired filter characteristics. Active filters can
have high input impedance, low output impedance, and virtually any arbitrary gain. They
are also usually easier to design than passive filters. Possibly their most important
attribute is that they lack inductors, thereby reducing the problems associated with those
components. Still, the problems of accuracy and value spacing also affect capacitors,
although to a lesser degree

The Switched Capacitor Filter
Another type of filter called the switched capacitor has become widely available in
monolithic form during the last few years. The switched capacitor approaches over
comes some of the problems inherent in standard active filters, while adding some
interesting new capabilities. Switched capacitor filters need external capacitors or
inductors and their cutoff frequencies are set to a typical accuracy of 0.2% by an
external clock frequency. This allows consistent, repeatable filter designs using
33

inexpensive crystal-controlled oscillators or filters whose cutoff frequencies are available
over a wide range simply by changing the clock frequency. In addition switched
capacitor filters can have low sensitivity to temperature changes Each filter technology
offers a unique set of advantages and disadvantages that makes it a nearly ideal solution
to some disadvantages that makes it a nearly ideal solution to some filtering problems
and completely unacceptable in other applications. Here we have considered the passive
filters for mitigating harmonic distortion.

There are a couple of concepts that must be grasped before applying the limits in this
standard. he first concept is that of the Point of Common Coupling (PCC). The PCC is
generally defined as the utility/customer connection point. It is this point at which the
current distortion limits apply. The other concept that is important is that of Total
Demand Distortion (TDD). The idea behind the standard is that harmonic limits are
placed on a customer on the basis of current distortion relative to the total plant load. The
limits do not apply to a specific non-linear load in the plant. The harmonic current limits
change depending on the ratio of short circuit current to maximum demand load current
at the PCC.

Ratio = ISC /IL

where
ISC is the maximum short circuit current at the PCC
IL is the maximum demand load current at PCC

This means that small customers on a power system have higher current distortion limits
than large customers. The overall aim of the standard is to keep voltage distortion at the
point of common coupling below 5% THD. Table shows the Current Distortion Limits
for General Distribution Systems described in Chapter 10 of IEEE 519-1992 and apply
to 6-pulse rectifiers. The benefits of implementing rectifiers with higher pulse numbers
has been recognized, and the limits on characteristic harmonics have been relaxed for
pulse numbers of 12 or greater.


















Voltage Distortion Limits:
34

The recommended voltage distortion limits (see Table below) are concerned with the
following indice:




















35

3. SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
36


37

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Case A: Without Filters : The graph shows the Individual Voltage THD at the respective buses

38




39


40




41

Total current and harmonic distortions at all buses:


42

Case B: With Filters : The graph shows the Individual Voltage THD at the respective buses





43












































44



























45












































46

Total Voltage and current harmonic distortions at all buses:



47

5. CONCLUSION

The harmonic level has a great effect on the performance of the system components and
equipments. Harmonic analysis for the distribution system is necessary for appreciating
system operation and upgrade. During the next decade, an increase of the nonlinear loads up
to 70% is expected. Understanding electrical system problems will help in implementing
appropriate solutions. Passive filters can mitigate harmonic distortion. It was found due to
using Passive Filters the voltage distortion at main panels-PCC is reduced from 7.13 to 1.84
and current distortion from 27.85 to 4.15.

Overall MiPower software is found to be good to do harmonic analysis. Final careful
considerations are necessary when studying harmonic problems in any power system.
Important issues must be included as types of loads, power factor characteristics, harmonic
generating characteristics; frequency response.

































48

6. FUTURE RESEARCH IMPLICATIONS

Due to the intensive use of power converters and other non-linear loads in industry
and by consumers in general, it can be observed an increasing deterioration of the
power systems voltage and current waveforms. The current of the non-linear load
(iL1) contains harmonics. The harmonics in the line-current (is) produce a non-linear
voltage drop (v) in the line impedance, which distorts the load voltage (vL). Since
load voltage is distorted, even the current at the linear load (iL1) becomes non-
sinusoidal. The presence of harmonics in power lines results in greater power losses
in the distribution system, interference problems in communication systems and,
sometimes, in operation failures of electronic equipments, which are more and more
sensitive since they include microelectronic control systems, which work with very
low energy level .
Passive filters have been used as a solution to solve harmonic current problems, but
they present several disadvantages, namely: they only filter the frequencies they were
previously tuned for; their operation cannot be limited to a certain load; resonances
can occur because of the interaction between the passive filters and other loads, with
unpredictable results. To cope with these disadvantages, recent efforts have been
concentrated in the development of active filters. Active filters are special
equipments that use power electronic converters to compensate for current and/or
voltage harmonics originated by non-linear loads, or to avoid that harmonic voltages
might be applied to sensitive loads. There are basically two types of active filters: the
shunt type and the series type. It is possible to have active filters combined with
passive filters as well as active filters of both types acting together.


















49

Appendix-1




BUS DATA
NAME BUS KV VMIN-PU VMAX-PU
Bus1 13.8 0.95 1.05
Bus2 13.8 0.95 1.05
Bus3 13.8 0.95 1.05
Bus4 13.8 0.95 1.05
Bus5 0.48 0.95 1.05
Bus6 4.16 0.95 1.05
Bus7 4.16 0.95 1.05
Bus8 4.16 0.95 1.05


TRANSMISSION LINE DATA
FROM TO IMPEDANCE NOMINAL RATING
NAME* NAME* R(P.U) X(P.U.) TAP MVA

MINTAP MAXTAP TAPSTEP SHIFT-DE
Bus1 Bus5 0.0011 0.22 1 10

0.95 1.05 0.0125 0
Bus2 Bus6 0.00055 0.11 1 10

0.95 1.05 0.0125 0
Bus3 Bus7 0.00027 0.055 1 10

0.95 1.05 0.0125 0
Bus4 Bus8 0.00055 0.11 1 10

0.95 1.05 0.0125 0


SERIES REACTOR DATA
FROM TO IMPEDANCEIN P.U. RATING
NAME* NAME* R(P.U) X(P.U.) MVA
Bus1 Bus2 0 0.00476 10
Bus2 Bus3 0 0.0238 10
Bus3 Bus4 0 0.02286 10


GENERATOR DATA
FROM REAL Q-MIN Q-MAX V-SPEC MVA
NAME* POWER(MW) MVAR MVAR P.U. RATING

Bus1 20 0 12 1 10


50

LOAD DATA
FROM REAL REACTIVE
NAME* MW MVAR

-------- -------- --------
Bus6 2.5 0

Bus3 5 2.422

Bus8 2.5 0

Bus5 2.5 0


BUS VOLTAGE AND POWER
FROM V-MAG ANGLE MW MVAR MW MVAR
NAME P.U. DEGREE GEN GEN LOAD LOAD
-------- ------ ------ -------- -------- -------- --------
Bus1 1 0 12.502 2.915 0 0
Bus2 0.9987 -0.27 0 0 0 0
Bus3 0.9925 -1.3 0 0 5 2.422
Bus4 0.9923 -1.64 0 0 0 0
Bus5 0.9982 -3.16 0 0 2.5 0
Bus6 0.9982 -1.85 0 0 2.5 0
Bus7 0.9925 -1.3 0 0 0 0
Bus8 0.9918 -3.24 0 0 2.5 0



TRANSFORMER FLOWS AND LOSS
FROM TO FORWARD LOSS %
NAME NAME MW MVAR MW MVAR LOADING
Bus1 Bus5 2.501 0.138 0.0007 0.138 25
Bus2 Bus6 2.5 0.069 0.0003 0.069 25
Bus3 Bus7 0 0 0 0 0
Bus4 Bus8 2.5 0.07 0.0003 0.0699 25.2


LINE/REACTOR FLOWS AND LOSS
FROM TO FORWARD LOSS %
NAME NAME MW MVAR MW MVAR LOADING
-------- -------- -------- - ------- -------- -------- -------
Bus1 Bus2 10.001 2.777 0 0.0513 103.8
Bus2 Bus3 7.5 2.657 0 0.1511 79.7
Bus3 Bus4 2.5 0.084 0 0.0145 25.2
51







Summary of results
TOTAL REAL POWER GENERATION : 12.502 MW
TOTAL REAL POWER INJECT,-ve L : 0 MW
TOTAL REACT. POWER GENERATION : 2.915 MVAR
GENERATION pf : 0.974

TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : 0 MW
TOTAL SHUNT REACTOR INJECTION : 0 MVAR

TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : 0 MW
TOTAL SHUNT CAPACIT.INJECTION : 0 MVAR

TOTAL TCSC REACTIVE DRAWL : 0 MVAR

TOTAL SPS REACTIVE DRAWL : 0 MVAR

TOTAL UPFC FACTS. INJECTION : 0 MVAR

TOTAL SHUNT FACTS.INJECTION : 0 MVAR
TOTAL SHUNT FACTS.DRAWAL : 0 MVAR

TOTAL REAL POWER LOAD : 12.5 MW
TOTAL REAL POWER DRAWAL -ve g : 0 MW
TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOAD : 2.422 MVAR
LOAD pf : 0.982
TOTAL COMPENSATION AT LOADS : 0 MVAR
TOTAL HVDC REACTIVE POWER : 0 MVAR

TOTAL REAL POWER LOSS (AC+DC) : 0.001384 MW
PERCENTAGE REAL LOSS (AC+DC) : 0.011
TOTAL REACTIVE POWER LOSS : 0.493699 MVAR









52

Harmonic Analysis Data:

CURRENT SOURCE DATA
CURRENT SOURCE BUS: 5
COUNT PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

AMP-RMS AN GLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG

5 143.462 0 143.462 -120 143.462 120
7 98.613 0 98.613 -120 98.613 120
11 54.625 0 54.625 -120 54.625 120
13 42.55 0 42.55 -120 42.55 120
17 26.163 0 26.163 -120 26.163 120
19 20.125 0 20.125 -120 20.125 120
23 14.95 0 14.95 -120 14.95 120
25 12.075 0 12.075 -120 12.075 120
29 10.35 0 10.35 -120 10.35 120
31 8.912 0 8.912 -120 8.912 120
35 8.338 0 8.338 -120 8.338 120

CURRENT SOURCE BUS: 6
COUNT PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

AMP-RMS AN GLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG

5 67.01 0 67.01 -120 67.01 120
7 46.111 0 46.111 -120 46.111 120
11 25.411 0 25.411 -120 25.411 120
13 19.871 0 19.871 -120 19.871 120
17 12.208 0 12.208 -120 12.208 120
19 9.421 0 9.421 -120 9.421 120
23 6.966 0 6.966 -120 6.966 120
25 5.573 0 5.573 -120 5.573 120
29 4.876 0 4.876 -120 4.876 120
31 4.18 0 4.18 -120 4.18 120
35 3.848 0 3.848 -120 3.848 120

CURRENT SOURCE BUS: 7
COUNT PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

AMP-RMS AN GLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG
----- --------- -- ------- --------- --------- - -------- ---------
5 133.024 0 133.024 -120 133.024 120
7 91.558 0 91.558 -120 91.558 120
11 50.755 0 50.755 -120 50.755 120
13 39.476 0 39.476 -120 39.476 120
17 24.25 0 24.25 -120 24.25 120
19 18.71 0 18.71 -120 18.71 120
53

23 13.866 0 13.866 -120 13.866 120
25 11.08 0 11.08 -120 11.08 120
29 9.72 0 9.72 -120 9.72 120
31 8.293 0 8.293 -120 8.293 120
35 7.63 0 7.63 -120 7.63 120

CURRENT SOURCE BUS: 8
COUNT PHASE A PHASE B PHASE C

AMP-RMS AN GLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG AMP-RMS ANGLE-DEG
----- --------- -- ------- --------- --------- - -------- ---------
5 99.851 0 99.851 -120 99.851 120
7 68.668 0 68.668 -120 68.668 120
11 38.149 0 38.149 -120 38.149 120
13 29.69 0 29.69 -120 29.69 120
17 18.245 0 18.245 -120 18.245 120
19 14.065 0 14.065 -120 14.065 120
23 10.416 0 10.416 -120 10.416 120
25 8.326 0 8.326 -120 8.326 120
29 7.298 0 7.298 -120 7.298 120
31 6.237 0 6.237 -120 6.237 120
35 5.706 0 5.706 -120 5.706 120


FILTER DATA
BUS FROM TO VALUE UNIT*

3
1 2 0.004838 R-OHM
2 3 0.006164 L-HENRY
3 0 0.000066 C-FARAD

7
1 2 0.025037 R-OHM
2 3 0.000638 L-HENRY
3 0 0.000636 C-FARAD

8
1 2 0.000668 R-OHM
2 3 0.000851 L-HENRY
3 0 0.000477 C-FARAD

3
1 2 0.00342 R-OHM
2 3 0.004357 L-HENRY
3 0 0.000093 C-FARAD




54

Without Filter Results: CASE A

VOLTAGE TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
NAME %HDF-A %HDF-B %HDF-C %HDF-AVR
Bus1 7.1288 7.1288 7.1288 7.1288
Bus2 8.2652 8.2652 8.2652 8.2652
Bus3 12.7216 12.7216 12.7216 12.7216
Bus4 14.539 14.539 14.539 14.539
Bus5 10.0173 10.0173 10.0173 10.0173
Bus6 14.0851 14.0851 14.0851 14.0851
Bus7 18.535 18.535 18.535 18.535
Bus8 23.2853 23.2853 23.2853 23.2853

INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORSION
NAME %HDF-T %HDF-5 %HDF-7
%HDF-
11
%HDF-
13
%HDF-
17
%HDF-
19
%HDF-
23
%HDF-
25
%HDF-
29
%HDF-
31
%HDF-
35
Bus1 7.1288 3.257 3.1373 2.7313 2.5141 2.02 1.7412 1.5612 1.3573 1.3784 1.2596 1.3074
Bus2 8.2652 3.7763 3.6374 3.1667 2.9149 2.342 2.0189 1.8101 1.5735 1.5982 1.4604 1.5157
Bus3 12.7216 5.8115 5.5979 4.8761 4.4866 3.6048 3.1074 2.7864 2.4215 2.4609 2.2478 2.3315
Bus4 14.539 6.6413 6.3968 5.5735 5.1281 4.1202 3.5515 3.1845 2.7675 2.8126 2.5691 2.6634
Bus5 10.0173 4.5773 4.4078 3.8372 3.5322 2.8386 2.445 2.1941 1.9128 1.9308 1.7681 1.8445
Bus6 14.0851 6.4386 6.2023 5.3878 4.9676 3.9911 3.4413 3.0833 2.6806 2.722 2.4901 2.5859
Bus7 18.535 8.4672 8.1569 7.1053 6.5357 5.2508 4.5267 4.0598 3.5275 3.5863 3.2743 3.3978
Bus8 23.2853 10.6345 10.2414 8.93 8.2152 6.6011 5.689 5.1007 4.4325 4.5054 4.1154 4.2608

TOTAL CURRENT HARMONIC DISTORSION
NAME NAME RMS-HARMONIC(A) FUNDAMENTAL(A) RMS-TOTAL(A) I-THD (%)
Bus1 Bus2 120.955838 434.244866 450.775907 27.854
Bus2 Bus3 93.94209 333.310477 346.296103 28.185
Bus3 Bus4 40.281306 105.430727 112.863731 38.206
Bus1 Bus5 6.673873 104.777882 104.990215 6.37
Bus2 Bus6 27.013755 104.780031 108.206275 25.781
Bus4 Bus8 40.281253 105.42634 112.859614 38.208

TELEPHONIC INFLUENCE FACTOR
NAME %TIF-A %TIF-B %TIF-C %TIF-AVR
Bus1 2.81E+04 2.81E+04 2.81E+04 2.81E+04
Bus2 3.26E+04 3.26E+04 3.26E+04 3.26E+04
Bus3 4.98E+04 4.98E+04 4.98E+04 4.98E+04
Bus4 5.69E+04 5.69E+04 5.69E+04 5.69E+04
Bus5 3.95E+04 3.95E+04 3.95E+04 3.95E+04
Bus6 5.55E+04 5.55E+04 5.55E+04 5.55E+04
Bus7 7.26E+04 7.26E+04 7.26E+04 7.26E+04
Bus8 9.11E+04 9.11E+04 9.11E+04 9.11E+04

55

With Filter Results: CASE B

VOLTAGE TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
NAME %HDF-A %HDF-B %HDF-C %HDF-AVR
-------- -------- -------- -------- --------
Bus2 2.0932 2.0932 2.0932 2.0932
Bus3 2.1979 2.1979 2.1979 2.1979
Bus4 2.7752 2.7752 2.7752 2.7752
Bus5 4.672 4.672 4.672 4.672
Bus6 7.8374 7.8374 7.8374 7.8374
Bus7 4.5965 4.5965 4.5965 4.5965
Bus8 5.5587 5.5587 5.5587 5.5587

INDIVIDUAL VOLTAGE TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION
NAME
%HDF-
T
%HDF-
5
%HDF-
7
%HDF-
11
%HDF-
13
%HDF-
17
%HDF-
19
%HDF-
23
%HDF-
25
%HDF-
29
%HDF-
31
%HDF-
35
Bus1 1.8427 0.3728 0.688 0.7747 0.743 0.6208 0.5408 0.4911 0.4291 0.4377 0.4013 0.4186
Bus2 2.0932 0.4071 0.7763 0.8811 0.8461 0.7075 0.6165 0.5601 0.4893 0.4994 0.4578 0.4775
Bus3 2.1979 0.0008 0.6633 0.9341 0.9184 0.7857 0.6887 0.6304 0.5517 0.5656 0.5185 0.5409
Bus4 2.7752 0.0018 0.8803 1.1848 1.1579 0.9854 0.8624 0.788 0.6891 0.7062 0.6471 0.674
Bus5 4.672 1.6879 1.9541 1.8771 1.758 1.4369 1.2424 1.1221 0.9831 0.9884 0.9083 0.9541
Bus6 7.8374 3.0678 3.3397 3.1011 2.8977 2.3558 2.0382 1.8327 1.5959 1.6225 1.4869 1.5472
Bus7 4.5965 0.1395 1.6363 1.9785 1.9051 1.5996 1.3956 1.2703 1.1088 1.1351 1.0384 1.0822
Bus8 5.5587 0.0063 1.925 2.3918 2.311 1.9466 1.6985 1.5465 1.3506 1.3826 1.2663 1.3143

TELEPHONIC INFLUENCE FACTOR
NAME %TIF-A % TIF-B %TIF-C %TIF-AVR
Bus1 8598 8598 8598 8598
Bus2 9787 9787 9787 9787
Bus3 1.08E+04 1.08E+04 1.08E+04 1.08E+04
Bus4 1.36E+04 1.36E+04 1.36E+04 1.36E+04
Bus5 1.99E+04 1.99e+004 1.99e+004 1.9.90E+05
Bus6 3.26E+04 3.26E+04 3.26E+04 3.26E+04
Bus7 2.20E+04 2.20E+04 2.20E+04 2.20E+04
Bus8 2.67E+04 2.67E+04 2.67E+04 2.67E+04


TOTAL CURRENT HARMONIC DISTORSION
FROM NAME TO NAME RMS-HARMONIC(A) FUNDAMENTAL(A) RMS-TOTAL(A) I-THD (%)
Bus1 Bus2 18.015391 434.244866 434.618405 4.149
Bus2 Bus3 14.67616 333.310477 333.633428 4.403
Bus3 Bus4 8.462615 105.430727 105.769817 8.027
Bus1 Bus5 6.673853 104.777882 104.990213 6.37
Bus2 Bus6 27.013731 104.780031 108.206269 25.781
Bus4 Bus8 8.462605 105.42634 105.765442 8.027
56

References

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[2] Edward Wilson Kimbark (1948), Power System Stability, Volume I: Elements of Stability
Calculations.

[3] Paul M. Anderson & A.A Faoud, Power System Control and Stability

[4] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control

[5] Sanjoy Kumar Sarawgi, A simulation tool for studying the effects of special protection
systems and communications on power system stability M.S thesis, Washington State
University (2004)

[6] Swaroop Kumar et al, Transient Stability Analysis of the IEEE 9-Bus Electric Power
System, International Journal of Scientific Engineering and Technology (ISSN : 2277-1581)
July 2012

[7] Eduardo Alberto Perez et al, Parametric Study to evaluate the Transient
Stability of an Industrial Power System

[8] M. R. Dadashzadeh and M. Sanaye-Pasand, A Computer Software For Multimachine
Power System Transient Stability Analysis

[9] H. X. Zhang, The Effects of Speed Variations on Transient Stability - Simulation Study and
Mechanism Analysis

[10] Hussain Hassan Al Marhoon, A Practical Method for Power Systems Transient
Stability and Security, Master of Science thesis, University of New Orleans

[11] Ankit Jha et al, Transient system analysis and control of power systems, B.tech project,
NIT Rourkela

[12] IEEE Recommended Practice for Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Analysis