Topics to Review

Laurent series and Laurent co-

ecients from Section 4.5 are
used to dene residues in Sec-
tion 5.1. Cauchys theorem for
multiply connected regions (The-
orem 6, Section 3.4) is the basis
for most integrals in this chap-
ter. Section 5.3 uses the esti-
mates on the path integral from
Theorem 2, Section 3.2. Sec-
tion 5.6 is based on the residues
of the cotangent, which are pre-
sented in Example 4, Section 5.1.
Looking Ahead
Section 5.1 contains the main re-
sult of this chapter along with
some basic applications that illus-
trate its use in computing inte-
grals. Section 5.2 deals with the
integrals of special trigonometric
functions that can be evaluated
directly from the residue theo-
rem. Sections 5.3, 5.4, and 5.5 are
more illustrative of the residue
method. The integrals that we
compute are classical and arise in
many applications. The compu-
tations require the residue the-
orem and additional estimates,
which vary in diculty from sim-
pler ones in Section 5.3 to more
dicult ones in Section 5.5. Sec-
tion 5.6 is an interesting appli-
cation to series. Sections 5.5
and 5.6 can be skipped with-
out aecting the continuity of
the course. Section 5.7 con-
tains many interesting theoretical
properties, whose proofs use at
some stage the residue theorem.
While this section is optional,
it is strongly recommended in a
course that stresses mathematical
proofs. Interesting applications
are presented in the exercises of
that section.
5
RESIDUE THEORY
After having thought on this subject, and brought together the diverse
results mentioned above, I had the hope of establishing on a direct and
rigorous analysis the passage from the real to the imaginary; and my
research has lead me to this Memoire.
-Augustin Louis Cauchy
[Writing about his Memoire of 1814, which contained the residue the-
orem and several computations of real integrals by complex methods.]
In the previous four chapters, we introduced complex numbers and
complex functions and studied properties of the three essential tools of
calculus: the derivative, the integral, and series of complex functions.
In this and the next chapter, we use these results to derive some excit-
ing applications of complex analysis. The applications of this chapter
are based on one formula, known as Cauchys residue theorem. We
have already used this result many times before when computing inte-
grals. Here we will highlight the main ideas behind it and devise new
techniques for computing important integrals that arise from Fourier
series and integrals, Laplace transforms, and other applications. For
example, integrals like

sin x
x
dx,

0
cos xe
x
2
dx are very dicult
to compute using real variable techniques. With the residue theorem
and some additional estimates with complex functions, the computa-
tions of these integrals are reduced to simple tasks.
In Section 5.7 (an optional section), we will use residues to expand
our knowledge of analytic functions. We will use integrals to count
the number of zeros of analytic functions and to give a formula for the
inverse of an analytic functions. Theoretical results, such as the open
mapping property, will be derived and will be used to obtain a fresh
and dierent perspective on concrete results such as the maximum
modulus principle.
The residue theorem was discovered around 1814 (stated explicitely
in 1831) by Cauchy as he attempted to generalize and put under one
umbrella the computations of certain special integrals, some of them
involving complex substitutions, that were done by Euler, Laplace,
Legendre, and other mathematicians.
Section 5.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem 287
5.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem
Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z
0
. We know from Theorem 1,
Section 4.5, that f has a Laurent series in an annulus around z
0
: for 0 <
|z z
0
| < R,
f(z) = +
a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+
a
1
z z
0
+ a
0
+ a
1
(z z
0
) + a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ .
Furthermore, the series can be integrated term by term over any path that
lies in the annulus 0 < |z z
0
| < R. Let C
r
(z
0
) be any positively oriented
circle that lies in 0 < |z z
0
| < R. If we integrate the Laurent series term
by term over C
r
(z
0
) and use the fact that

Cr(z
0
)
(z z
0
)
n
dz = 0 if n = 1
and

Cr(z
0
)
1
zz
0
dz = 2i, we nd

Cr(z
0
)
f(z) dz = a
1
2i; hence
(1) a
1
=
1
2i

Cr(z
0
)
f(z) dz.
The coecient a
1
is called the residue of f at z
0
and is denoted by
Res (f, z
0
) or simply Res (z
0
) when there is no risk of confusing the function
f. With the concept of residue in hand, we can state our main result.
THEOREM 1
CAUCHYS RESIDUE
THEOREM
Let C be a simple closed positively oriented path. Suppose that f is analytic
inside and on C, except at nitely many isolated singularities z
1
, z
2
, . . . , z
n
inside C. Then
(2)

C
f(z) dz = 2i
n

j=1
Res (f, z
j
).
Figure 1
Proof Take small circles C
rj
(z
j
) (j = 1, 2, . . . , n) that do not intersect each
other and are contained in the interior of C (Figure 1). Apply Cauchys integral
theorem for multiple simple paths (Theorem XX, Section 3.4) and get
_
C
f(z) dz =
n

j=1
_
Cr
j
f(z) dz = 2i
n

j=1
Res (z
j
),
where the last equality follows from (1). So (2) holds.
If C is negatively oriented, we need to add a negative sign to the right
side of (2).
Theorerm 1 reduces the evaluation of certain integrals to computating
residues. The computation of the residue will depend on the type of singu-
larity of the functioon f, as we now illustrate with useful results.
288 Chapter 5 Residue Theory
PROPOSITION 1
RESIDUE AT A
SIMPLE POLE
(i) Suppose that z
0
is an isolated singularity of f. Then f has a simple pole
at z
0
if and only if
(3) Res (f, z
0
) = lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)f(z) = 0.
(ii) If f(z) =
p(z)
q(z)
, where p and q are analytic at z
0
, p(z
0
) = 0, and q(z) has
a simple zero at z
0
, then
(4) Res

p(z)
q(z)
, z
0

=
p(z
0
)
q

(z
0
)
.
Proof (i) By Theorem 7, Section 4.6, z
0
is a pole of order 1 if and only if the
Laurent series of f at z
0
is
f(z) =
a
1
z z
0
+ a
0
+ a
1
(z z
0
) + a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ =
a
1
z z
0
+ h(z),
where a
1
= 0 and h(z) is the analytic power series part of the Laurent series.
Then, (z z
0
)f(z) = a
1
+ (z z
0
)h(z), and (i) follows upon taking the limit as
z z
0
. To prove (ii), note that f has a simple pole at z
0
. Using (i) and q(z
0
) = 0,
we have
Res
_
p(z)
q(z)
, z
0
_
= lim
zz0
(zz
0
)
p(z)
q(z)
= lim
zz0
p(z) lim
zz0
z z
0
q(z) q(z
0
)
=
p(z
0
)
q

(z
0
)
.
EXAMPLE 1 An application of the residue theorem
Let C be a simple closed positively oriented path such that 1, i, and i are in the
interior of C and 1 is in the exterior of C (Figure 2). Find
_
C
dz
z
4
1
.
Figure 2 The path C and the
poles of f(z) in Example 1.
Solution The function f(z) =
1
z
4
1
has isolated singularities at z = 1 and i.
Three of these are inside C, and according to (2) we have
(5)
_
C
dz
z
4
1
= 2i
_
Res (1) + Res (i) + Res (i)
_
.
We have z
4
1 = (z 1)(z + 1)(z i)(z + i), so 1 and i are simple roots of
the polynomial z
4
1 = 0. Hence f(z) =
1
z
4
1
has simple poles at 1 and i
(Theorem 7(v), Section 4.6). Let z
0
denote any one of the points 1, i. Because
z
0
is a simple pole, we have from (3),
(6) lim
zz0
(z z
0
)f(z) = a
1
= Res (z
0
).
Using the factorization z
4
1 = (z 1)(z + 1)(z i)(z + i), we have at z
0
= 1
Res (1) = lim
z1
(z 1)
1
z
4
1
= lim
z1
1
(z + 1)(z i)(z + i)
=
1
(z + 1)(z i)(z + i)

z=1
=
1
4
.
Section 5.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem 289
Similarly, at z
0
= i, we have
Res (i) = lim
zi
(z i)
1
z
4
1
=
1
(z 1)(z + 1)(z + i)

z=i
=
i
4
,
and at z = i,
Res (i) = lim
zi
(z + i)
1
z
4
1
=
1
(z 1)(z + 1)(z i)

z=i
=
i
4
.
Plugging these values into (5), we obtain
_
C
dz
z
4
1
=
i
2
.

EXAMPLE 2 Residue at a removable singularity

Let C be a simple closed positively oriented path such that 1 is in the interior of
C and 1 is in the exterior of C (Figure 3). Find
I =
_
C
sin(z)
z
2
1
dz.
Figure 3 FIX THIS FIGURE
FOR Example 2.
Solution The function f(z) =
sin(z)
z
2
1
has isolated singularities at z = 1; only 1
is inside C. Since
limz 1(z 1)
sin(z)
z
2
1
= limz 1
sin(z)
z + 1
= 0,
it follows from Theorem 6, Section 4.6, that 1 is a removable singularity of f. Thus,
the Laurent series of f at z
0
= 1 has no negative powers of (z1), and, in particular,
a
1
= 0. Hence Res (f, 1) = a
1
= 0, and so I = 0.
You should also verify that I = 0 by using Cauchys integral formula.
Example 2 brings up the following simple observation: If z
0
is a removable
singularity, then Res (f z
0
) = 0.
For poles of higher order the situation is more complicated.
THEOREM 2
RESIDUE AT A POLE
OF ORDER m
Suppose that z
0
is a pole of order m 1 of f. Then the residue of f at z
0
is
(7) Res (f, z
0
) = lim
zz
0
1
(m1)!
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)] ,
where as usual the derivative of order 0 of a function is the function itself.
You should check that for m = 1 formula (7) reduces to (3).
Proof By the Laurent series characterization of poles (Theorem 7, Section 4.6),
f(z) =
a
m
(z z
0
)
m
+ +
a
1
z z
0
+ a
0
+ a
1
(z z
0
) + a
2
(z z
0
)
2
+ .
Multiply by (z z
0
)
m
, then dierentiate (m 1) times to obtain
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)] = (m1)!a
1
+m!a
0
(z z
0
) +
(m + 1)!
2
a
1
(z z
0
)
2
+ .
290 Chapter 5 Residue Theory
Take the limit as z z
0
, and get
lim
zz0
d
m1
dz
m1
[(z z
0
)
m
f(z)] = (m1)!a
1
+ 0,
which is equivalent to (7).
EXAMPLE 3 Computing residues
Figure 3 The path C and the
poles of f(z) in Example 2.
Let C be the simple closed path shown in Figure 3. (a) Compute the residues of
f(z) =
z
2
(z
2
+
2
)
2
sin z
at all the isolated singularities inside C. (b) Evaluate
_
C
z
2
(z
2
+
2
)
2
sin z
dz.
Solution (a) Three steps are involved in answering this question.
Step 1: Determine the singularities of f inside C. The function f(z) =
z
2
(z
2
+
2
)
2
sin z
is analytic except where z
2
+
2
= 0 or sin z = 0. Thus f has isolated singularities
at i and at k where k is an integer. Only 0 and i are inside C.
Step 2: Determine the type of the singularities of f inside C. Let us start with
the singularity at 0. Using lim
z0
sin z
z
= 1, it follows that lim
z0
z
sin z
= 1, and so
lim
z0
f(z) = lim
z0
z
sin z
z
(z
2
+
2
)
2
= 1 0 = 0.
By Theorem 5, Section 4.6, f(z) has a removable singularity at z
0
= 0. To treat
the singularities at i, we consider
1
f(z)
=
(z+i)
2
(zi)
2
sin z
z
2
. Clearly
1
f(z)
has a
zero of order 2 at i, and so by Theorem 7(v), Section 4.6, f(z) has a pole of order
2 at i.
Step 3: Determine the residues of f inside C. At 0, f has a removable singularity,
so a
1
= 0, and hence the residue of f at 0 is 0. At i, we apply Theorem 2, with
m = 2, z
0
= i. Then
Res (i) = lim
zi
d
dz
_
(z i)
2
f(z)

= lim
zi
d
dz
_
z
2
(z + i)
2
sin z
_
= lim
zi
2z(z + i) sin z z
2
((z + i) cos z + 2 sin z)
(z + i)
3
sin
2
z
=
2 sinh + ( cosh sinh )
4 sinh
2

=
1
4 sinh
+
cosh
4 sinh
2

,
where the last line follows by plugging z = i into the previous line and using
sin(i) = i sinh and cos(i) = cosh .
(b) Using Theorem 1 and (a), we obtain
_
C
z
2
(z
2
+
2
)
2
sin z
dz = 2i
_
Res (0) + Res (i)
_
= i
_

1
2 sinh
+
cosh
2 sinh
2

_
.
Section 5.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem 291
EXAMPLE 4 Residues of the cotangent
(a) Let k be an integer. Show that Res
_
cot(z), k
_
=
1

.
(b) Suppose that f is analytic at an integer k. Show that
(8) Res
_
f(z) cot(z), k
_
=
1

f(k).
(c) Evaluate
_
C
cot(z)
1 + z
4
dz,
where C is the positively oriented rectangular path shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 The path C and the
poles of f(z) cot(z) in Exam-
ple 4(c).
Solution (a) We know that the zeros of (z) = sin(z) are precisely the integers.
Also, since

(k) = cos(k) = 0, it follows from Theorem 1, Section 4.6, that all

the zeros of sin(z) are simple zeros. Hence cot(z) =
cos(z)
sin(z)
has simple poles at
the integers. To nd the residue at k, we use Proposition 1(ii). We have
Res (cot(z), k) = Res
_
cos(z)
sin(z)
, k
_
=
cos(k)
d
dz
sin(z)

z=k
=
1

.
(b) This is immediate from (a) and Proposition 1(ii): Take p(z) = f(z) cos(z) and
q(z) = sin(z).
(c) Since 1 + z
4
is nonzero inside C and cot(z) has simple poles at the integers,
it follows that
cot(z)
1+z
4
has two simple poles inside C at z = 0 and z = 1. Applying
Theorem 1 and using (8) with f(z) =
1
1+z
4
to compute the residues, we nd
_
C
cot(z)
1 + z
4
dz = 2i( Res (
cot(z)
1 + z
4
, 0) + Res (
cot(z)
1 + z
4
, 1)
= 2i
_
1

1
1 + 0
4
+
1

1
1 + 1
4
_
= 2i
_
1 +
1
2
_
= 3 i.

So far the examples that we treated involved residues at poles of nite
order. There is no formula like (7) for computing the residue at an essential
singularity. We have to rely on various tricks to evaluate the coecient
a
1
in the Laurent series expansion. We illustrate with several examples,
starting with a useful observation.
PROPOSITION 2
RESIDUE OF AN
EVEN FUNCTION
Suppose that 0 is an isolated singularity of an even function f. Then
Res (f, 0) = 0.
Proof We have to show that the a
1
the Laurent series coecient of f at 0 is 0.
Write f(z) =

n=
a
n
z
n
, where 0 < |z| < r. Substitue z for z and use the
fact that f is even (so f(z) = f(z)). Then

n=
a
n
z
n
=

n=
(1)
n
a
n
z
n
,
and by the uniqueness of the Laurent series, it follows that (1)
n
a
n
= a
n
, which
implies that a
n
= 0 if |n| is odd; in particular, a
1
= 0.
EXAMPLE 5 Residue at 0 of an even function
Compute Res (e

1
z
2
cos
1
z
, 0).
292 Chapter 5 Residue Theory
Solution The function e

1
z
2
cos
1
z
is even and has an isolated (essential) singularity
at 0. By Proposition 2, Res (e

1
z
2
cos
1
z
, 0) = 0.
Multiplication of series is often useful in computing residues at a singu-
larity, including essential singularities.
EXAMPLE 6 Multiplying series by a polynomial
Compute the residues of z
2
sin
1
z
at z = 0.
Solution From the Laurent series
sin
1
z
=
1
z

1
3!
1
z
3
+
1
5!
1
z
5
,
we get
z
2
sin
1
z
= z
1
3!
1
z
+
1
5!
1
z
3
,
and so Res (z
2
sin
1
z
, 0) =
1
3!
.
EXAMPLE 7 Using Cauchy products
Find the residue of
e
1
z
z
2
+1
at z = 0.
Solution The given function has an essential singularity at z = 0. To compute
the coecient a
1
in its Laurent series around 0, we use two familiar Taylor and
Laurent series as follows. We have, for 0 < |z| < 1,
e
1
z
z
2
+ 1
=
1
z
2
+ 1
e
1
z
=
_
1 z
2
+ z
4

_
_
1 +
1
z
+
1
2!
1
z
2
+
1
3!
1
z
3
+
_
.
By properties of Taylor and Laurent series, both series are absolutely convergent
in 0 < |z| < 1. So we can multiply them term by term using a Cauchy product.
Collecting all the terms in
1
z
, we nd that
Res
_
e
1
z
z
2
+ 1
, 0
_
= a
1
= 1
1
3!
+
1
5!
= sin 1.
Exercises 5.1
In Exercises 112, nd the residue of the given function at all its isolated singular-
ities.
1.
1 + z
z
2.
1 + z
z
2
+ 2z + 2
3.
1 + e
z
z
2
+
2
z
4.
sin(z
2
)
z
2
(z
2
+ 1)
5.
_
z 1
z + 3i
_
3
6.
1 cos z
z
3
7.
1
z sin z
8.
cot(z)
z + 1
9. csc(z)
z + 1
z 1
10. z sin
_
1
z
_
11. e
z+
1
z 12. cos
_
1
z
_
sin
_
1
z
_
Figure 5 The path R for Ex-
ercises 15 and 20.
In Exercises 1326, evaluate the given path integral. The path R in Exercises 15
and 20 is shown in Figure 5.
Section 5.1 Cauchys Residue Theorem 293
13.
_
C1(0)
z
2
+ 3z 1
z(z
2
3)
dz. 14.
_
C 1
10
(1)
1
z
5
1
dz
15.
_
R
z + i
(z 1 i)
3
(z i)
dz 16.
_
C3(0)
e
iz
2
z
2
+ (3 3i)z 2 6i
dz
17.
_
C3
2
(0)
dz
z(z 1)(z 2) (z 10)
18.
_
C3(0)
z
2
+ 1
(z 1)
2
dz
19.
_
C4(0)
z tan z dz
20.
_
R
dz
1 + e
z
21.
_
C1(0)
e
z
2
z
6
dz 22.
_
C1(0)
cos
_
1
z
2
_
e
1
z
dz
23.
_
C1(0)
z
4
_
e
1
z
+ z
2
_
dz
24.
_
C
31/2
(0)
z
2
cot(z) dz
25.
_
C1(0)
sin z
z
6
dz
26.
_
C
1/2
(0)
1
z
4
(e
z
1)
dz
27. (a) Prove that if f has a simple pole at z
0
and g is analytic at z
0
, then
Res (f(z)g(z), z
0
) = g(z
0
) Res (f(z), z
0
).
(b) Use (a) to prove (8).
28. Show that Res
_
f(z) + g(z), z
0
_
= Res
_
f(z), z
0
_
+ Res
_
g(z), z
0
_
.
29. Residues of the cosecant. (a) Show that csc(z) has simple poles at the
integers.
(b) For an integer k show that
Res
_
csc(z), k
_
=
(1)
k

.
(c) Suppose that f is analytic at an integer k. Show that
Res
_
f(z) csc(z), k
_
=
(1)
k

f(k).
30. Use Exercise 29 to compute
(a)
_
C
25/2
(0)
z csc(z) dz, (b)
_
C
25/2
(0)
csc(z)
1 + z
2
dz.
31. Explain how the residue theorem implies Cauchys theorem (Theorem 5, Sec-
tion 3.4) and Cauchys integral formula (Theorem 2, Section 3.6).
32. Suppose that f has an isolated singularity at z
0
. Show that Res
_
f

(z), z
0
_
= 0.
33. Consider the Laurent series expansions in an annulus around z
0
,
f(z) =

n=
a
n
(z z
0
)
n
and g(z) =

n=
b
n
(z z
0
)
n
.