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Earthing for Audio
Following on from a very informative IBS meeting earlier this year, PETER
THOMAS AIBS, Managing Director of PMC, expands his advice on how best to
deal with unwanted noise in professional audio systems.
A
s the generous frame of Bob Conduct
approached, I knew I was in trouble. “You
presented a talk at the BBC on the basics of
earthing didn’t you?” “No”, I said, unconvincingly.
Undeterred, Bob, a zealous member of the IBS
Executive, pressed an ancient VHS tape firmly into my
hand. Glancing down I noticed that the case sported the
legend: BBC Earthing seminar by Peter Thomas 1987.
“Er, yes” I muttered under my breath and, unbeknown
to me, had at that moment agreed to present a talk on
earthing to the IBS. Not learning from this episode, I fell
for the same trick again, played deftly by the Editor of
Line Up, Hugh Robjohns, and agreed to produce a piece
for this edition.
At the outset, I need to make clear that there are no
references to PMC loudspeakers at all (except in this
introduction). Neither are there any black and white
answers to earthing issues, nor easy fixes to the
numerous problems caused by earthing configurations.
If this is your expectation then stop reading right now to
avoid disappointment. The management also reserves
the right to oversimplify situations for the benefit of
clarity, teach their grandmothers to suck eggs and keep
engineering detail to a minimum. Insomniacs are advised
to keep this article handy by their bedside.
The purpose of this brief tour of earthing is to raise
awareness of what causes hum and noise in audio
systems, and ultimately produce a simple list of logical
things to check to isolate and avoid problems.
Mains Earth
Before we launch headlong into earthing, it’s quite
important to appreciate where the mains earth
originates from and what it’s actually there for.
Figure 1 shows an
extremely simplified
circuit diagram of a three
phase generator. Note
that there are three live
(L) outputs (marked ‘Line’
on the diagram), whilst
the neutrals (N) are all
tied together. Note also
that the neutrals are
Figure 1: connected to ground. This will become an important
A simplified factor later on. The earth’s primary role is naturally for
diagram of a safety. However, in audio systems it also has to provide
three phase noise rejection through shielding against low and high
mains frequency noise (hum and interference). For the audio
generator professional the dilemma with this is that its safety role
often conflicts with the goal to keep noise at a
minimum… but this is not – under any circumstances –
an excuse to remove a safety earth to cure noise
problems.
16 LINE UP Nov/Dec 2005
Noise Sources
There are two types of noise that need rejecting: low
frequency noise such as mains hum (50Hz) and buzz
(100Hz), plus high frequency noise such as radio
interference, digital breakthrough, thyristor noise (from
lighting dimmer circuits), and basically anything that
switches at high frequencies. Clearly, high gain circuits
such as mic and guitar preamps are particularly
vulnerable. High frequency interference is on the
increase, and becoming harder to eradicate. One of the
delights of trying to find a solution to eliminate both low
frequency and high frequency sources of noise is that
the cure for one often increases the other – but then you
wouldn’t expect anything less!
There are many ways that these noise sources find
their way into our audio circuits. The five primary routes
are: induced currents, capacitive-coupled currents, loop
currents, fault currents (including dirty earths), and
finally multiple earth paths. Did I say this was going to
be easy?
Induced and Capacitive Coupled
Take a look at figure 2. This shows how induced and
capacitive-coupled currents cause noise. Here we see a
balanced cable in the foreground lying next to two
external cables. Low frequency noise is induced
electromagnetically into the audio cable (left of picture),
and high frequency noise is capacitively
(electrostatically) coupled into it (right).
Figure 2: Inductive and capacitive coupling
These are two good reasons for keeping audio
cables as far away as possible from other cables carrying
potential noise sources – such as cables carrying mains
or digital signals.
Loop Currents
Figure 3 is an example of how loop circuits act like
detectors for noise when connecting two pieces of
unbalanced equipment together. In this example, both
pieces of equipment are plugged into the mains and
receive a (safety) earth which also provides a link
between the two chassis. Additionally, the screen of the
unbalanced cable also provides a connection between
the two units forming a ‘ground loop’ with the mains
earth. The noise source only produces an audible
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Figure 3: A classic ground loop situation
problem (VHUM) when the loop is present. If no loop was
formed then no circuit would be formed for the noise
source, preventing the noise current from flowing and
VHUM would not exist. But no, we can’t lift the mains
earth to break the loop and cure the problem!
Fault Currents and Multiple Paths
Mains earths will often carry high fault currents (in the
event of poor or faulty equipment being connected to it)
and will therefore be termed ‘dirty.’ Mains cables are
also commonly installed as a ring main – ie. in a loop –
and cause circulating noise currents with multiple paths
being taken by the fault currents. Audio equipment
placed inside an area where fault currents are flowing
via different paths will be susceptible to the radiated
field from the mains earth cables, chiefly through
induction, and large hum fields will be present. Moving
cables in this instance will not completely solve noise
problems.
Having painted such a negative picture of the
problems we face, and before we all give up and retire
to the South of France (always an attractive option) let’s
take a look at the solutions available to us to improve the
above situations and minimise noise.
Clean Earths
The problems produced by dirty mains earths have lead
many broadcasters and studios to provide a ‘Clean Earth’
in their installations. This is sometimes also referred to as
‘Programme Earth’ (mainly by broadcasters) or
‘Technical Earth’ (by broadcasters and studios) – just to
confuse everyone.
In these installations this ‘clean earth’ is kept free of
fault currents, enabling it to provide the screen to the
audio circuits. Clean earths are wired in a star from the
incoming earth to the building. In other words, a single
cable is routed to each technical area, rather than being
looped around the building as is the normal way with
standard mains distribution. Each mains socket is then
star wired individually back to the incoming clean earth
to the technical area. This reduces the incidence of hum
loops and also keeps any fault currents from upsetting
the entire building as they are routed directly to the
incoming mains earth to the building.
The down side of clean earths (apart from cost) is
that they must be kept separate from the mains earth
distribution in the building, otherwise the combination
of multiple paths will be a source of considerable noise
problems (and heartaches).
This is not to say that the mains earth distribution
cannot be wired to the same standards as a proper clean
earth arrangements – and in many installations the need
for a separate clean earth distribution has been avoided
by adopting the same distribution techniques. For
example, Metropolis Studios in London run screened
earth cables to each studio from the incoming mains
feeder.
In situations where equipment is being rigged in
premises not under your control, plugging all the
equipment into a single mains outlet (preferably with
the benefit of a distribution board) will avoid most
problems inherent with a dirty or poor mains earth.
Lifting Earths Safely
There are instances where breaking a mains earth loop
is required to solve a hum problem. The use of an
isolating transformer is the only solution to avoid
compromising the safety of the equipment.
Consider the scenario where the mains earth has
been lifted from a piece of equipment, and a fault
subsequently develops in which the mains Live becomes
connected to exposed metalwork. Figure 4 illustrates
that a shock can be received from the Live mains supply
because a circuit is made back to
Neutral via the earth – as per Figure 1 Figure 4: The potential shock
where the neutral is earthed at the hazard
generator – and so a potentially lethal
current flows through the body.
Figure 5 illustrates that if that
same piece of faulty equipment was
connected via an isolating
transformer, there would no longer
be a circuit back to earth. No current
would flow and no shock would be
received because the transformer
provides the break in the circuit. The Figure 5: An isolating transformer
only golden rule to remember is that prevents the shock hazard
you must connect only one piece of
equipment per isolating transformer.
The downside of this approach –
lifting the mains earth combined
with an isolating transformer – is that
in removing the mains earth
reference from a piece of equipment
you may well open it up to high
frequency noise pick up through the
reduced effectiveness of its shielding.
Also, high frequency noise can capacitively cross the
isolating transformer’s windings and enter the
equipment via its own transformer.
Balanced and Unbalanced Circuits
For the purpose of reducing noise, unbalanced circuits
should be avoided if at all possible. Figure 6 shows how
the screen of the interconnecting cable is the return
path for the audio, and so it cannot be removed or
disconnected. However it also forms part of a ground
loop with the mains earth connection between the two
pieces of equipment. Nevertheless, if the mains earth is
clean, both pieces of equipment are plugged into
adjacent outlets, and the audio interconnects are not
routed near sources of noise then usually this works
well.
In the case of the balanced circuit shown in figure 7,
the screen of the interconnecting cable is no longer part
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of the audio Older equipment usually connected the shell of the XLR
circuit, and to the equipment chassis whilst pin 1 was connected to
although forming the internal 0 Volts reference for the electronics. For
an additional link new equipment conforming to AES48-2005 (see Fig 9),
between the two pin 1 and the XLR shell are now connected directly to
pieces of the equipment chassis.
equipment along So that XLR cables function with both topologies
with the mains without causing hum and noise, pin 1 and the shell are
Figure 6: earth connection, best wired separately to avoid problems, allowing the
An unbalanced no noise current is equipment to determine whether they are linked or not.
connection flowing in the In other words, do not link pin 1 and the shell inside
audio go and XLR connectors.
return feeds. Even Lifting Pin 1
in a noisy In the situation where there is still a hum and noise
environment, this
circuit should be
noise free as the
audio is balanced
Figure 7: around the earth,
A balanced and any earth
connection current noise is
not ‘seen’ by the audio circuits.
To provide greater rejection and higher immunity
from external noise in high gain circuits or in areas of
high potential noise sources, connecting equipment
together with ‘star quad’ cable will reduce noise Figure 9: The AES48-2005 grounding recommendation.
problems significantly – albeit at additional cost. Its four
conductor construction provides over ten times the problem, a common quick fix is to remove the earth
noise immunity of ordinary cable from induced and connection to pin 1 in the XLR cable at one end.
capacitively coupled noise sources. Although solving low frequency hum problems, this
technique does compromise the screening and
Electronically Balanced consequently can increase high frequency noise
The rejection of noise by a balanced circuit relies on two intrusion. It also causes problems if cables are extended
mains things: the accuracy of the balance of the by plugging two together – since the screen connection
equipment’s input and output circuits – the common may be removed entirely. Rather than modifying cables
mode rejection – and that the circuits are earth free. by permanently disconnecting pin 1, an easier and
When audio transformers were the common means more controllable solution is to make up some XLR
of achieving balanced inputs and outputs they were barrels with pin 1 disconnected internally. These can
truly earth free (as in the case of isolating transformers). then be connected in series with the XLR cable when
However, as electronically balanced circuits are now required.
standard in many products, a reference to earth is
inherently present and provides an alternative path for
noise to intrude into the audio circuits. Figure 8
illustrates the possible routes within a piece of
equipment from both the output and input electronic In Summary
balanced circuits.
In view of the above, electronically balanced circuits ● Connect equipment to a known clean earth, or
can still be prone to noise from multiple earth loops. connect to common earth point.
● Don’t mix earths.
Figure 8: ● Avoid unbalanced equipment.
Possible earth
noise routes ● Use star quad interconnects in sensitive circuits.
within ● Re-site equipment and cables away from noise
electronically sources.
balanced
equipment
● Lift mains earths only with isolating transformers.
● Lift Pin 1 on XLR if all else fails.
The overriding factor in trying to reduce noise
problems is not to compromise the safety
earthing in any way.

18 LINE UP Nov/Dec 2005