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Chapter No. 05
Mohd Yousuf Soomro (Lecturer )
Applications Of Newton’s Laws Institute of Physics
The principal difference between gravitation & other forces is that, on the practical
scale, gravity is cumulative and infinite in range. Gravity is the weakest of the four
fundamental forces, yet it is the dominant force in the universe for shaping the large
scale structure of galaxies, stars, etc.
The gravitational force between two masses m1 and m2 is given by the relationship:
This is often called the "universal law of gravitation" and G the universal gravitation
constant. It is an example of an inverse square law force. The force is always attractive
and acts along the line joining the centers of mass of the two masses. The forces on the
two masses are equal in size but opposite in direction, obeying Newton's third law.
Viewed as an exchange force, the mass less exchange particle is called the graviton.
The gravity force has the same form as Coulomb's law for the forces between electric
charges, i.e., it is an inverse square law force which depends upon the product of the
two interacting sources.
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The electromagnetism force between two neighboring protons is about 10-2 of the strong
force. The electromagnetic force is a force of infinite range which obeys the inverse
square law, and is of the same form as the gravity force.
1. The sun would not burn without it since the weak interaction causes the transmutation
p ≥ n so that deuterium can form and deuterium fusion can take place.
2. It is necessary for the buildup of heavy nuclei.
It was in radioactive decay such as beta decay that the existence of the weak interaction
was first revealed.
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It is responsible for the binding of the nuclei, is the dominant force in the reaction &
decays of most of the fundamental particles.
The relative strength b/w two neighboring protons is 1. the strong force is 1038 times
greater than gravitational force.
Fundamental Forces
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Theories called GUTs (Grand Unification Theories) predicts about the unification of
strong and electroweak forces.
Other theory called TOE ( Theory of everything ) which unified the Strong,
electroweak & gravitational forces.
Prediction of TOE:
One prediction of these theories is that proton should not be a stable particle but should
decay on a time scale greater than 1031 years.
One way to test this theory is to which collection of 5.3 X 10 33 protons from a year to if
one of proton decays.
Electroweak Unification
The discovery of the W and Z particles, the intermediate vector bosons, in 1983 brought
experimental verification of particles whose prediction had already contributed to the
Nobel prize awarded to Weinberg, Salam, and Glashow in 1979. The photon , the
particle involved in the electromagnetic interaction, along with the W and Z provide the
necessary pieces to unify the weak and electromagnetic interactions. With masses
around 80 and 90 GeV, respectively, the W and Z were the most massive particles seen
at the time of discovery while the photon is mass less.
The discovery of the W and Z particles in 1983 was hailed as a confirmation of the
theories which connect the weak force to the electromagnetic force in electroweak
unification
Grand Unification
Grand unification refers to unifying the strong interaction with the unified electroweak
interaction.
One prediction of the grand unified theories is that the proton is unstable at some level.
In the 1970's, Sheldon Glashow and Howard Georgi proposed the grand unification of
the strong, weak, and electromagnetic forces at energies above 1014 GeV. If the ordinary
concept of thermal energy applied at such times, it would require a temperature of 1027K
for the average particle energy to be 1014 GeV.
The unification of the strong force is well beyond our reach at the present time, and the
unification of gravity with the other three is out of reach for earthbound experiments.
This has led to greater cooperation between high-energy particle physicists and
astrophysicists as each group realizes that some of their answers can only come from the
other.
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(1)Gravity
(2) Electromagnetism
The gravitational force is apparent property in the Earth’s attraction for objects, which
gives them weight.
All other forces are electromagnetism in origin.
I. Contact forces
II. Viscous forces
III. Tensile forces
IV. Elastic forces
I. Contact forces:
There are two kinds of contact forces:
a. Normal Force
b. Frictional Force
a. Normal force:
Normal force is produced in bodies when one body pushes on another.
The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together;
its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces.
b. Frictional force:
Frictional force Produced b/w bodies when one surface rubs against another.
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II Viscous forces:
Air resistance.
Tension is a reaction force applied by a stretched string (rope or a similar object) on the
objects which stretch it. The direction of the force of tension is parallel to the string, away
from the object exerting the stretching force. So if an object hangs from a rope due to
gravity, the gravitational force on the object points downward, and there is an equal
tension force in the rope point upward, making the net force on the object equal to zero.
Tension exists also inside the string itself: if the string is considered to be composed of
two parts, tension is the force which the two parts of the string apply on each other. The
amount of tension in the string determines whether it will break, as well as its vibrational
properties, which are used in musical instruments.
IV Elastic forces:
Elastic forces are that kind of forces arising from the deformation of a solid body which
depends only on the body's instantaneous deformation and not on its previous history,
and which is conservative. These are produced in a spring
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Friction is the resistive force acting between bodies that tends to oppose and damp out
motion. Friction is usually distinguished as being either
1. static friction (the frictional force opposing placing a body at rest into motion)
and
2. Kinetic friction (the frictional force tending to slow a body in motion).
3. In general, static friction is greater than kinetic friction.
The friction force is electromagnetic in origin: atoms of one surface "stick" to atoms of
the other briefly before snapping apart, causing atomic vibrations, and thus transforming
the work needed to maintain the sliding into heat.
The frictional forces on each body are in a direction opposite to its motion relative to the
other body.
Frictional forces automatically oppose this relative motion and never aid it even when
there is no relative motion, frictional forces may exist b/w surfaces.
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The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together;
its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces.
In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the
normal force is the force due to gravity, where FN=mg. In this case, the magnitude of the
friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to gravity,
and the coefficient of friction. However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of
mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block
will have the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the
magnitude of the friction force itself will depend on the normal force, and hence the
mass of the block.
If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal,
the normal force N between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal
to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth's gravity, g.
If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less,
because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore,
the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using vector analysis,
usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of the
normal force may include forces other than gravity.
2- Nature of surface:
Force of friction also depends on the nature of two surfaces in contact with each other.
And it is constant for various pair of surfaces in contact and its value is known as
Co-efficient of friction.
Friction is very important in our daily lives.
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We find that the block will not move even though we apply a small force fig ( b ).
As we increase the applied force fig (c) (d) then there is a definite force at which the
block will “brake away “from the surface & begins to accelerate. Fig ( e ).
By reducing the force once motion has started, it is possible to keep the block in
uniform motion without acceleration. Fig ( f ).
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TYPES OF FRICTION:
1- Static friction
2- Kinetic friction
1- Static friction:
The frictional forces existing b/w surfaces at rest with respect to each other are called
forces of static friction.
A motionless body is subject to static friction. The direction of the static friction force
can be visualized as directly opposed to the force that would otherwise cause motion,
were it not for the static friction preventing motion. In this case, the friction force
exactly cancels the applied force, so the net force given by the Vector sum, equals zero.
It is important to note that in all cases, Newton's first law of motion holds.
2- Kinetic friction:
The forces acting b/w surfaces in relative motion are called forces of kinetic friction.
The friction force is directed in the opposite direction of the Resultant force acting on a
body.
In the case of kinetic friction, the direction of the friction force may or may not match
the direction of motion: a block sliding atop a table with rectilinear motion is subject to
friction directed along the line of motion; an automobile making a turn is subject to
friction acting perpendicular to the line of motion (in which case it is said to be 'normal'
to it).
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Normal force / loading force:
It is the force which arises from the elastic properties of the bodies in contact.
For a block resting on a horizontal table or sliding along it, the normal force is equal in
magnitude to the weight of the block.
Coefficient of friction
The coefficient of friction is a dimensionless quantity used to calculate the force of
friction (static or kinetic).
While it is often stated that the coefficient of friction (COF) is a "material property," it
is better categorized as a "system property." Unlike true material properties (such as
conductivity, dielectric constant, yield strength), the COF for any two materials depends
on system variables like temperature, speed, atmosphere, as well as on geometric
properties of the interface between the materials.
For example, a copper pin sliding against a thick copper plate can have a COF that
varies from 0.6 at low speeds (metal sliding against metal) to below 0.2 at high speeds
when the copper surface begins to melt due to frictional heating. The latter speed, of
course, does not determine the COF uniquely; if the pin diameter is increased so that the
frictional heating is removed rapidly, the temperature will drop, the pin remains solid
and the COF rises to that of a 'low speed' test.
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1. Coefficient of Static friction
The coefficient of static friction is defined as the ratio of the maximum static
friction force (F) between the surfaces in contact to the normal (N) force.
The ratio of magnitude of the maximum force of static friction to the magnitude of the
normal force is called the co-efficient of static friction for the surfaces involved.
fS
µS =
N
Where
f S = magnitude of the force of static friction
µS = co-efficient of static friction
N = magnitude of normal force
NOTE :
The equality sign hold only when fS has its maximum value.
substance
wood on wood 0.25-0.50
steel on steel 0.58
glass on glass 0.9-1.0
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2. Coefficient of kinetic friction
The ratio of the magnitude of the force of kinetic friction to the magnitude of the normal
force is called the co-efficient of kinetic friction.
fK = µ K N − − − − (2)
− − →
fK
µK =
N
Where
f K = magnitude of the force of kinetic friction
µK = co-efficient of kinetic friction
N = magnitude of the normal force
NOTE :
The force of the kinetic friction is also reasonably impendent of the relative speed with
which the surfaces move over each other.
Some values for common substances are given in the following table
substance T( )
hickory on dry snow -- 0.08
ice 0 0.020
ice -10 0.035
brass on ice 0 0.020
NOTE :
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Equations (1) & equation (2) are relations b/w the magnitude only of the normal &
frictional forces these forces are always directed perpendicularly to one another
IMPORTANT :
1- Both µS , µK ,are dimensionally constant , each being the ratio of ( magnitude)
two forces.
2- Usually for a given pair of surfaces µS > µK
3- The actual values of µS & µK depend on the nature of both the surfaces in
contact.
4- Both µS , µK can exceed unity, although commonly they are less than 1.
NOTE :
1. Both static and kinetic coefficients of friction depend on the pair of surfaces in
contact.
2. Their values are usually determined experimentally.
3. For a given pair of surfaces, the coefficient of static friction is larger than that of
kinetic friction.
A free-body diagram of a block resting on a rough inclined plane, with its weight (W),
normal force (N) and friction (F) shown.
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Sliding Coefficient of Friction
when the tangential force F overcomes the frictional force between
two surfaces then the surfaces begins to slide relative to each other.
In the case of a body resting on a flat surface the body starts to
move. The sliding frictional resistance is normally different to the
static frictional resistance.
Rolling Friction
When a cylinder rolls on a surface the force resisting motion is termed rolling
friction. Rolling friction is generally considerably less than sliding friction. If W is
the weight of the cylinder converted to force, or the force between the cylinder and the
flat surface, and R is radius of the cylinder and F is the force required to overcome the
rolling friction then.
W
F =×
f
R
“ f “ is the coefficient of rolling friction and has the same unit of length as the radius R.
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The direction of centripetal acceleration is always radially inward towards the center of
circle. This centripetal acceleration is a vector because even though its magnitude
remains constant, its direction changes continuously as the motion progresses.
If a body undergoing uniform circular motion, then a net force must be acting on it &
the magnitude of net force
mv2
∑ F = ma = r
The direction of net force acting at any instant must be the direction of centripetal
acceleration “a“ at that point, radially inward.
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Example :
A disk is moving with uniform circular motion & it moving on the end of a string in a
circle on a frictionless horizontal table as shown in figure.
The net force on the disk is provided by the tension “T“in the string. It string accelerates
the disk by constantly changing the direction of its velocity so that the disk moves in s
circle.
The direction of T is always towards the pin at the center, and its magnitude must equal
mv 2
to
r
mv 2
T=
R
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If the string were to be cut where it joins the disk, there would be no net force exerted
on the disk. The disk would then move with constant speed in a straight line along the
direction of the tangent to the circle at the point at which the string was cut.
Centripetal Forces:
Forces responsible for uniform circular motion are called centripetal forces because they
are directed towards the center of the circular motion. So
1- for the revolving disk , the centripetal force is a tensile provided by the string.
2- For the Moon revolving around the earth the centripetal force is the
gravitational pull of the earth on the Moon.
3- For an electron circulating about an atomic nucleus the centripetal force is
electrostatic.
Consider a small body of mass “ m “ revolving in a horizontal circle with constant speed
“ v” at the end of a string of length “ L “. As the body swings around, the string sweeps
over the surface of an imaginary cone. This device is called a Conical Pendulum.
We want to find the time required for one complete revolution of the body.
If the string makes an angle θ with the vertical, the radius of the circular path is
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R =L sin θ
( i ) Weight mg
( ii ) Tension T
Of the string.
∑F =T +mg
∑ F = mg ∴g =a
Or ∑F =ma
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Tr =T cos θ (Vertical component)
The radial component is –ve because if radial direction to be positive outward from axis.
Or T cos θ
mg=−
−−−
−−→(1)
V2
ar =−
R
∑F r = Tr = mar
V2
∑ F = −T sin θ = m( − R )
mV 2
−T sin θ = −
R
mV 2
T sin θ = − − − − − − → (2)
R
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T sin θ mV 2
R
=
T cos θ mg
sin θ
=V 2 R
cos θ g
V2
tan θ =
Rg
θ
V 2 =tanRg
V =Rg tan θ
Period of Motion:
Now if t represents the time for one complete revolution of the body
.
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2π R
V =
t
or
2π R
t =
V
2πR
t =
Rg tan θ
Squaring both sides
4π2 R2
t 2
=
Rg tan θ
4π2 R
t 2
=
g tan θ
4π2 R
t 2
=
g tan θ
R
t =2π
g tan θ
As l sin θ
R=
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t =2π
L sin θ
g tan θ
t =2π
L sin θ
g(
sin
)
θ
cos θ
t =2π
L co
s θ
g
Note:
This equation gives the relation b/w t, L, θ.
T is called period of motion and it does not depend on mass m.
Examples :
If force is constant, then the acceleration is constant, and for constant acceleration
the solution in one dimensional for V(t) & x(t) are easily obtained.
Constant forces demonstrate the applications of Newton’s law and they are certainly
easier to work with than non constant forces.
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Many particle problems often include forces that remain constant under many
circumstances.
Examples :
V2 − V1 ∆V
a= =
t2 − t1 ∆t
Or
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∆V V − V0
a= =
∆t t −0
V − V0
a=
t
at = V − V0
V = V0 + at − − − − − − →(1)
This important result allows us to find the velocity at all later times. This equation
No. 01 shows the velocity as a function of time, and it can be written as V(t).
Note:
Equation 01 is in the form of Y= mx+b, which describes the graph a straight line.
Non-Constant forces:
Examples :
When the force is not constant then we can not use constant acceleration formulae to
find V(t) & x(t).
1 Analytical method:
Find V( t ):
As
V
a =
t
o
r
d
v
a =
dt
ad v=
.t d
d =
v adt .
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V 1
∫ dv∫=adt .
Vo 0
V 1
∫ dv ∫=
Vo
a dt
0
[V ]Vo [ ]0
V 1
=t
a
Appling limits
V − Vo = a( t − 0)
V − Vo = at
V = Vo + at
or
V (t ) = Vo + at
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Find x ( t ):
As
S
V = S= x
t
or
x
V =
t
dx
V =
dt
dx =V dt
.
dx = Vo
( + at )dt
dx =Vo dt
. + at.dt
.
∫ dx =∫ V dt+∫
xo 0
0 atdt
0
x t t
∫ dx =V∫
x0
0 dt+∫a tdt
0 0
t
t 2
[ x] x =V 0t[ +
]0 a
x t
0
2 0
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Apply limits
x − x0 = V0 t 12 + 2at
x = x0 + V0 12 + at
2
or
x( t ) = x0 + V0 t 12 + 2at
Numerical methods:
In this method we use a computer to evaluate the integrals, obtaining not the analytic
functions V( t ) & x( t ) but instead the numerical values of V & x at any time t this
can be done to any desired level of precision.
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Time-Dependent Forces: (analytical methods)
When the forces is time dependent, we can obtain an acceleration a(t) using Newton’s
laws of motion.
Find V( t ):
V
as a =
t
dv
a=
dt
dv =a t( )dt
Integrate with limits from
Time t = 0 , when the initial velocity is Vo , to time t when velocity is V
V t
∫ dv∫=
V0 0
a(t)dt
[ V ] V= ∫a(t)dt
V
0
0
t
V-V=
0 ∫a(t)dt
0
t
V=V+0 ∫a(t)dt
0
or
t
V(t)=V+ 0 ∫a(t)dt
0
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Find x ( t ):
as V = dx
dt
dx =V dt
or dx =V t( dt
)
Integrate with limits time t = 0 when the particle is located at xo, to time t = t, when the
position is x .
x t
∫ dx=
x0
∫ 0
V (t)dt
[ x] x = ∫V (t)dt
x
0
0
t
x-x =
0 ∫V (t)dt
0
t
x=x +
0 ∫V (t)dt
0
or
t
x (t)=x +0 ∫V (t)dt
0
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x t
x t
∫ dx = ∫ V (t )dt
x0 0
∫ dx∫=V t d(t)
x0 0
t t
[ x] x = ∫ V (t )dt
x
[ x ] x =V∫t dt( )
x
0 0
0 0
t t
x − x0 = ∫ V (t ) dt x−
x=0 V∫
t dt( )
0 0
t t
x = x0 + ∫ V (t ) dt x= 0 V∫
x+ t dt( )
0 0
or or
t t
x (t ) = x0 + ∫ V (t ) dt x (t ) =
x + t∫)dt
0 V(
0
0
Work:
When force acts upon a body and if it causes displacement also, then work is said to be
done by the force upon the body.
Or
Dot product of two vector quantities (force & displacement) is called work.
Work is a scalar quantity.
r r
W = F.d
Where
F = force
d = displacement moved by the body in the direction of force.
NOTE :
Sometimes the force and displacement may not be in the same direction.
Examples:
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A wooden block is pulled by means of a rope, it moves in the horizontal direction, but
the force acts along the rope. If the force makes an angle “ θ “ with the direction of
motion then work done can be found by the production of the component of the force
along the direction of motion and the displacement “ S “ moved by the block.
W = F. dcosθ
Where r
F = magnitude of the vector F
r
d = magnitude of the vector d
r r
θ = angle b/w F and d
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r r
W = F. dcosθ
if θ = 0
W = F. d cos 0
W = F. d(1)
cos 00 = 1
W = F. d
Example :
When a spring is stretched, then work done by the stretched ( stretching force ) is
positive.
( ii ) case:
When the direction of the force is opposite to the direction of the displacement ( θ =1800 )
the work done is negative.
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rr
W = F. dcosθ
if θ = 1800
W = F. dcos1800 cos1800 1 = −
W = F. d( 1)
−
W = − F. d
Example :
Work done by the “gravitational force “on the body being lifted is negative.
When a body is lifted against gravity at very slow speed , the angle b/w gravity and
displacement is 1800.
( iii ) case:
When the force acts at right angle to the displacement ( θ = 900 ) THEN THE WORK
done is zero.
It means that force does not produce work.
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r r
W = F. dcosθ
if θ = 0
W = F. dcos 900
W = F. d X 0 cos 900 =0
W =0
Example :
work done by the centripetal force is zero because the centripetal force is always at right
angles to the direction in which the body moving.
Units:
SI System: (MKS System)
In the S.I system the unit of work is Newton-meter which is commonly known as
Joule(J ).
1 Newton. meter = 1 Joule
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1N. m = 1 J
The work of 1 joule is said to be done if a force of 1 Newton acts on a body and if it
moves through a distance of 1 meter in the direction of force.
1 erg = 1 dyne 1 cm
1 erg = 10-7 J
The work of 1 erg is said to be done if a force of 1 dyne acts on a body and if it moves
through a distance of 1 centimeter in the direction of force.
NOTE :
In the physics of molecules , atoms , and elementary particles a much smaller unit is
used , it is called electron volt ( e.V )
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As
Work = force. displacement
W = F. d − − − − − − −(1)→
Since F = ma
Or
F = mass × acceleration
L
F =M× ( ) M = mass
T2
a = acceleration
L = length
T = time
So equation ( 1 ) becomes
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L
W = M × (2 L) ( )
T
ML 2
W = 2
T
−
W =ML T2 2
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W = F .d
or
W = F .dx − − − −− → (∗)
As we know from Newton’s second law of motion
F =ma
dv
F =m
dt
So equation ( * ) becomes
dv
F . dx= m . dx − − − − (1)
−
dt
Suppose the particle is displaces from “Xo” to “X”.
Let the velocity at “ Xo” be “ Vo” and velocity at “ X “ be “ V “.
x v
dv
∫ F .dx = ∫ m
x0 V0
dt
.dx
Since the force “ F “ and mass “ m “ are constants so we may take these constants out of
the integral sign.
x v
dv
F ∫ dx = m ∫ .dx
x0 V0
dt
x v
dx
F∫ dx= m .∫ dv
x0
dt
V0
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x v
dx
F ∫ dx= m ∫V dv V =
x0 V0
dt
2 v
v
F [ x] x = m
x
0
2 v0
Appling the limits
v2 v02
F ( x − x0 ) = m( − )
2 2
2
We call 12 mv as the Kinetic energy of the body. The R.H.S of equation ( 2 ) is the
change in the K.E of the particle when it changes its position from “xo” to “x”.
Thus
“The work done by a force is equal to the change in K.E of the particle. “
(1) The direction of force is along positive X-axis and its magnitude is changing with
displacement.
(2) The body is constrained to move in positive X-axis direction only.
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We assume that the body moves from its initial position “ A “ to the final position “ B “
in the direction of the variable force.
If the body has moved from position “ A “ to the position “ B “ then we divide the total
displacement “ AB “ into small interval each of width “Δr “ .
During any short displacement interval “Δr “the force remains almost constant. Thus the
force for any one displacement interval = dot product of “F “and “Δr “.
The constant force is taken to be the force which acts at the beginning of each interval.
Let the total number of intervals from “A” to “ B “ be “ N “.
Now if the number of intervals are made infinite ( N → ∞ ) and the width “ Δr “ is made
so small that it tend to zero ( ∆r → 0 )
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B
WA→ B = ∆ r → 0∑ F. ∆r
A
Now
B B
∆r → 0 ∑ F .∆ r = ∫ F .dr
A A
B
WA→B = ∫ F .dr − − − −− → (1)
A
B
dv
WA→B = ∫m dr −−−−−→ (2)
A
dt
B
dv
WA→B =m ∫
A
dr
dt
B
dr
WA→B =m ∫
A
dv
dt
B
WA→B =m ∫Vdv −−−−→ (3)
A
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B
V2
=m
2 A
B
1
= m
V 2
2 A
Applying limits
1 1
mV B2 − mV A2
2 2
It means
K .E at B =
K .E at A
1 1
mV B2 = mV A2 −−−−→ (4)
2 2
Example :
An example of a variable force involving in the motion of spring.
We consider a spring that acts on a particle of mass “m “ . The particle moves in the
horizontal direction with the origin ( x = 0 ).
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Let the particle be displaced a distance “ x “ from its original position x = 0 , as the
agent exerts a force “ F “ on the particle , the spring exerts an opposing force “ F “.
F = − kx
Where
K= force constant or spring constant.
Let us consider the work done on the particle by the spring when the particle moves
from initial position “ xi “ to “ xf”.
F =−kx
W =F d.
W =−
(kx ).
dx
xf
W = ∫−(kx dx
).
xi
xf
W = k ∫ ( − x). dx − − − − →(1)
xi
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xf
x 2
W =k −
2
xi
kx2f
kxi2
W=− +
2 2
2
kxi2 kx f
W= − − − − − →(2)
2 2
The net work done by the forces acting on a particle is equal to the change in the Kinetic
energy of the particle.
Wnet = K f − Ki = K∆
Explanation :
Consider a net work done (W net) on a particle not by single force but all the forces that
act on the particle.
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Then treat this force as a single force in calculating the net work by following equation.
xf
W= ∫
xi
F( x) dx (One dimension)
f f
2- Calculate the work done by each of the forces that acts on the
particle:
W1 = ∫F1 ds
.
W2 = ∫F2 ds.
W3 = ∫F3 ds.
Wn = ∫Fn ds.
To find net work, add the work done by each of the individual forces.
Under the influence of constant force , the particle moves from Xi to Xf & it
accelerates uniformly from Vi to Vf. The work done is
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=net x −
Wnet F f (x i )
=a x −
Wnet m f (x i )
V 2 =V 02 + 2a (x− x 0 )
or
V f2 =Vi 2 + 2a (x f − x i )
1 1
Wnet = mv f 2− mv
2 2
It means:
“The result of the net work on the particle has been to bring about a change in the
value of quantity 12 mv 2 from point “ i “ to point “ f “. This quantity is called the Kinetic
energy K of the particle.
K = 12mv 2
NOTE :
Work energy theorem holds for both constant forces as well as non constant forces:
The work energy theorem does not represent a new independent law of classical
mechanics. It is useful for solving problems in which the net work done on a particle by
external forces is easily computed and in which we are interested in finding the
particle’s speed at certain positions.
Fn et = m a
As
dv dv
Fn et = m ∴a =
dt dt
dv dx
Fnet = m
dx dt
dv
Fnet = m v
dx
dv
Fnet = m v − − − − − (2)
⇒
dx
Put equation ( 2 ) in equation ( 1 )
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Wnet = ∫ Fnet dx
or
dv
Wnet = ∫ mv dx
dx
Wnet = ∫ mv dv
vf
Wnet = ∫mvdv
vi
vf
Wnet = m ∫ vdv
vi
2 vf
v
Wnet = m
2
vi
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Applying limits
Wnet = 1
2 m( 2v f − 2vi)
or
Wnet = 1
2 mv2 f −12 mv2 i
This shows that the work – energy theorem holds also for non constant forces.
7-5 Power
“The work done in unit time called power”.
Or
“The rate of doing work is called power “.
F. d
Power=
t
W
Power= ∴W . =F d
t
d
Power= F. V ∴ =V
t
Kinds of Power:
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1. Average power
2. Instantaneous power
1. Average Power:
If “Δw“ is the work done in a time “ Δt “ the power is called average power and it is
written as Pav.
∆W
Pav =
∆t
2. Instantaneous power:
∆W
If ∆t → 0 the limiting value of is called Instantaneous power at time “ t “.
∆t
∆W
P = lim −−−−− → (1)
∆t→ 0 ∆t
As we know that
W =F d.
So equation ( 1 ) becomes
dr
P = limF .
∆→
t 0 dt
P =F V
.
It means power is equal to the dot product of force and velocity.
Units:
SI System:
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The S.U unit of power is Joule per Second (J/s) which is also called Watt (W).
This unit is named in honor of James Watt (1736-1819)
1 W= 1J / s =12 K g .m
3
/ s
Watt:
One watt is defined as:
Bigger Units:
The bigger units of power are Kilowatt ( kW) Mega watt ( MW) and Giga Watt ( Gw )
FPS System:
In British Engineering system the unit of power is ft-lb / sec (foot. Pound / second ).
Since this unit is quite small, therefore a bigger unit called Horse Power (hp) is used.
The term "horsepower" was coined by the engineer James Watt (1736 to 1819) in 1782
while working on improving the performance of steam engines.
Horse Power:
“One horse power (hp) is the power of an agency which does work at the rate of
550 ft-lb/sec or 33000 ft-lb per minute.
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1 min = 60 seconds
1 ft = 0.3048 m and
1 lb = 0.45359237 kg
1 hp = 746 watt
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Metric Units: SI: Joule (J) 1 J = 1 N-m
English Units: foot-pound (ft-lbs) 1 ft-lbs = 1.356 J
HEAT ENERGY:
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