CHAPTER 12

Milling, shaping and grinding

12.1 Introduction

Milling is a process in which the work piece is advanced with a suitable feed rate to a
multiple point cutter rotating at comparatively high speed, with the cutter axis of
rotation in a fixed position.

The rotational axis of the milling cutter may be horizontal (i.e. parallel to the
machined surface), fig.12.1. This is called plain milling. Plain milling is usually
carried out on a horizontal milling machine, fig 12.3a.
When the rotational axis of the milling cutter is perpendicular to the machined surface,
the process is called face milling or end milling, fig 12.2 Vertical milling machines are
the machines mostly used for this type of milling, fig 12.3b

Plain Milling face Milling or end Milling

fig.12.1 fig12.2

12.2 Milling Machines

Fig.12.2 shows the basic features of a horizontal milling machine, while fig.12.4
shows the basic features of a vertical milling machine.

Fig 12.3 (a) Schematic illustration of a horizontal-spindle column-and-knee-type

milling machine. (b) Schematic illustration of a vertical-spindle column-and-
knee-type milling machine. Source: G. Boothroyd, Fundamentals of Machining
and Machine Tools.

12.3 Milling Cutting Mechanism

In milling each tooth on a tool removes part of the stock in the form of a chip.
• There are two types of cutting actions,
Peripheral - The teeth at the periphery do the cutting
Face - The teeth on the face of the cutter remove metal.
• The basic interface between tool and work is pictured below. This shows a peripheral
milling tooth.

Fig. 12.4 Up cut (conventional ) milling

Up-Cut Milling
The milling method shown above in fig. 12.4 is called up-cut (or conventional)
milling. In this case the table
is moving towards the cutter, opposing the cutter direction. The basic steps of chip
cutting here
are,
1. As the tooth makes contact with the surface, the tooth begins to push down. As the
tooth continues to turn, it reaches a point at which the pressure has built up to a high
level, and the tooth begin to dig in.
2. As the tooth starts to dig, it cuts down, and the metal chip begins to shear off.
3. The tooth continues to cut the chip off, until it reaches the surface of the material.
At this point the chip breaks free, and the cutting forces drop to zero. Because the
cutter does not start to cut when it makes contact, and because the advance moves

Down-Cut Milling
When the cutter rotation is in the same direction as the motion of the work being fed,
it is referred to a Down-cut, or climb milling.
When this cutter makes contact with the work, it must begin cutting at the maximum
torque. As a result, a back-lash eliminator must be used to take play out of the system.
• This method has advantages,

Fig. 12.5 Up cut and down cut milling

- The cutter forces are directed into the table, which reduces fixture forces, and allows
thinner workpieces
- There is less radial pressure on the arbor
- Better surface finishes obtained because there is no “dig-in”

12.4 Types of Milling Cutters

1) plain and face Milling Cutters

Fig12.6 shows types of milling cutters.

a) Plain milling cutters have helical or straight teeth; they are used for
roughing and finishing of plain surfaces on horizontal machines.

Fig. 12.6 Different types of milling cutters

b) Interlocking plain milling cutters with helical teeth opposite each other
to compensate for axial forces. Suitable for heavy cuts.

c) Face milling cutters have teeth on both the periphery and on one end.
For milling plane surfaces and shoulders on horizontal and vertical
machines.

2) Side Milling Cutters

a) Saws for parting off and for narrow slots. Straight teeth slotters for
shallow slots.
b) Side milling cutters with teeth on three sides for deep slots.

Fig12.7 Side milling cutter

 3) End Milling Cutters

a) End mills with left or right hand spiral for finish machining.
b) T-slot cutters for milling. T slots.
c) Two teeth end mills for rough milling of slots.

Fig12.8 End milling cutter

4) Profile Milling Cutters

Fig. 12.9 illustrates different types of profile milling cutter
a) Convex form milling cutter.
b) Gear milling cutters.
c) Gang milling cutters.
d) Angle milling cutters for V grooves.
e) Dove-tail milling cutters.
f) Single edged cutter for small profiles .
 Fig. 12.9 Profile milling cutter

12.5 Milling Machine Operations

END MILLING OPERATION: as pictured in fig. 12.10
 Milling cutter used is called end mill
 End mill resembles a drill bit in shape but having no pointed
edge
 Used for removing material from sides of work piece and for
cutting complicated profiles

Fig. 12.10 End milling operation

Plain Milling Operation: as shown in fig.12.11

 It is used for removing material from upper surface of the work
piece(flat Surface)
 It is also called slab milling
 For Plain milling Up milling or Down milling process is used

Fig. 12.11 Plain milling operation

SIDE AND FACE MILLING: as depicted in fig. 12.12

 In this operation both horizontal surface and vertical surfaces are
machined.
 It removes material from side and face of the work piece
 Cutter used is side and face cutter

Fig. 12.12 Side and face milling

 Specialized Milling operations: as shown in fig. 12.13
 Straddle Milling (two or more cutter)
 Form Milling (cutter with specially shaped teeth)
 Slotting and slitting (Slot cutter and slitting saw)
 T-slot Milling (Shell mill)

Fig. 12.13 Profile milling

Fig. 12.14 illustrates some special operations performed on the milling machines, and
shows that the tracer 6 follows the contoured profile 5 of a master die. The path of the
tracer is transmitted through the power connection 4 to an end mill 3 which cuts the
work piece 2 mounted on the table 1.
Fig. 12.15 shows other milling operations such as T slot milling, Key way milling
and gear milling which need indexing machine shown in fig. 12.16

Angular milling Gang milling Form milling

Profile milling End milling Saw milling

Fig. 12.14 Special milling operation

Fig. 12.15 T slot, Key way and gear milling

Fig. 12.16 Indexing device

12.6 Shaping, planning and Slotting
Shaping, planning and slotting are methods of usually flat surfaces shown in fig.12.17
by rectilinear main motion where the work piece and the tool move relatively opposite
to each other by rectilinear interrupted and reversible motion as illustrated
The main motion shown in fig. 12.18 is performed
either by the tool (in shaping and slotting) or by the work
piece (in planning). Is consists of two strokes, the working
(cutting) stroke and the return (idle) stroke. The speed of the
return stroke ‘vz’ is greater than that of the cutting one ‘vp’ for
saving the time. The feed ‘s’ is performed either by the work
piece (in shaping and slotting) or by the tool (in planning).
The feed is given in millimeters per one double stroke as
shown in fig. 12.19.

Fig. 12.17 Shaped, planned and slotted components

Fig. 12.18 Main motion during shaping, planning and slotting

 Fig. 12.19 Forward and return stroke

12. 6.1 Shaping processes

A shaper operates by moving a hardened cutting tool backwards and forwards across
the workpiece. On the return stroke of the ram the tool is lifted clear of the workpiece,
reducing the cutting action to one direction only.The workpiece mounts on a rigid, box
shaped table in front of the machine. The height of the table can be adjusted to suit this
workpiece, and the table can traverse sideways underneath the reciprocating tool
which is mounted on the ram, the table motion is usually under the control of an
automatic feed mechanism which acts on the feedscrew. The ram slides back and forth
above the work, at the front end of the ram is a vertical tool-slide that may be adjusted
to either side of the vertical plane. This tool-slide holds the clapper box and toolpost
from where the tool can be positioned to cut the straight, flat surface on the top of the
workpiece. The tool-slide permits feeding the tool downwards to put on a cut it or may
be set away from the vertical plane, as required. The ram is adjustable for stroke and,
due to the geometry of the linkage, it moves faster on the return (non-cutting) stroke
than on the forward, cutting stroke. This action is via a slotted link or whitworth link
as shown in fig.12.20

Cutting fluid may be employed to improve the finish and prolong the tool's life.
 Fig. 12.20 Shaping mechanism

12.6.2 Shapers

In operations carried out on shapers, the tool is reciprocated at the required

cutting velocity while the work piece is fed into the cutting tool. The feed in
shaping is intermittent and represents the width of cut, its unit is mm/stroke.

Fig. 12.21 Conventional shaper

Fig12.21shows the conventional shaper.The return stroke is made faster than the
cutting stroke to increase productivity.

12.6.3 Planers
planer is a type of metalworking machine tool that is analogous to a shaper, but
larger, and with the entire workpiece moving beneath the cutter, instead of the cutter
moving above a stationary workpiece. The work table is moved back and forth on the
bed beneath the cutting head either by mechanical means, such as a rack and pinion
gear, or by a hydraulic cylinder.

Planers and shapers were used generally for two types of work: generating accurate
flat surfaces and cutting slots (such as keyways). Planers and shapers are now
obsolescent, because milling machines have eclipsed them as the machine tools of
choice for doing such work. However, they have not yet entirely disappeared from the
metalworking world

The design of a planer allows the machining of several surface of long heavy
work piece at the same time. Unlike the shaper and the slotter, the work piece
on a planer is reciprocated and the cutting tool is fed into it.

The mechanical drive of a planer consists of a powerful electric motor, gearbox

and control equipment for the stroke length and the speeds of the cutting and return
stroke. This enables machining several meters long work piece. Fig.12.22 shows a
double housing planer which allows planning on the top and side surfaces.

Fig. 12.22 Double housing planner

Open-side planers, permit machining of very wide work piece. The work can extend
far beyond the left side of the table and may have an additional support on an auxiliary
rolling table placed on the left of the planer and extending parallel to the bed.

12.6.4 Slotters ( Vertical Shapers )

A slotting machine is simply a vertical shaper. Fig12.23shows a slotting machine and
shows the machining of slots using the vertical shaper.
 Fig. 12.23 Slotting machine

6.6.5 Cutting Tools

The cutting tools used in shaping, planning and slotting, Fig 12.24 are similar to those
used when turning, but these processes are accompanied by shocks when starting each
cutting stroke. Therefore, their tools have to be sufficiently solid and large in cross-
sections.

Fig 12.24 Shaping, planning and slotting tools

 The planning machines are constructed to up heavy cuts and coarse feeds
during a long cutting stroke than in case of shaping. Therefore, the planning tools are
heavier and more rigid than the shaping tools.

12.7 Grinding processes

12.7.1 Basic concepts
Grinding is a metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating
abrasive wheel that acts as a cutting tool. It is used to finish work pieces which must
show a high surface quality, accuracy of shape and dimensions. It is considered as a
finishing operation because it removes comparatively little metal, usually 0.25 to
0.50 mm and the accuracy in dimensions is in the order of 0.000025 mm, it is also
done to machine materials which are too hard for other machining methods that use
cutting tools. Fig. 12.25 1illustrates basic concepts when grinding.

Fig. 12.25 Grinding operation basic concepts

12.7.2 Machine types

Typical categories of grinders include,
 Surface
 Surface Finish
 Formed Grooves
 Internal (rounds)
 Cylindrical
 Internal
 Center
 Centerless

Surface grinding
- Surface grinders have a few basic types,
- Horizontal Spindle with Reciprocating Table shown in fig. 12.26
- Horizontal Spindle with Rotary Table
- Vertical Spindle with Rotary Table
- Vertical Spindle with Reciprocating Table
 Fig. 12.26 Horizontal grinding machine

Center grinding
• With centers parts are mounted so that they may rotate about fixed centers and then
ground externally.

Centerless grinding
• Centerless grinding shown in Fig. 12.27 is popular as a high speed, low cost
operation. In this operation there is a grinding wheel and a governing wheel. The part
sits between the wheels and is ground by the grinding wheel. The governing wheel
acts to slow the rotation of the part so that it does not spin at the same speed as the
grinding wheel and reduce the surface speed of the grinding operation.
If the part has a uniform cross section through feed grinding can be used. Otherwise in
feed grinding will have to be used. For infeed grinding the parts are placed between
the wheels, ground, and then pulled out. Through feed grinding has the parts move in a
steady flow between the wheel.

Fig. 12.27 Centerless grinding

Internal grinding
• Internal grinding is similar to other forms of rotational grinding, except that as the
part rotates as illustrated in fig. 12.28. The internal features are ground by a smaller
wheel. Using a smaller wheel requires higher grinding speed which increases the
challenge of this process

Fig. 12.28 Internal grinding

The grinding wheel performs always the rotary main motion at high cutting speed, the
work piece performs usually the needed secondary motion. The cutting part of a
grinding wheel consists of a large amount of cutting edges of individual grinding
grains which are of irregular shape and are displaced no uniformly. The rake angles of
grains are usually negative with respect to the surface to be ground.
When grinding, a great amount of heat originates and chips are heated to such
a temperature (800-1200C0) at which they are melted and apart of them burn.
When grinding, parts of cutting edges are broken away step by step, the cutting edges
are rounded, their cutting properties become worse step by step and grains are worn-
out.Regarding the required accuracy of dimensions, surface finish and layer to be
taken-off, we distinguish, rough, fine and finest grinding.

12.7.3 The Grinding Wheel

The Grinding wheel is a multi-teeth cutter made up of many hard particles known as
abrasives, crushed to leave Sharpe edges which do the cutting The abrasive grains are
mixed with a suitable bond which acts as a matrix or holder of grains.
The wheel may consist of one piece or of segments of abrasive blocks built up into a
solid wheel. Abrasives, bond, grit, hardness, and structure are the main features
specifying grinding wheels beside their shapes and dimensions.

Abrasives
Abrasives are either natural or artificial. The natural abrasives as
sandstone, emery, corundum or diamond are used to produce only a very
small percentage of grinding wheels due to the impurities they contain
and the lack of uniformity of these natural abrasives.

The most commonly used artificial abrasives are :

A) Aluminum oxide( a1203):

According to the percentage of impurities it can be black, gray, pink or whit, is the
purest one.

b) Silicon carbides(Sic):

It can be green or blue-black. The former is the purest one.

Applications

A1203 abrasives Sic abrasives

They are tough, thus they are
Suitable to grind materials to
High tensile strength such as
steels, high speed steels,
wrought iron and tough bronze,
etc.
they are very hard, thus
they are suitable to grind
materials of low tensile
strength such as sintered
carbides, stone, ceramic
materials, gray cast iron,
brass, bronze, copper,
aluminum, etc.

Bonds

A bond is an adhesive substance that is employed to hold abrasive grains

together in the form of grinding wheels.

The used bonds are :

- vitrified bond : It gives the grinding wheel good strength as well as

porosity which allows high depth of cut.
Vitrified bonded wheels are preferred for grinding because they are not
affected by rapid changes in temperature and contact with water and oils.
A vitrified bonded wheel is denoted by the petter(v)

- silicate bond : silicate bonded wheels are applied when grinding edged
tools and other operations where heat must be held to a minimum. They
are denoted by the letter “S” .

- Shellac bond : The elasticity of this bond is greater than in any other type
and it has considerable strength. The shellac bonded wheels, also known
as elastic bonded wheels, are not as thin wheels, are not intended for
heavy duty. They are frequently manufactured as thin wheels. A shellac
bonded wheel is denoted by the letter “E”.

- Resinoid bond : It is synthetic resins, such as bakelite. It is used to

manufacture strong grinding wheels used at high cutting speeds. A resinoid bonded
wheels is denoted by the left “B”.
- Rubber bond : The rubber bonded wheels are strong and tough enough,
thus they can be produced extremely thin . They are used where good
finish is a primary requisite. A rubber bonded wheel is denoted by the
letter “R”.
Characteristics of Grinding Wheels:Grinding wheels are characterized by
  Grit size
 Grade
 Structure
Grit or Grain size
Grain size shows the size of the sieve through which grains pass. For example: ‘10’ is
coarse, ‘100’ fine, ‘600’ is very Grade
The hardness with which bond holds the abrasives grains in place
Designated by letters A to Z - softest to hardest
Structure
Spacing between abrasive particles
Number of cutting edges per unit area and size of void spaces (pores or porosity)
Fine. Fig. 12. 29 shows standard marking of grinding wheels

Fig. 12.29 Standard marking of grinding wheels

12.7.4 Wheel shapes
Grinding wheels are made in many different shapes and sizes to adapt them
for use in different type of grinding machines and on different classes of
work. The size of a wheel is given in terms of its diameter, diameter of
spindle hole or opening at the center and width of face. Fig.12.30 illustrates
the standard grinding wheel shapes.
 Fig. 12.30 Different shapes of Grinding wheels

12.7.5 Safety is extremely important at all times, especially when grinding wheels
are involved. They are a mainstay of the engineering and construction industry and the
risks involved with them may tend to be taken for granted. Safety awareness and an
understanding of the materials and processes involved is essential. Appropriate safety
gear must be worn and all safety procedures must be followed. Always err on the side
of caution.
Before mounting and balancing a grinding wheel, the wheel must be sounded.
Sounding is loosely suspending the wheel by a bit of twine or other material so that it
hangs free, and giving the wheel a very light tap with a hard object. Care must be
taken not to damage the wheel when sounding. A wheel that is safe to use will ring
clearly and solidly, like a bell or tuning fork. A damaged wheel will not make any
resonating sound. Damaged wheels must not be used under any circumstances and are
best discarded or returned to the manufacturer. This process is critically important for
surface and diameter grinding, where frequent handling, storage, and changing of
wheels increases the risk of fatal wheel damage.
Contact with a spinning grinding wheel will produce a cut. Because of the heat
generated in the grinding process, a burn might also be produced. Wood should never
be ground on a wheel, as it can clog the wheel's pores and cause the wheel to burst,
with fatal results.