Compactness in Metric Spaces

Prosenjit Das
Department of Mathematics,
The University of Burdwan,
Burdwan-713104.

Abstract
We will discuss some properties of compactness in metric spaces.

1. Preliminaries
Definition 1.1. A metric space (𝑋, 𝑑) is called a compact metric space if
every open cover of 𝑋 has a finite sub-cover.

Definition 1.2. A metric space (𝑋, 𝑑) is called sequentially compact if every

sequence in 𝑋 has a convergent subsequence.

Definition 1.3. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space and let 𝜀 > 0. A set 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋 is
called a 𝜀-net if 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋 such that 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀).
𝑎∈𝐴

Definition 1.4. A metric space (𝑋, 𝑑) is called totally bounded if for all
𝜀 > 0 there exists a finite 𝜀-net 𝐴𝜀 i.e., there exists a finite set 𝐴𝜀 ⊂ 𝑋 such
that 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀).
𝑎∈𝐴

Lemma 1.5. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a totally bounded metric space. Then any subpsace
𝑌 of 𝑋 is also totally bounded.

Proof. Let 𝜀 > 0. Then there exists a finite set 𝐴 ⊂ 𝑋 such that 𝑋 =
∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2). Since 𝑌 ⊂ 𝑋, 𝑌 = ∪ (𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2) ∩ 𝑌 ) and hence 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2) ∩
𝑎∈𝐴 𝑎∈𝐴
𝑌 ∕= Φ for all 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴. For each 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴, choose 𝑦𝑎 ∈ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2) ∩ 𝑌 for which
𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2)∩𝑌 ∕= Φ. Let 𝑆 = {𝑦𝑎 ∣𝑦𝑎 ∈ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2)∩𝑌, 𝑎 ∈ 𝐴}. Then Obviously,
𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀/2) ⊂ 𝐵(𝑦𝑎 , 𝜀) for all 𝑦𝑎 ∈ 𝑆 and consequently 𝑌 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑦𝑎 , 𝜀). Thus
𝑦𝑎 ∈𝑆
𝑌 is totally bounded.

Email address: prosenjit.das@gmail.com (Prosenjit Das)

Preprint May 10, 2010

2. Results
Theorem 2.1. A compact metric space is sequentially compact.
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a compact metric space and let {𝑥𝑛 } be a sequence in
𝑋. We will show that {𝑥𝑛 } has a convergent subsequence.
Let 𝜀 > 0. Consider the set 𝔉 = {𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀)∣𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}. Then 𝔉 is an open
cover of 𝑋. Since 𝑋 is compact, 𝔉 has a finite subcover and hence there exists
a finite subset 𝐴 of 𝑋 such that 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀). Since 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀),
𝑎∈𝐴 𝑎∈𝐴
𝑥𝑚 ∈ 𝐵(𝑎0 , 𝜀) for infinitely many 𝑚 ∈ ℕ (See Remark 2.2 for this certain
statement) i.e. there exists a subsequence 𝑥Φ(𝑛) of {𝑥𝑛 }. such that 𝑥Φ(𝑛) ∈ 𝐴
for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Hence for 𝜀 = 1, there exists a finite subset 𝐴1 of 𝑋 and a point 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐴1
such that there exists a subsequence {𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) } of {𝑥𝑛 } such that 𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) ∈
𝐵(𝑎1 , 1) ⊂ 𝑋 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
for 𝜀 = 1/2, there exists a finite subset 𝐴2 of 𝑋 and a point 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴2 such
that there exists a subsequence {𝑥Φ2 (𝑛) } of the sequence {𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) } (which is a
subsequence of {𝑥𝑛 }) such that 𝑥Φ2 (𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎2 , 1) ⊂ 𝑋 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Continuing this process, for each 𝑚 ∈ ℕ, we get a finite subset 𝐴𝑚 of 𝑋,
a point 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐴 and a subsequence {𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) } such that 𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎𝑚 , 1/𝑚)
for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. Note that each of the sequence {𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) } is a subsequence of
{𝑥Φ𝑚−1 (𝑛) }.
Consider the sequence {𝑦𝑛 } given by 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥Φ𝑛 (𝑛) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ (i.e., con-
sider the diagonal sequence). We will show that {𝑦𝑛 } is a Cauchy subsequence
of {𝑥𝑛 }.
Let 𝜀 > 0. Then there exists 𝑁 ∈ ℕ such that 1/𝑁 < 𝜀. Let 𝑝, 𝑞 ≥ 𝑁 .
Then note that {𝑥Φ𝑝 (𝑛) } and {𝑥Φ𝑞 (𝑛) } are both subsequence of {𝑥Φ𝑁 (𝑛) } and
hence 𝑥Φ𝑝 (𝑛) , 𝑥Φ𝑞 (𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎𝑁 , 1/𝑁 ) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and in particular 𝑥Φ𝑝 (𝑝) , 𝑥Φ𝑞 (𝑞) ∈
𝐵(𝑎𝑁 , 1/𝑁 ) ⊂ 𝐵(𝑎𝑁 , 𝜀) which shows that the sequence {𝑦𝑛 } is Cauchy.
Now since any compact metric space is complete, {𝑦𝑛 } must be conver-
gent. This completes the proof.
Alt: Consider the sequence {𝑦𝑛 } given by 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥Φ𝑛 (𝑛) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ
(i.e., consider the diagonal sequence) and consider the decreasing sequence
of closed sets {𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛)∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}. Note that 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚(𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛)) −→ 0 as
𝑛 −→ ∞. Since 𝑋 is compact and hence complete, ∩ 𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛) = {𝑦 ∗ } for
𝑛∈ℕ
some 𝑦 ∗ ∈ 𝑋. Obviously, 𝑦𝑛 −→ 𝑦 ∗ as 𝑛 −→ ∞.
Alternative proof of Theorem 2.1:
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a compact metric space and let {𝑥𝑛 } be a sequence.
If possible let {𝑥𝑛 } has no convergent subsequence. Since compact metric
space is complete, no subsequence of {𝑥𝑛 } Cauchy i.e., for any monotonically

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increasing function Φ : ℕ −→ ℕ, there exists 𝜀Φ such that 𝑑(𝑥Φ(𝑝) , 𝑥Φ(𝑞) ≥ 𝜀Φ
for all 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℕ.
Now consider the open cover 𝔉 of 𝑋 given by 𝔉 = {𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀Φ /4)∣𝑎 ∈
𝑋}. Since 𝑋 is compact, there exists 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , 𝑎𝑡 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑋 =
𝑡 𝑡
∪ 𝐵(𝑎, 𝜀Φ /4). But since 𝑥Φ(𝑛) ∈ 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑎𝑖 , 𝜀Φ /4) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, there ex-
𝑎𝑖 =1 𝑖=1
ists 𝑎𝑠 , 1 ≤ 𝑠 ≤ 𝑡 such that such that 𝑥Φ(𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎𝑠 , 𝜀Φ /4) for infinitely many
𝑛 ∈ ℕ, which contradicts the fact that 𝑑(𝑥Φ(𝑝) , 𝑥Φ(𝑞) ≥ 𝜀Φ for all 𝑝, 𝑞 ∈ ℕ.
This completes the proof.

Remark 2.2. It is worth noting that the statement “for any sequence {𝑥𝑛 }
in (𝑋, 𝑑) and for any 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝑎𝜀 ∈ 𝑋 such that 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝐵(𝑎𝜀 , 𝜀) for
infinitely many 𝑛 ∈ ℕ” is equivalent to the statement that “any sequence
{𝑥𝑛 } in (𝑋, 𝑑) has a Cauchy subsequence”. The proof follows from the proof
of Theorem 2.1.

As a direct consequence of Theorem 2.1 we have the following result:

Theorem 2.3. Any infinite subset of a compact metric space has a limit
point.

Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a compact metric space and 𝑆 be an infinite subset of

𝑋. We will show that 𝑆 has a limit point.
Since 𝑆 is infinite, consider a sequence {𝑥𝑛 } in 𝑋 such that 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑆 for
all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. Since 𝑋 is compact, by Theorem 2.1, {𝑥𝑛 } has a convergent
subsequence {𝑥Φ(𝑛) }. Let {𝑥Φ(𝑛) } converges to 𝑥∗ . Then obviously 𝑥∗ is a
limit point of the set {𝑥Φ(𝑛) ∣𝑛 ∈ ℕ} ⊂ {𝑥𝑛 ∣𝑛 ∈ ℕ} ⊂ 𝑆 and hence 𝑥∗ is a
limit point of the set 𝑆.
Without using Theorem 2.1 we can prove Corollary 2.3, from which as a
corollary we will get Theorem 2.1 and for this we can conclude that Theorem
2.1 and Corollary 2.3 are equivalent.
Alternative proof of Theorem 2.3, without using Theorem 2.1:
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a compact metric space and 𝑆 be an infinite set. We
will show that 𝑆 has a limit point. If possible let 𝑆 has no limit point. Then
no point of 𝑋 is a limit point of 𝑆, i.e., for each point 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 there exists a
neighborhood 𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀𝑥 ) of 𝑥, 𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀𝑥 )∖{𝑥}∩𝑆 = Φ. Let 𝔉 = {𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀𝑥 )∣𝑥 ∈ 𝑋}
is an open cover of 𝑋 and 𝑋 being compact, there exists 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 such
𝑛
that 𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑥𝑖 , 𝜀𝑥𝑖 ), but since 𝐵(𝑥𝑖 , 𝜀𝑥𝑖 )∖{𝑥𝑖 } ∩ 𝑆 = Φ for 𝑖 = 1, 2, ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , 𝑛,
𝑖=1
we must have 𝐴 = {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 𝑥𝑛 }, a contradiction. This completes the proof.

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 Another proof of Theorem 2.3, without using Theorem 2.1
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be compact metric space and 𝑆 an infinite subset of 𝑋.
If possible let 𝑆 has no limit point. Let {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} ⊂ 𝑆 be an infinite
set. Consider the sequence {𝑥𝑛 } and for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ consider the set 𝐹𝑛 =
{𝑥𝑚 ∣ 𝑚 ≥ 𝑛}. Then for each 𝑛 ∈ ℕ, 𝐹𝑛 has no limit point and hence each 𝐹𝑛
is closed in 𝑋. Note that {𝐹𝑖 ∣ 𝑖 ≥ 1} has F.I.P. Now since each of the points
𝑥𝑖 s are distinct, ∩ 𝐹𝑛 = Φ, a contradiction to the fact that 𝑋 is compact
𝑛∈ℕ
and hence 𝑆 has a limit point. This completes the proof.
Note that the technique used in the proof of Theorem 2.1 can also be
applied to prove Theorem 2.3 considering a infinite countable subset of the
infinite set, which will give an independent proof to Theorem 2.3 (i.e., without
using Theorem 2.1).
As a direct consequence of Theorem 2.3 we get Theorem 2.1!
Theorem 2.4. A compact metric space is sequentially compact.
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a compact metric space and let {𝑥𝑛 } be a sequence. If
all the 𝑥𝑖 s from a finite set it is easy to construct a convergent subsequence
of {𝑥𝑛 }. So we assume that the set 𝑆 = {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} is infinite. Since
every infinite set in a compact metric space has a limit point, 𝑆 has a limit
point 𝑥∗ and hence there exists a subsequence {𝑥Φ(𝑛) } converging to 𝑥∗ . This
completes the proof.
As a conclusion of the above discussion we have the following:
Theorem 2.5. A metric space is sequentially compact if and only if every
infinite subset of it has a limit point.
Proof. Let a metric space (𝑋, 𝑑) be sequentially compact and let 𝑆 ⊂ 𝑋 be
infinite. We will show that 𝑆 has a limit point. Since 𝑆 is infinite we can find
a countably infinite subset {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} of 𝑆. Consider the sequence {𝑥𝑛 }.
Then by our assumption, {𝑥𝑛 } has a convergent subsequence say {𝑥Φ(𝑛) }.
Let {𝑥Φ(𝑛) } −→ 𝑥∗ . Then 𝑥∗ is a limit point of {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} and hence a
limit point of 𝑆.
Conversely, let every infinite subset of 𝑋 has a limit point. We will show
that 𝑋 is sequentially compact. Let {𝑥𝑛 } be a Cauchy sequence. Consider
the set {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}. Then by our assumption, {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ} has a limit
point say 𝑥∗ and hence we can find a sequence {𝑥𝑃 ℎ𝑖(𝑛) } from {𝑥𝑛 ∣ 𝑛 ∈ ℕ}
which will be a subsequence of {𝑥𝑛 }, converging to 𝑥∗ . Thus we have a got
a convergent subsequence of the Cauchy sequence {𝑥𝑛 } which implies that
{𝑥𝑛 } is convergent.

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Theorem 2.6. A metric space is totally bounded if and only if every sequence
has a Cauchy subsequence.

Proof. Suppose (𝑋, 𝑑) be a totally bounded metric space. We will show that
any sequence in it has a Cauchy subsequence. The proof goes the same as
the proof of Theorem 2.1.
Conversely, let in (𝑋, 𝑑) every sequence has a Cauchy subsequence. We
will show that 𝑋 is totally bounded.
If possible, let 𝑋 is not totally bounded. Then there exists 𝜀 > 0 such that
there is no finite 𝜀-net for 𝑋. Let 𝑥1 ∈ 𝑋. Then there exists 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋∖𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀)
and hence 𝑑(𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ) ≥ 𝜀. Consider the set {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 }. Then there exists 𝑥3 ∈
𝑋 𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀) ∪ 𝐵(𝑥3 , 𝜀)) and hence 𝑑(𝑥2 , 𝑥3 ) ≥ 𝜀. Consider the {𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑥3 }
and in the same process we will get 𝑥4 ∈ 𝑋 (𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀) ∪ 𝐵(𝑥3 , 𝜀) ∪ 𝐵(𝑥3 , 𝜀))
and hence 𝑑(𝑥3 , 𝑥4 ) ≥ 𝜀. Thus we get e sequence {𝑥𝑛 } such that 𝑥𝑛 ∈ /
𝑛−1
𝑋∖ ∪ 𝐵(𝑥𝑖 , 𝜀) and hence 𝑑(𝑥𝑛−1 , 𝑥𝑛 ) ≥ 𝜀. Obviously, by the construction
𝑖=1
of the sequence {𝑥𝑛 } has no Cauchy subsequence, which is a contradiction.
Thus 𝑋 is totally bounded. This completes the proof
Now note that, if we assume that a metric space (𝑋, 𝑑) is totally bounded
and complete, then from Theorem 2.6 we get 𝑋 is sequentially compact.

Corollary 2.7. If a metric space is totally bounded and complete, then it is

sequentially compact.

Next question arises whether the converse holds! We know that that a
sequentially compact metric space is complete(which follows from the fact
that if a Cauchy sequence has a convergent subsequence, then the Cauchy
sequence is convergent). So what remains is that whether a sequentially
compact metric space is totally bounded.

Theorem 2.8. A sequentially compact metric space is totally bounded.

Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a sequentially compact metric space. We will show that
𝑋 is totally bounded.
Let 𝜀 > 0 and let 𝑥1 ∈ 𝑋. If 𝑋 ∈ 𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀), we are done. If not, then
choose 𝑥2 ∈ 𝑋∖𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀). If 𝑋 = 𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀)∪𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝜀), we are done. If not, then
choose 𝑥3 ∈ 𝐵(𝑥1 , 𝜀) ∪ 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝜀). This process will must end. Otherwise, we
get a sequence {𝑥𝑛 } such that 𝑑(𝑥𝑝 , 𝑥𝑞 ) ≥ 𝜀 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ and 𝑥𝑝 ∕= 𝑥𝑞 for all
𝑝 ∕= 𝑞 and hence it does not have any convergent subsequence, contradicting
the fact that 𝑋 is sequentially compact. Thus 𝑋 is totally bounded.
Now, we will show that a sequentially compact metric space is complete.

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Theorem 2.9. A sequentially compact metric space is complete.

Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a sequentially compact metric space and let {𝑥𝑛 } be
a Cauchy sequence. We will show that {𝑥𝑛 } is convergent. Since 𝑋 is
sequentially compact, the {𝑥𝑛 } has a convergent subsequence and since {𝑥𝑛 }
is Cauchy, it must be convergent.
Next we will show that compactness, sequential compactness, Bolzano-
Weierstrass compactness and completeness together with totally bounded-
ness are equivalent in metric space:

Theorem 2.10. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a metric space. Then the following are equiv-
alent:

1. 𝑋 is compact
2. Every infinite subset of 𝑋 has a limit point.
3. 𝑋 is sequentially compact
4. 𝑋 is complete and totally bounded.

Proof. 1 =⇒ 2 : Theorem 2.3.

2 ⇐⇒ 3 : Theorem 2.5.
3 =⇒ 4 : Theorem 2.9 + Theorem 2.8.
4 ⇐⇒ 3 : By Theorem 2.6 we get every sequence has a Cauchy subse-
quence and due to completeness, the Cauchy subsequence is convergent.
3 =⇒ 1 : Let 𝒢 be an open cover of 𝑋 and let 𝜀 > 0. By Lebesgue
covering lemma, for each 𝑥 ∈ 𝑋 there exits 𝐺𝑥 ∈ 𝒢 such that 𝐵(𝑥, 𝜀) ⊂ 𝐺𝑥 .
Now since a sequentially compact metric space is totally bounded (4 =⇒ 3,
which is already proved), we will get pints 𝑥1 , 𝑥2 , ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ , 𝑥𝑛 ∈ 𝑋 such that
𝑛
𝑋 = ∪ 𝐵(𝑥𝑖 , 𝜀/2). Since each 𝐵(𝑥𝑖 , 𝜀) ⊂ 𝐺𝑥𝑖 , 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑛, we have 𝑋 =
𝑖=1
𝑛
∪ 𝐺𝑥𝑖 .Thus we have got a finite sub-collection from the family 𝒢 which covers
𝑖=1
𝑋 and hence 𝑋 is compact.
Now we will show another interesting construction to prove in a totally
bounded metric space any sequence has a Cauchy subsequence:
Proof. Let (𝑋, 𝑑) be a totally bounded metric space and let {𝑥𝑛 } be a se-
quence in 𝑋. We will show that {𝑥𝑛 } has a Cauchy subsequence.
Since 𝑋 is totally bounded, for 𝜀 = 1, there exists a finite subset 𝐴1 of
𝑋 and a point 𝑎1 ∈ 𝐴1 such that there exists a subsequence {𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) } of {𝑥𝑛 }
such that 𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎1 , 1) ⊂ 𝑋 for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Note that since, 𝑋 is totally bounded, by Lemma 1.5, 𝐵(𝑎1 , 1) is also
totally bounded and hence for 𝜀 = 1/2, there exists a finite subset 𝐴2 of

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𝐵(𝑎1 , 1) and a point 𝑎2 ∈ 𝐴2 such that there exists a subsequence {𝑥Φ2 (𝑛) }
of the sequence {𝑥Φ1 (𝑛) } (which is a subsequence of {𝑥𝑛 }) such that 𝑥Φ2 (𝑛) ∈
𝐵(𝑎2 , 1) ⊂ 𝐵(𝑎1 , 1) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ.
Continuing this process, for each 𝑚 ∈ ℕ, we get a finite subset 𝐴𝑚 of 𝑋,
a point 𝑎𝑚 ∈ 𝐴, a subsequence {𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) } and a decreasing sequence of balls
𝐵(𝑎𝑚 , 1/𝑚) such that 𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) ∈ 𝐵(𝑎𝑚 , 1/𝑚) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ. Note that each of
the sequence {𝑥Φ𝑚 (𝑛) } is a subsequence of {𝑥Φ𝑚−1 (𝑛) }.
Consider the sequence {𝑦𝑛 } given by 𝑦𝑛 = 𝑥Φ𝑛 (𝑛) for all 𝑛 ∈ ℕ (i.e.,
consider the diagonal sequence). We will show that {𝑦𝑛 } is a Cauchy sub-
sequence of {𝑥𝑛 }. Then obviously by the construction the sequence {𝑦𝑛 } is
Cauchy (since for any 𝜀 > 0 there exists 𝑁 ∈ ℕ such that 1/𝑁 < 𝜀).
Now note that the same technique goes through if we want to prove any
compact metric space is sequentially compact. It will nice if we consider
the sequence of closed ball {𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛)}, which is a decreasing sequence
with {𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛))} −→ 0. Since 𝑋 is compact, using Cantor’s intersection
theorem, ∩ 𝐵(𝑎𝑛 , 1/𝑛) = {𝑦 ∗ }. Which must be the limit of the sequence
𝑛∈ℕ
{𝑦𝑛 }.