Professional Documents
Culture Documents
IVY R. ROBERTS
JUNE 2009
The twentieth century brought technologies, such as film, video, and the
Internet, that fundamentally altered the way human kind interacts and perceives
the world. Investigating trends in popular culture, youth culture, the media, the
Internet, and film and video technologies, these chapters pull together facets of
contemporary thought in order to make sense of the digital age, a time where we
take for granted the speed and magnitude of information. Deconstructing our way
of seeing, it becomes clear how we take for granted the images flung at us
through the media: images that bear little relevance to the everyday world as we
naturally perceive it. In movies, advertisements, newspapers, and web pages,
constructed images hail us to view the world in a specific way. This constructed
gaze becomes manufactured to a simulated degree as we travel further into an
age of hyperreality.
The chapters herein raise a number of questions: how do we perceive the
media; do we take our way of seeing for granted; how do we understand the
power mechanisms behind the media; how do the media play upon our personal
desires; how do the media construct beliefs?
What’s particularly interesting in this digital information age is the effect it
has on adolescents. Issues such as coming of age, historical perspective,
memory, and addiction inform a broad study of how the very term “teen” infects
our constraining age-consciousness. It’s critical at this juncture to look to the
young people who will herald the future. What happens if these teens neglect the
lessons of history? What happens when hyperreality becomes total, and history
ceases to bear relevance? By talking with teens, reviewing patterns in popular
culture, and criticizing movies, this thesis proposes that hyperreality overwhelms
our vision.
Copyright, 2009
Ivy R. Roberts
This project would not have been possible without the gracious help
of many knowledgeable and enthusiastic individuals. Dr. Saari, of Antioch
University in particular is to credit for guiding the way. His advise, gentle
nudges, and outright flattery helped immensely. Dr. Kenneth Peck, my
mentor, came onto the project in 2006 in a similar guiding role. He taught
me that there are more than a few ways to look at the material, and that
there’s no right answer. A study this broad incorporates libraries of
knowledge; with Dr. Saari’s and Dr. Peck’s guidance, it’s structured and
approachable.
I was also glad to have the generous help of Dr. Rob Sloane of
Bowling Green State University. Though I have yet to meet him in person,
our phone conversations and email discussions are the reason I can
understand how American culture works. I’m grateful for Dr. Sloane’s
selflessness and participation in this work.
This thesis absolutely would not exist without the aid of Russell
Richardson and the Indie Program. When I came to Indie in the fall of
2006 I couldn’t have realized the tremendous impact it would have on me
and my studies. The Indie students who have helped me on this project
are too many to name, though you will get to know them in the following
pages. It makes me glad and hopeful that each of them are so set in their
opinions, preferences, and particular talents. Thank you Indie!
Last but not least I would like to thank my mom and dad for their
support. They’ve always offered their criticism of my work. They’ve both
been very adamant when discussing the contents of my work. Without
these conversations, the work would be incomplete. Mom and Dad, you
show me that my way of seeing is too particular to be comprehensive. I’m
glad that I have so many passionate people around me, each with their
own opinions and perspectives.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................... ii
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................... 1
II. REALITY AND REPRESENTATION .................................................... 12
III. INVISIBE EFFECTS AND THE REALITY PRINCIPLE ....................... 30
IV. LEARNING TO LOVE THE VIRTUAL .................................................41
V. SIMULATED ENVIRONMENTS ...........................................................47
VI. PROJECTING FANTASY ....................................................................57
VII. THE FOURTH WALL ......................................................................... 71
VIII. THE INTELLIGENT MEDIA ...............................................................81
IX. IRRATIONAL IDEOLOGY ................................................................... 90
X. BLOCKBUSTER MANIA .................................................................... 106
XI. CONTROVERSIAL CHILDHOOD ..................................................... 124
XII. ADULTOLESCENCE ....................................................................... 138
XIII. IMPOSSIBLE TERRITORIES ......................................................... 149
XIV. YOUTH CULTURE ON THE FRINGES ..........................................163
XV. CONCLUSION ................................................................................. 185
BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................... 192
FILMOGRAPHY ......................................................................................198
iii
1
INTRODUCTION
fairies. There was a part of me that knew it was ridiculous. But another part, one
that I couldn’t silence, told me that there was still a vestige of wonder in the
world. An unconscious desire, this latent belief has been with me for as long as I
can remember: whole-hearted in a way that hope for Santa Claus can never
excel toward. That image has so been engorged by popular culture that its aura
modern world that is so thoroughly knowable (at least that’s what our eyes tell
us) one gravitates toward areas that capture the promise of mystery. For me it’s
the cinema.
calls the objet petit a.1 He or she has felt the lack of this impossible object from
birth; reclaiming it would fill the void. Lacanian psychoanalysis tells us that this
search is our birthright while it is a fruitless search, since the object does not
exist materially. Once we find a symbol to fill the position of the impossible
No simple wish can will the impossible object into existence. But “wish” is
a thin word. The desire for fantasy, for the realization of a fundamental lack felt
since birth, can be ever so strong: strong enough to compel an individual to the
I should make a note here on “fantasy.” Slavoj Zizek, a cultural critic with
interests in Lacan and film theory, explains: “fantasy organizes how we see and
understand reality. It works as the frame through which we see and make sense
of the world.”2 In the Lacanian sense, fantasy differs from its colloquial
from his or her deep felt desire to approach the impossible object and is therefore
a fundamental act of human nature. Both meanings of the word will be used in
Lacan’s term “imaginary” also differs from its regular use. “Imaginary”
relates to his Mirror Stage, the point in human development when a child
recognizes his own image in a reflection thus distinguishing himself from his
environment. Lacan’s term refers to the self and its identification with an image,
not imagine. Again, both uses will be used in the following pages. I will refer to
the theoretical term as a strong term and the colloquial as a weak one and where
2
John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture (Athens, GA: University of Georgia
Press, 2006), 83.
3
Technology, science, and reason engorge all the magic that once existed
(perceived through religious and cultural belief systems). The world maintains a
glimmer of wonder contrived through the mechanisms of the cinema. The cinema
operates to feed the desire for fantasy at the same time that it demands that we
relinquish our fantasies to the apparatus. Fantasy cannot breach the apparatus.
On top of all of this, the cinema cannot convey a true reality; it only re-presents
reality, regurgitates everyday life as something more than real. The cinema
shows us a hyperreal. But what if we have this all confused? What if the real
world is already a hyperreal and the cinema exists to show us what we have
lost?
In postmodern theory, hyperreality first came into play with the massive
fundamental reality became, for the perceiver, a reality of their own. The image
now precedes the object that it represented. The image is more real than real.
Jean Baudrillard adds to this the terms simulation and simulacrum, states along
I like to refer to hyperreality in terms of the effect the media has on the
perception of everyday life. Films offer us a window (or mirror) into a world
represented for our viewing pleasure. Over a century of film spectatorship has
taught us that the world is not what it seems. The media provide a vision of the
world that equals the world itself. Habitual viewers and media consumers, those
who grant power to the image, negotiate between the representation and the real
4
thing to the extent that there is little difference between the two. This is a distinct
perception that I believe pervades society. How much power do you afford the
image? How does the image affect your experience of the world?
a mirror (psychoanalytical). How real is the film? Are we looking through it or into
assumption that reality exists on the other side, a reality that was photographed
meaningful value.
the film image was marked by absence, insinuating that the film image was not
actually there, stripped of meaning and reality: “In the cinema it is not just the
fictional signified, if there is one, that is thus made present in the mode of
meaning, in this case the past event and associated reality. Metz articulates the
absence of the cinema in that the representation signifies the past that is not
present in projection of the film. Reality loses its meaning when represented. He
continues: “The unique position of the cinema lies in the dual character of its
signifier: unaccustomed perceptual wealth, but at the same time stamped with
3
Christian Metz, The Imaginary Signifier (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982),
44.
5
Cinema ups the ante of narrative in that it gives us fantasies full fledged–
we no longer visualize and internalize the narratives. It’s all given to us. Do the
fantasies exist in some other-place? The place where they did when first
photographed?
The media–or any narrative-based art, for that matter–show us the world
provide form for experiences, showing us the better or worse of the real human
condition. Reality, in this respect, and everyday life, appears as the mediation of
greater than and less than what one can expect from extravagant narratives.
tend to notice the extreme love-hate relationship I have with the cinema. Some
wonder so far as to ask why I study cinema in the first place, since I seem to hate
the institution with such a vengeance. I like to put it this way: there aren’t many
films that live up to my expectations of what the cinema can achieve. Mainstream
Hollywood cinema is a cop out: entertainment for its own sake. Sometimes, a
truly spectacular film will arise out of Hollywood cinema, and these products
occur on two levels. First, and the most obvious, Hollywood is not Evil – as I
would like to believe. Quality films pop up here and there, and indie wings of
major studios recognize well-made films. Second, blockbuster films, despite their
outwardly spectacular appearance and seeming sole interest in thrill, have the
thin air. They are part of a complex interplay of popular and aesthetic taste. While
addressing these ideas demands a critical eye, mainstream media tend to create
audiences that read on the surface. Blockbuster films can hold value in the
interpretation of culture.
the ways of viewing the world. According to Marx, ideology operates invisibly
the relationship between Hollywood, the producer, and the consumer of a film. A
producer may not perceive the ideological connotations of his work, nor may the
two, as well as within the larger apparatus of the industry and economy. The film
will bear the ideological message of the system. In this way, ideology can be said
to instill ideas in viewers of the film. Ideology arises out of the structure of the
of mechanisms that create social order: ideas, laws, ways of seeing. In terms of
Subjects don’t recognize that they’re being interpellated. This process operates
power relations in the cinema, there are too many diverse products and too many
spectacle, and entertainment for its own value. While critical value can be found
power relations and subject positioning. In the pages that follow I attempt to
the latter chapters (ten through fourteen) consider the affect of the media on
maturation. The term “reality,” and our understanding of it, needs re-examination
denial that now is actually now, here is actually here. What troubles me is the
generation of young people who fail to consider this dramatic turn. Teenagers,
8
born in the Internet age, have little perspective when it comes to technology. Our
I have been called an idealist and a romantic for my belief that today’s
society lacks what traditional communities cherished. Before the Internet, the
medium that heralded the technological revolution, people had to look each other
in the face in order to communicate. The prefix “tele,” at a distance, loses its
and the shifted focus toward individualism led to the dissolution of socialized
rituals.
barriers between young and old. The elders possessed the community’s
knowledge. When young people came of age, they received that knowledge.
These barriers no longer exist for a number of reasons, most prominently due to
the wide availability of knowledge through technology: television and the Internet.
As a result, age labels lose their meaning. In an individualist society, you choose
manipulation, all information laid out to use at their own will5. The absence of
5
“MeWorld” is a coined phrase from Thomas de Zengotita, Mediated: How the Media
9
benchmarks leaves it up to the teen to decide when he or she will “grow up.” This
process can occur over decades, if it occurs at all. We’re never quite sure when
perpetually adolescent.
I thought I’d come of age in college. It didn’t go the way I thought it would,
the way I hoped or the way I planned. For me, it was all about planning, and
nothing happened organically. This caught me off guard. I thought naively that I
would just grow up, that I wouldn’t have to think about it. I had a tough time with it
all. I ended up dropping out of college at the age of 18, feeling lost and
My coming of age happened in three long phases, and each time I thought
I was getting closer to becoming an adult. At the end of each phase, I felt like I
was no closer to the end than when I had started. I entered Emerson College at
16, dropped out at 18. After a year I re-enrolled at Marlboro College with
didn’t have a very good idea of where I was going when I graduated. I spent a
year working in the film industry in Boston, but it was more like meandering than
following a set path. I didn’t know what I should have been doing, how to do it,
how to make it doing what I wanted to do. So I enrolled in the IMA program at
this choice I felt more adult, more professional. Being a graduate student gave
Shapes Your World and the Way You Live In It (NY: Bloomsbury, 2005).
10
Program, and I had reached the point where I felt like a real adult.
higher education, the job, the recognition within a community. But there are still
aspects of my life in which I feel like an adolescent: areas that I have yet to
mature. I see a problem here, in a wider cultural sense. I bear the outward marks
of adulthood, but inside I feel perpetually adolescent. While others may view me
My coming of age was rocky, and I felt like it shouldn’t have been that
way. If it’s up to you to grow up, and you decide when and where and how that
happens, you have to choose. If this is the case, why grow up at all? Why go
Boiceville, NY. My work brings me into contact with teens daily, making me
seems to recognize that the age of technology marks our present situation. I try,
day to day, to stress the importance of technology in our lives. Unfortunately, its
6
The term “liminality” comes from cultural history and ritual studies studied primarily by
Arnold Van Gennep and Victor Turner. The term corresponds to a state of being in which you are
there and yet not there, alive and dead simultaneously.
12
“In spite of any objections our critical spirit may offer, we are forced
to accept as real the existence of the object reproduced, actually
re-presented, set before us, that is to say, in time and space.
Photography enjoys a certain advantage in virtue of this
transference of reality from the thing to its reproduction.”
– Andre Bazin, “Ontology of the Photographic Image,” 198.
It’s taken me a long time to come to terms with my grievances toward the
film medium. I’ve always enjoyed watching films, but there was something I felt
on a very fundamental level that was disquieting: the difference between the film
image and real life, between structured narrative and real lived experience. This
could not approximate a film, or why film differed so perceptibly from what I
observed in the real world. It has been these great disparities that form my
perspectives in analyzing films: their difference from everyday life and the world
life. The camera lens is not a human eye, and both function technically very
different; cinematography does not equal eyesight. The look of film is quite
different from the look of reality due to the chemical process of developing the
13
film and the fact that the image is doctored; the appearance of the film image is
not the same as the first hand experience or appearance of reality. The editor
similar way that the eye naturally blinks; continuity or montage editing does not
compensate for real perception. The formed film narrative does not equal real life
experience; it omits the tedium and unnecessary bits to create a structured form
suitable for entertainment and art; film aesthetics do not equal the flux and flow of
everyday experience.
closely resembled everyday life. The films of the Lumiere brothers, for example,
with the Movie Camera. Vittorio De Sica’s Neorealist film The Bicycle Thief, for
overwhelm the realistic narrative. The French Nouvelle Vague, British “kitchen
sink” films and American “renaissance” films of the 1960s also attempt to
representation. Dogma 95, the Danish realist movement, has perhaps had the
most influence in this area recently, since it integrates a radical social statement
These examples, despite the fact that they attempt realism more so than
1
See “Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=HI63PUXnVMw) and “Arrival of a Train at a Station” (http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=1dgLEDdFddk), 1895.
14
Hollywood films, still fall short of representing everyday life. Their primary pitfall
has to do with their reliance on montage editing and score. Once montage comes
the singular shots. The real life moments are rearranged so as to create a
and location shooting, utilize jump cuts, manipulating time in an effort to form
reality.
takes and deep focus.2 These techniques can be used to an extent, but most
films combine these techniques with montage editing. A few anomalies exist,
such as Russian Ark and Rope, which utilize long takes and moving camera to
Citizen Kane (a technique that allows all planes in the perspective to be in focus)
established a unique type of realism. The film still relies heavily on cinematic
technology to create its representation; the camera lens is not a human eye. The
techniques used in Citizen Kane helped reclaim the status of the shot, but did not
Most tellingly, Vertov’s The Man with the Movie Camera, in conjunction
with his Manifesto and Kinopravda (film truth), speaks volumes to the film
medium’s inability to portray real life objectively. His theoretical concept of the
2
See David Bordwell, Classical Hollywood Cinema (NY: Columbia University Press,
1985). Bordwell attempts a broad definition of realism by investigating various aspects of film
such as time and space.
15
perceive the world through a surrogate eye. Vertov’s kinoglaz eliminates the
experience is presented to them from the particular position of the camera. In this
presentation of “truth.”
The mechanisms involved copy the images from real space and time. The
Taking a step back, we could ask what constitutes reality in the first place.
rhetorical questions can be endlessly debated, art has done its part in attempting
conjecture.
Days, The Matrix, Existenz, Videodrome, Dark City, and Blade Runner establish
Take for instance the technology present in Strange Days. In its futuristic
16
world–turn of the century Los Angeles–a kind of virtual reality slash camcorder
the brain onto a disc. The moments can then be re-experienced by another,
replete with emotion and physicality. While this technology bears resemblance to
film and video games, it presents the possibility that firsthand experience could
How exactly does the VR technology in Strange Days differ from the
emotions through characters and narrative. While the film viewer remains
autonomous from the film image, a remarkable union occurs, facilitated by the
viewer’s imagination. The narrative provokes the viewer to enter the story world,
from viewers.
represent real life engagements rather than fabricated narratives in fiction film or
constructed arguments in documentary film. Those discs are neither reality nor
representation; do they equal memory? The film asks its viewers to examine their
own physical reality and how they experience the world as individuals. If memory
Strange Days. He imagines “the diabolical invention of a black box that could
directly convert a single person’s thoughts into a viewable cinematic reality. You
would attach a series of electrodes to various points on your skull and simply
think the film into existence.”3 Such an invention, says Murch, would elicit a
“Faustian bargain” from those filmmakers brave enough to take up the immediate
personal vision. Murch says that it’s the combination of the two that makes the
universe. While Bigelow’s and Murch’s futures are not unrealistic, the recording
devices simply don’t exist yet. But scientific research will soon make reality out of
reproduction, technology, and unreality, then the media largely form our concepts
narratives, media, and everyday life. The media permeate everyday life and play
a part in forming conceptions about the everyday world. What is it that makes
everyday reality autonomous from its media reproductions? If you ask me, the
3
Walter Murch, In the Blink of an Eye (Beverly Hills, CA: Silman-James Press, 1995),
142.
4
Yoichi Miyawaki, Hajime Uchida, et al, “Visual Image Reconstruction from Human Brain
Activity using a Combination of Multiscale Local Image Decoders,” Neuron 5 (Dec 2008): 915-
929.
18
unmediated reality.
Let’s take a step back for a moment and consider unmediated reality. We
rarely experience daily life without some sort of intermediary separating us from
the world re-presented. This occurs in many ways. All the constructs of modern
life mediate our experience: not just the electronic media. In Mediated, Thomas
highway somewhere in the middle of Saskatchewan. His car breaks down. His
cell phone dies. There’s nothing around. Or more appropriately, there are no
landscape: “Pretty soon you notice how everything around you just happens to
be there.”5 It sounds pretty boring. Unmediated reality doesn’t exist for us much
bored.
These days we’re assaulted by images and events in every day of our
lives. We’re taught to occupy ourselves, to keep busy, to keep up. Are we also
An empty place, as we call is, is not precisely empty, just devoid of interest. Do
we fear empty places because they’re devoid of mediation? Is it that we lack the
The postmodernists have noted how we often prescribe real life with the
5
Thomas de Zengotita, Mediated (NY: Bloomsbury, 2005), 13.
19
images imbedded in us from the media. Watching a sunset over the highway not
too long ago, I proclaimed, “wow, it’s like something out of a movie.” Without
myself. How do we negotiate between the media representation of the world and
watching the towers burn. This man says, overwhelmed, “it’s like something out
of a movie.” An image at once so powerful, horrific, and disturbing did not belong
belonged in the summer blockbusters. Honestly, we’d seen that before, though
the reality of our memory recognition made it seem unreal: hyperreal. We’d all
seen Armageddon, where asteroids destroy New York, and Independence Day,
where aliens destroy the White House. Even though those images remain with
us, they belong in those created worlds however much they may resemble our
own. The blockbusters dull our normal perception of the catastrophic. It depends
Film scholar Bill Nichols holds the view that the natural world exceeds
representation: “This is a brute reality; objects collide, actions occur, forces take
their toll. The world of the historically real is neither text nor narrative. But it is to
systems of signs, to language and discourse, that we must turn in order to assign
meaning and value to these objects, actions, and events.”6 The world of everyday
Arthur Asa Berger, in his book Narratives in Popular Culture, Media, and
Everyday Life, assigns everyday life the qualities of mundanity, where events
occur at random. Narratives, on the other hand, structure events with precision to
give created worlds form and meaning. Where does form and meaning sublimate
in the real world? Through narratives? “We used to think of the stories we read,
listen to, and watch as little more than trivial amusements employed to ‘kill time.’
Now we know that people learn from stories, are emotionally affected by them,
and actually need stories to lend color and interest to their everyday lives.”7
Humans naturally make sense of first hand experience by telling stories. To tell
stories, the teller needs a forum. We’ve far surpassed the age of campfires; we
use them today for nostalgic value. Today stories are told over the phone and in
blogs. Do make sense of our lives by distancing ourselves from it: another kind of
tele-experience?
If we are to agree with Berger, that narratives give form to human life,
what differentiates these narratives from our experience of reality? It may be that
the human imagination provides such a powerful function that narratives and
7
Arthur Asa Berger, Narratives in Popular Culture, Media and Everyday Life (Thousand
Oaks: Sage Publications, 1997), 174. See page 162 for a chart comparing narratives and
everyday life.
21
Storytellers naturally embroider their tales to make them either more interesting,
more dramatic, or more structured. This process distances the stories we tell
Internet and other mediating technologies allow viewers to live in their minds, in
their solitary living rooms to the extent that our experience of reality focuses more
If images and narratives permeate everyday life, if the images are more
real than real, then how do we reclaim unmediated reality? How do we dissociate
media from everyday life? How do we attempt to make sense of our lives without
the aid of the media? Film, by its ontological nature, can never reveal a truly
involved. How can we elucidate the differentiation between film narrative and
Back in the dawn of cinema, more precisely 1929, Soviet realist filmmaker
Dziga Vertov proclaimed in his insistent, political statement that film must tell the
truth about everyday life. His concept of the kinoglaz, the camera-eye, speaks
Vertov, intent on showing truth through film, proclaimed that the film
telling, since his intentions in a way contradict the product. With The Man with
the Movie Camera, Vertov set out to show “life as it is.” His aesthetic eye put to
montage, however, circumvented his objective for realistic portrayal. His mission
statement can be viewed in a number of ways, but, The Man with the Movie
Vlada Petric, one of the few critics equipped to handle this material in context,
photographic recording of reality. Yet, with all its structural and formal features,
eye, especially toward editing, enabled him to construct a political argument out
of mundane footage.
As early as 1929, the inability of the film medium to present the truth of
reality was made clear through Vertov’s work: “The Vertov paradox is his merger
of a truthful, observing attitude with his aesthetic view of film structure.”9 The film,
show you the world as only I can see it.”10 Considering the camera as an eye with
film is represented through an eye that picks out what we see, then there are
objects that end up on screen and others that are omitted. The cine-eye chooses
what we see.
If the camera is the eye with which the viewer identifies, then the
omniscient. He is interpellated into the ideology of the film–its narrative, its logic.
Contemporary film theorists argue the contrary. The current trend of Cognitivism,
led by Bordwell and Carroll, maintain that the viewer is the perceiver, not the
camera.12 The viewer chooses when to look and look away. Take a film like
Koyaanisquatsi, for example. The film leaves it up to the viewer to decide what
the film is about. But here is an odd type of film, and one that operates according
10
Dziga Vertov, Kino-Eye (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985), 17.
11
Metz, The Imaginary Signifier (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982).
12
David Bordwell and Noel Carroll, eds. Post-Theory: Reconstructing Film Studies
(Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1996). Noel Carroll, Mystifying Movies: Fads and
Fallacies in Contemporary Film Theory (NY: Columbia University Press, 1988).
24
with film. Firstly, the viewer associates with a character in the film, which is
Alternatively, we could agree with Vertov’s view that the cinematic apparatus
interprets the world for the viewer and presents it anew in an altered state; the
To take the former stance, the viewer associates with a character in a film
and establishes an emotional connection. The viewer is consumed into the world
of the film, living the narrative events vicariously though another’s perspective.
conveys, the viewer will suspend disbelief as long as he or she empathizes with
the character. In this way, the viewer’s imagination becomes subject, and can be
consider the viewer an empty vessel. His cine-eye–his director’s eye at viewing
the world and his political ideology mediating that view–maintains a way of
seeing that will likely differ from the way the viewer might inherently witness the
The surrogate eye cannot copy individual experience of the world, since the
worldview. But isn’t it true that no two people think alike, much less see alike?
depth, ideology, and perspective: all the interpretations are personal. Take for
a fundamental difference between the digital record of the event and the
eyesight without the brain, which lets us know what we’re seeing. Visual
perception involves the method of decoding the visual world, and since this is a
personal activity, it’s allows for a degree of opinion. Therefore there’s a difference
between what you see, what you remember seeing, and what the camera
records.
Film and video may appear to resemble reality, but are fundamentally different.
Stanley Kubrick provides a great example here with his technical attempt at
photographing in low light situations. While preparing for the production of Barry
Lyndon, Kubrick sought lenses that would accommodate his production scenario;
he wanted to shoot with available light, in this case candlelight. Film (celluloid)
proved difficult. Kubrick landed on “an ultra-fast lens” that would allow enough
apparatus is a complex technical device that does not operate in a way similar to
and film aesthetics. His groundbreaking film, as a product of his ideology, shows
further that the two are irreconcilable. Given the filmmaker’s political position, he
constructed the images taken from real life to make a Socialist statement. But
real life is not that way, is it? The Man with the Movie Camera tells us that film
realist movements again and again: with Italian Neorealism, Nouvelle Vague, and
Dogma 95. Realist movements convey ephemeral statements; the products last
world we inhabit. Since the cinematographic apparatus copies images from real
fundamentally altered from its original form. There remains a resemblance, but its
There can be no realistic representation of reality through art, since art is always
14
Walter Benjamin, “The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Film
Theory and Criticism, ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1999), 731-751.
27
of filmic reality. The Dogma Manifesto states that the filmmakers must strive to
present reality and truth without aesthetics considerations: “My supreme goal is
to force the truth out of my characters and settings. I swear to do so by all means
available and at the cost of any good taste and any aesthetic considerations.”15
distinct look and feel contrary to Hollywood films. The Dogma corpus displays
grain, low-key lighting, and incongruent color palettes. Taking the “Vow of
Chastity” into consideration while observing the look of its products, it becomes
evident that film aesthetics perform a definite function in the making of and
Hollywood aesthetics, we can see the use of spectacular camera dynamics and
the manipulation of color. Films that claim an objective view of the world do so by
viewer’s imagination. No matter how you look at it, films always employ an
15
Lars Von Trier and Thomas Vinterberg, “Dogma 95 & The Vow of Chastity,” In Purity
and Provovcation, ed. Mette Hjort and Scott MacKenzie (London: BFI, 2003), 199-200.
16
Nichols,126.
28
cinematography most often situates the viewer in the place of God, given the
reconstruct the recorded world to offer a new view through a represented reality.
The film medium presents an altered view of the world since it relies on
may make their amendments but can never actually alter the requisites of the
medium itself. Whether looking through the camera-eye or the character’s eyes,
the world of the film appears different from everyday life, from the way individuals
experience reality firsthand. The simple fact that the viewer looks through a
surrogate eye should account for the fact that the film medium, in any of its
multiplicities, offers a view of the world fundamentally altered from the world of
everyday reality. The long-held assumptions that the medium can present truth
through the screen-window into the film world, naively believing that they are
witnessing a real event. We take the suspension of disbelief all too much for
granted.
30
“Gradually introduced over the last five years, digital special effects
have transformed the landscape of the visual in film, transporting
the viewer seamlessly beyond that which is real into a synthetic
world where computer animation, morphing, and digital effects
blend the actual into the fantastic. Perhaps one of the most
disturbing aspects of the new wave of digital effects films is that
they do not seem–at first glance–to contain any effects at all.”
– Wheeler Winston Dixon, The Transparency of Spectacle.
tend to forget that an image by its very nature is a re-presented view of reality. To
its very nature as a representation. “Invisible effects” range from simple wire
erasures and color correction to realistic looking fully animated CGI characters
and digitally created settings. Realistic visual effects incorporated into realistic
films exacerbate hyperreality, which ups the ante of the everyday; realistic films
are made to look more real than real. No longer does Hollywood settle for
The recent dystopian sci-fi Children of Men has been called a thinking
man’s action film. The film employs techniques of realism, such as realism of
which, at first glance, departs only slightly from the look out the window on any
modern day city. While the film appears realistic, we must take a step back to
consider the high degree of planning required for long takes, the digital erasure
Upon release of the film, critics were divided in judging its realism.1
it seems like not much has changed in 2027. The technology is old and dirty;
fashions have not changed; apart from the next generation Macs and some
digital billboards, the world looks much the same. What sets the film apart most
from the present day is its evocation of a severe cultural depression: the infertility
crisis. The film shows us a world without hope of the future and without a
that the audience may take it with a grain of salt. Specifically, the portrayal of
One shot in particular, which occurs toward the end of the film,
incorporates multiple image layers to achieve its effect. The continuous shot, in
which Kee, the film’s Virgin Mary, gives birth to the first baby in 18 years,
1
While Ross Douthat’s review of the film, “The Book is Better,” pictures it as any old
escapist action film, Ryan Gilbey’s comments in “Bombs, Killer Flu and Ping-pong-ball Kisses,”
speak positively of the film’s effective use of realism and cinematography.
32
includes cable erasures, digital breath, and a CGI baby. In a Hollywood Reporter
article the film’s visual effects director describes the process: “‘The baby had to
the film, the shot is seamless. Because of the realistic tone of the film as a whole,
innocent viewers accept this elaborately conceived shot precisely because of its
verisimilitude.
sci-fi and realist, and relevant and escapist. Judging on the division of the critics,
it might seem that the film achieves all at once. How can a vision of the future
also connote contemporary issues? How can a science fiction also convey
realism? The poles may not be as extreme as they seem, for these opposites are
Needless to say, as film history goes we’ve far surpassed New Wave
new setting. With the aid of digital technology, a film can be made to appear
realistic when in truth the case is quite the opposite. Is this new move in
Hollywood verisimilitude just another step in the direction movie effects have
been heading? Can we view invisible effects as a kind of digital visual effect on
par with spectacular ones? Or does his move toward digitally enhanced realism
From the beginning of film history, filmmakers have been at odds with the
2
Debra Kaufman, “Seeing Eye to Eye,” Hollywoodreporter.com,
http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3i19a1b95e867baa55e29e1ff28bc57
019 (accessed 22 Sept. 2007).
33
stylistics separating the spectacular and realistic. Since 1900, with the films of
the Lumiere brothers on one end of the spectrum and Melies’ on the other, the rift
has been wide. The Lumiere brothers’ adherence to realism and Melies’
attraction to spectacle makes clear the stark differences between realist film and
come. Certainly taste enters into the equation, but what about ethics? In “An
find credible reactions to the early special effects save the famous story of
can only conjecture as to the original reactions to A Trip to the Moon, not to
mention the effects of the moving image itself upon the minds and hearts of
audiences. The shock factor sustained the industry through its infancy and
beyond: “Shock becomes not only a mode of modern experience, but a strategy
year after year filmmakers strive to one-up their predecessors. This makes for a
The French New Wave and Italian Neorealism mark important transitions
3
Tom Gunning, “An Aesthetic of Astonishment: Early Film and the (In)Credulous
Spectator,” Film Theory and Criticism, eds. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999), 818-832.
4
Ibid., 831.
34
Italy came The Bicycle Thief only a few years after the Technicolor spectacular
The Thief of Baghdad. In France, Breathless arrived the same year as William
Castle’s 3-D horror thriller 13 Ghosts. Historically, these realist styles sought to
Their innovative, gritty, techniques gain them notoriety while foregrounding the
Hollywood edifice. The French New Wave, for example, brought the camera to
Most mainstream film these days include some kind of visual effect. Digital
technology has become the norm, and in order for a director to achieve his or her
vision, realism is tossed out the window. A common perception abounds in the
film industry today that in order to achieve the desired look, visual effects must
give the desired expression, the visual effects supervisor will fix it in post-
Wheeler Winston Dixon offers a grim, frighteningly apparent vision of the future
whisk of the electronic paint box.”5 Forget about trucking your crew half way
5
Wheeler Winston Dixon, The Transparency of Spectacle (Albany: SUNY Press, 1998),
10.
35
across the world to shoot in an exotic location. With digital technology, the
locations come to you. The final images will look comparable, if not better, when
digitally created. What does it matter that actors never set foot on that sandy
shore? If the audience can’t tell the difference, there is no difference. With
Hollywood films embracing hyperreality, the look of real world loses out on what
the technology can fix. Invisible effects have been utilized in recent films such as
Flags of Our Fathers, Blood Diamond, and Casino Royale in order to modify
landscapes. To achieve the precise look for Flags of Our Fathers, for example,
The final product appears realistic through the use of invisible effects, which
modify the original images. With the appropriate lighting, color, and texture,
complete look.
This enhanced Hollywood look has become the norm. Omitting blemishes
and mistakes that occurred during production, films are made during the editing
result, the screen visions represent more the computer process than a captured
6
Debra Kaufman, “Seeing Eye to Eye,” Hollywoodreporter.com,
http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/news/e3i19a1b95e867baa55e29e1ff28bc57
019 (accessed 22 Sept. 2007).
36
enabled by computer technology that bears little reference to the real world apart
from the look. A film of this sort presented as a realistic vision plays upon the
turns into the favored reality despite content–because nowadays it has become
The Hollywood way of looking has developed to such a stylistic degree that the
world itself no longer looks the same. We expect Hollywood moments in our real
lives, overlooking the fact that films are premeditated and aesthetically mapped
to create a vision of the world. Although real life is not the same as cinema, both
narratively and aesthetically, the differences are becoming more and more slight
The problems encountered with invisible effects are precisely due to their
verisimilitude. On the screen, it’s simple to distinguish the real from the make
flick, viewers know that the aliens in Independence Day are fictional creations.
This division is made all the more difficult, in some cases impossible, when
presented with realistic effects within realistic films. The digital erasure of wires
from a sequence in the James Bond action film Casino Royale might imply to its
viewers that the stunts were capable as is. The film’s opening action sequence
7
Margaret Miles and S. Brent Plate, “Hospitable Visions,” Crosscurrents (Spring 2004):
26.
37
employs a host of techniques: some real, others digital. Bond (Daniel Craig)
industrial construction site. Foucan performs all of his own stunts, but Craig has a
double. They climb up a crane and leap to a building. The height is incredible.
Viewers might suspect that it’s all real, or alternatively doubt that any of it had
occurred. This mix of realistic action blends the real with the computer-enhanced
to disable our belief. Here we have a breach not only in the way of viewing but in
effects techniques. But with this new wave of invisible effects, the techniques
layering, effects are seamlessly incorporated onto original footage for a realistic
look:
footage in films. The Hollywood look has developed in such a way as to cover up
its rigging so that all will be perceived as real. The suspension of disbelief
activates in order for the viewer to enjoy the entertainment, but hinders his or her
ability to distinguish fantasy from reality. The invisible effects and hidden
alterations to the original footage make for hyperreality. More so than in the past,
8
Dixon, 32.
38
disbelief?
In accord with Hollywood’s tried and true cure-all (upping the ante)
audiences are fed bigger and better spectacles in films that push the limits of
possibility in a realistic way. Audiences will, at the same time, demand more and
more. Dixon prognosticates that the reality principle will pay its toll for this
their physical lives becomes ever more marginalized.”9 Movies are changing
faster than society can keep up. Basing a perception of reality on the impression
given by “realistic” films embeds hyperreality in the real world. When we base our
disappointed. This new wave of digital filmmaking will only exacerbate our
me, Children of Men is a realist film… The changes that it introduces do not point
to an ultimate reality, but makes reality more what it already is. It makes us
perceive our own reality more like an ultimate reality.”10 Realism cannot prescribe
to the film in the textbook definition. Simply due to the fact that the film
contemporary feel, which adds to the jarring realism of the scenario. While the
9
Dixon, 34.
10
Slavoj Zizek, “The Possibility of Hope,” Children of Men. DVD. Dir. Alfonso Cuaron.
Universal Studios, 2007.
39
film utilizes long takes and documentary-style camera work to obtain a realism of
time and space, these aspects do not exceed the breaches made on reality
realism but does not represent everyday reality as is. Children of Men presents a
vision of the future in a realistic way, but should not be considered a realist film.
and additions than of the originally captured images. Erasing blemishes and
correcting errors constitutes an aesthetic choice, which alters the reality of the
it genuinely portrayed reality. The form hides the process. Will we expect reality
to look more like the images we see? Or can we reject the hyperreality of the
movie screen as nothing more than an image? The gap between the screen and
the everyday may becomes bridged, for better or worse, if we can realize that the
representation. Does that difference matter in the end? If the map precedes the
territory, there’s no need to travel, no need to be here and now. What remains is
the belief that there is a space. Whether that space is virtual or real matters less
When the first trailer was released for Beowulf in the summer of 2007, I
wondered what people would make of it. I sat for a minute, unblinking, at the
sheer hyperreality of it. How could anybody really want to see a movie like that?
It’s a videogame on the big screen, and you don’t even get a joystick! In the wake
of The Lord of the Rings, I supposed that the producers were just mining the
fantasy material.
I had heard that the film utilized the same technology used to make
Gollum in The Lord of the Rings. It’s funny, because I had wondered about the
real versus computer generated elements in Jackson’s trilogy: there were more
of the latter. Jackson and his crew labored to make their created world resemble
the one in their heads. Why not just do it the other way around: start in the
computer. I’m afraid that this method is all the more frightening for its
repercussions in the real world. As much as The Lord of the Rings creates a
real world (albeit a period film referencing a place none of us have ever seen), a
place in the pages of history and legend. Beowulf uses photorealism, graphic
to be photographed, but the images are yet one more step away from the real
thing; a real object becomes a photograph of real object which then becomes a
critics believed that Beowulf resembled too much the look of the not real
video game. But sitting in the theater for an hour and a half, that impression gets
Separating Beowulf from the classic tradition, Zemeckis says, "this has
nothing to do with the Beowulf you were forced to read in Jr. high school. It's all
43
about eating, drinking, fighting, and fornicating." This is not a film for children, like
Zemeckis’ last venture The Polar Express that utilized the same performance
capture technology. Despite the PG-13 rating, the film is loaded with violence
Critics have variously noted the film’s thrilling aspects and its heralding of
an age of pure simulation. Steven Hunter of The Washington Post brings up the
between real and graphic, the very existence of the film shows that producers are
really starting to push the envelope of what’s aesthetically pleasing, moral, and
Beowulf must overcome the "uncanny valley," the term for that moment
when a simulated human becomes creepy on film, says Carolyn Giardina
of The Hollywood Reporter. But Beowulf is coming along at the right time,
she says. "I think audiences are getting used to more sophisticated, lifelike
animated characters as a whole," she says, noting various characters that
have been interspersed among real actors. "We've seen it with Gollum,
King Kong and Davy Jones. We saw it with the Silver Surfer. There are
more every year."2
1
Stephen Hunter, “Surface Treatment,” The Washington Post, 16 Nov 2007.
2
Anthony Breznican, “Beowulf Aims to Change the Look of Movies,” USA Today, 9 Nov
2007.
44
and more intense aesthetic energies are required to penetrate it.”3 Even the most
radical reviewer shies away from the ultimate perceptive adjustment that the film
a 3-D simulation of real actors translated into a virtual setting, screened in iMAX.
Washington Post critic Hunter concludes in his article, “the astonishing becomes
commonplace.4 Looking into the future through the eyes of these theorized
“sophisticated” audiences, there will come a day when the difference ceases to
be apparent. But today, for many viewers there is no difference between the real
and the virtual. Teenagers who spend hours on X-Box live, Wii, and a host of
Many people these days spend as much time in the virtual world as in the real
world.
franchise. With Terminator: The Rise of the Machines (2003), the films finally
Terminator excels to the level of franchise with the fourth edition Salvation, slated
for a May 2009 release. This episode brings a new look to the films: it’s post-
against lasers. You might expect the franchise to embrace its technophobic
3
Tom Gunning, “An Aesthetic of Astonishment: Early Film and the (In)Credulous
Spectator,” in Film Theory and Criticism, ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999), 831.
4
Hunter, Ibid.
45
message. But there’s a continuing quarrel here. It’s a big-budget action film.
The release of the teaser trailer for Terminator: Salvation in July 2008
brought cheers, whispers, and hurrahs from the audience. We all wondered to
what film the images were attached. The trailer brims with digital artifacts and
glitches; it looks like a low-resolution Youtube video. It’s Christian Bale and a big
gun and a bunch of explosions until the title pounds onto the screen followed by
the contrived tag line: “the beginning of the end.” This summer blockbuster revels
in its own technological virtuosity, washing over the strong technophobic struggle
of men versus artificial intelligence. I shudder to think what the videogame knock-
Introducing his study of science fiction and its effect on society, Daniel
many ways he’s right on key. You might have to think back to the 1950s–or go
back through the cinema–to see what our forefathers had envisioned as science
fiction. While many of the apocalyptic visions strike the contemporary viewer as
totally absurd: technologies that never existed, like rotary carphones, for
example.6
But let’s not discredit science fiction. The genre enables writers to
5
Daniel Dinello, Technophobia! Science Fictions of Posthuman Technology (Austin:
University of Texas Press, 2005), 2.
6
A rotary car-phone is featured in a 1957 artifact Beginning of the End.
46
meditate on current situations in order to look at what might come. While many
visions are absurdly off base, for example the string of millennial anxiety films in
the 1990s, we have to consider that the science and the fiction are in
fusion–is clearly under way.”7 We don’t live in a full-blown science fiction, but
we’re getting close. Just look at the immensity with which we utilize digital
technology in our daily lives. We interact using technological devices, zone out
on the tube, mediate our experiences in the very environments we call home.
anyone who tells you otherwise hasn’t taken the red pill.8
7
Daniel Dinello, Technophobia! (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2005), 4.
8
In The Matrix, Neo chooses between the red pill and the blue pill, which designate real
and virtual.
47
SIMULATED ENVIRONMENTS:
SUCCESSIVE PHASES OF THE IMAGE IN
TARKOVSKY’S SOLARIS
“When the real is no longer what it was, nostalgia assumes its full meaning.”
– Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation.
The first impression many viewers have of the work of Russian filmmaker
the antithesis of Hollywood. The films of Andrei Tarkovsky are well known to
elaborately coded with symbolic detail. In the following pages I will apply
ones chronologically through the film. In this way, viewers are made to question
assumptions about the status of their own environments and their desire for
natural reality.
science fiction film that defies generic conventions. It relies on imagery and
48
extended ambient exploratory sequences that create a vivid sense of place: the
simulacrum. The film begins on Earth with Kelvin, who prepares for his journey to
the Solaris space station. In the opening sequences Tarkovsky sublimely evokes
nostalgia for natural environments, which will be played with throughout the rest
of the film. We get the sense that Kelvin has returned from an urban setting to a
childhood home, the dacha, in order to say goodbye. At the dacha, we are given
Two extended travel sequences ensue. One follows Kelvin’s friend Berton
on his journey from country to city. The other documents Kelvin’s trip to the
Solaris station. While these sequences seem apparently unnecessary to the plot
progression, they develop an intuitive rhythm for the film and the viewer’s sense
of place.
that something is amiss. The place appears deserted and in shambles. The
mysterious space, along with its enigmatic survivors Snaut and Sartorius,
realize that Solaris holds vast mysteries and that the answers are highly
subjective. Kelvin clashes with the others in his personal perspective since he
views the situation as a psychologist rather than a scientist. This position allows
49
him to experience the hallucinations personally, but also exposes his repressed
The film explores vivid spaces and situations, balancing between scientific
and spiritual perspectives. Relying on imagery and ambiance, the film opens
The following reading will interpret Solaris as a journey through spaces: the
with more symbolic than literal meaning. This interpretation draws on the film’s
In the first part of the film we are made to feel comfortable in a natural
inspecting the pond, the reeds, the wind, and the forest. Kelvin visits his father’s
dacha, which symbolizes family and familiarity. This sequence evokes home: the
1
Istvan Csiscery-Ronay, Jr. “The Book is the Alien: On Certain and Uncertain Readings
of Lem’s Solaris,” Science Fiction Studies 35 (March 1985).
50
box and his ritualistic burning of photographs and papers imply mysteries in his
past, demons with which he must grapple. In the opening moments, a symbolic
image appears that will reverberate through the rest of the film: a natural object
forced into an unnatural setting. A horse retreats to its stable after galloping
there are various objects connoting history, civilization, and progress. A long
sequence involving the television detaches us from the here and now as we
receive the exposition. The presence of art objects reflects the vast history of
reality.”3
In the next extended sequence of almost ten minutes, Berton rides to the
city along highways, through tunnels, and finally through a complex urban road
viewer to adapt to the industrial world. The city is also the here and now, but one
that “masks and denatures a profound reality.”4 Looking back, we can consider
2
Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1994) 11.
3
Ibid., 6.
4
Ibid., 6.
51
the future, the city functions in the film to heighten the viewer’s understanding of
progress. This travel sequence moves from the rural (past) to the urban (present-
space station. These shots transition from the reality of what we know on Earth to
environment. Referencing the natural environment of the dacha, air vents suck
up the fog from the space vessel in the docking bay. To read this metaphorically,
the station, a mechanized environment, rids itself of natural phenomena. But the
inhabitants seek to reinsert natural things into their environment to humanize it,
to familiarize the sterile simulation. The scientists post photographs and artifacts
in their rooms. They try to make the unreal setting more real by making believe
that they’re still on Earth, fooling themselves to forget that they’re floating in
space.
simulate the sound of wind rusting leaves. While the sound familiarizes the
space, it also creates an imaginary response in the auditor that connects the
simulation with the real. In Kelvin’s desire for the natural, he relies on the
trick, the paper strips fool his ears but not his heart. In similar attempts, the
scientist Snaut fills his room with memorabilia of the natural: art reproductions, a
efforts, the inhabitants of the simulated environment cannot make it into a home:
The most polarized image appears in the space station’s library. The room
and old books. The look of the room echoes back to the interior of the dacha, but
tellingly, a similar, perhaps identical, classical bust appears in both the dacha
and the station library: “The sculpture connects the two spaces and, along with
the other details, introduces the notion of highly subjective time, reinforced by the
emphasis on the total isolation from the outside world.”7 This parallel could be
interpreted as a statement of the desire for familiarity and the nostalgia for the
natural. In order to make the sterilized space station into a home, the scientists
surround themselves with earthly objects and memorabilia. Ultimately, they make
humanized in its essence. The scientists blend fantasy into the simulation in
The last sequence on the space station implies travel, as in the earlier
6
Roumiana Deltcheva and Eduard Vlasov, “Back to the House II: On the Chronotopic
and Ideological Reinterpretation of Lem’s Solatis in Tarkovsky’s Film,” The Russian Review 56
(Oct 1997): 534-5.
7
Ibid., 537.
53
literal passages from country to city and Earth to the station. This time the travel
Kelvin’s room on the space station merges with the dacha. This imaginary
stage of simulacra. The story progresses to the point where viewers question the
truth of the narration itself. As viewers question the truth of the telling, they can
no longer distinguish between the reality and the simulation in a similar way as
Kelvin.
come full circle. Kelvin returns to the “natural” environment, but details have
indoors, characters seem distant, and the sky is overcast. Kelvin’s pastoral
fantasy connotes the thematic nostalgia for nature and the desire for simplicity.
The place is no longer real, but a product of his memory, hallucination, and
macrocosmic mirror of the human image. The Solarists' obsession with the
reflection and identity.”8 Viewing the Solaris dacha as a simulacrum implies that
the desire for fantasy and nostalgia has transcended and obliterated the real.
8
Istvan Csicsery-Ronay, Jr., “The Book is the Alien: On Certain and Uncertain Readings
of Lem’s Solaris,” Science Fiction Studies 35 (March 1985).
54
also implies an overall message to the film, insofar as a viewer will agree with
this particular reading. Finding refuge in the fantasy of his desire, the
simulacrum, Kelvin reflects the struggle for a real social utopia, implying that the
ideal is not attainable in reality. Kelvin desires to return to the natural, the dacha,
day and age, since truth and falsity no longer provide the empirical base for
contemporary science fiction, however: “Why bother clothing the present world in
sci-fi garb, when the estranging future has already arrived?”9 This notion is also
present in the film Solaris, since the environments reflect less futuristic than
All of Tarkovsky’s films rely upon notions of nostalgia: “They view the
world as in danger of being lost, and see it from the point of view of someone
transportation from one place to another – from one phase of history to another.
In the film, the four spatial planes connote separate physical and ontological
9
Phillip Lopate, “Solaris,” Criterion Collection (Nov 2002),
http://www.criterion.com/asp/release.asp?id=164&eid=259§ion=essay (accessed 27 May
2007).
10
Chris Fujiwara, “Solaris,” Cineaste 28 (Summer 2003).
55
temporal period. One could interpret the film from Kelvin’s ideological
perspective: finding refuge in the fantasy of his desire while totally neglecting the
truth of the real. The message stresses the primacy of the imaginary as the last
vestige of hope: “The only universe man can truly explore exists inside his own
head…”11 Kelvin’s last and only vestige is his desired fantasy, where he has
progress from the natural through the simulated all the way to the complete
simulacrum. Kelvin’s desire for the return to the real, the Solaris simulacrum,
parallels a real world cultural movement toward this same venture, just as
11
Jonathan Rosenbaum, Movies as Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press,
1997): 280.
57
PROJECTING FANTASY:
THE GAP BETWEEN FANTASY AND REALITY IN
THE LORD OF THE RINGS
psychoanalytic film theory posits that cinema offers an empty surface onto which
viewers project their fantasies in hopes of finding the cause of their desire. But as
encompasses films that attempt to bridge the imaginary gap between fantasy and
reality. Films of this type posit that the cause of desire can be mastered, an
out dangerous territory for viewers who submit to its ideology. As philosopher
Slavoj Zizek writes: “the realization of desire does not consist in its being
such, with its circular movement.”1 Desire is a circular process, requiring that the
and the subsequent desire to fill that lack, in the moment of realizing one’s own
dissociation from the image, merging that lack would regress the subject. In this
1
Slavoj Zizek, Looking Awry (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1991), 7.
58
explore issues of fantasy and desire in the cinema. An epic story based on the
quest to overthrow monstrous power, the films take majestic form in their
journey. The methods employed in the construction of the film cause problems in
the way that the environment is evoked. The Lord of the Rings transforms New
Zealand into an imaginary fantasy space. The films gloss over the fact that the
real setting and the film’s setting bear only imaginary resemblance. New Zealand
does not equal Middle-Earth. The resultant tourism industry in New Zealand
following the release of the films further complicates the problem, in that an influx
questions concerning the relationship of the film viewer’s fantasy and the cinema
screen. Using the term fantasy in the context of The Lord of the Rings along with
fantasy refers to the quest to fulfill a desire resulting from a lack felt by an initial
“The object a is precisely that surplus, that elusive make-believe that drove the
surface.”2 Psychoanalytic film theory further explains that the cinema screen can
2
Zizek, 8.
59
cannot exist in reality, since they consist most prominently of individual longings
and hopes to fill the absence in desire. Fantasies can only take form in empty
cinema is an imaginary terrain.4 Metz implies that the cinema screen provides an
empty space onto which viewers project their fantasies, and are psychically
Lacanian term signifying the recognition of the subject without himself: an image
that testifies to the autonomy of the subject from his surroundings. Metz, in the
Lacanian tradition, supposes that the cinema screen functions as a second mirror
into which the viewer views himself dissociated from his environment.
everyday life, the amount to which we believe in the wondrous possibilities of our
surrounding relies upon the individual as much as the belief system he or she
ascribes to.
Fantasy and desire bleed into real life, and have a rich documented
history. I would like to make a slight diversion here into the history of
cartography. It might be difficult to imagine what life was like during the Age of
3
Zizek, 8.
4
Christian Metz, The Imaginary Signifier (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982).
5
The Concise Oxford English Dictionary, 11th Ed., s.v. “Environment.”
60
Discovery, and grand myths abound as to our forebears’ naïve beliefs in a flat
world, dragons at sea, and phantom islands. Specifically of interest here are the
concept of the world and its geography that was patchy at best, medieval
cartographers were lain the task of filling in the blank spaces: places unknown.
The term “Here be Dragons” refers to such terra incognita, and has its own
history in popular culture and modern myth–the term actually only arises once,
on the Lenox Globe circa 1503-07.6 We can conjecture about the existence of
beliefs, their hopes and fears, accepted knowledge, and their perception of
reality.
America has provided the landscape and has given us the resources and
the opportunity for this feat of national self-hypnosis. But each of us
individually provides the market and the demand for the illusions which
flood our experience. We want and we believe these illusions because we
6
Erin C. Blake, “Here Be Dragons on Old Maps,” MapHist,
http://www.maphist.nl/extra/herebedragons.html (accessed 29 Aug 2008).
61
fantasy (in the Lacanian sense), and finding that fantasy exhibited in some empty
surface, enables human beings the freedom to pursue the object of our desire.
We can hope that our desires will come to fruition. While this perspective can be
dangerous, walking a fine line between illusion and reality, belief in wonder
the fantasy of his or her desire in the everyday world. The cinema of integration
replays through its diverse narratives the actualization of the impossible object
allows its heroes to actualize their fantasies and possess their impossible
objects. McGowan uses the example of Indiana Jones and the Raiders of the
Lost Ark: an archetypal example of the hero’s journey, the quest for the mythic
object. Unlike Arthurian mythology, Raiders shows that the object of Jones’
desire, the Arc, is real and can be possessed. The Hitchcockian object, the
McGuffin, an impossible object utilized in his films to fuel the desire of the hero
but entirely inconsequential by the end of the film, provides the ultimate example
7
Daniel Boorstin, The Image. (NY: Vintage, 1992), 3. Italics added.
8
Todd McGowan, The Real Gaze: Film Theory after Lacan (Albany, NY: SUNY Press,
2008).
62
of the impossible object in film. Think of The Maltese Falcon, the object named in
the title that every character yearns but can never possess. Contemporary
Hollywood film largely misrepresents the impossible object to make it seem that
the desire for fantasy is real and that the impossible object can be attainable.
These are ultimate and epic narratives that, though inevitably replayed through
our culture, in our living rooms, and in our imaginations, foreground the one-time
journey for the object of our desire, and the attainability of the impossible.
distorts our expectations of reality. The desire for the impossible object in
Lacanian psychoanalysis relies upon the continual replay of the drama–once the
object has been found, it disappears–in order to avoid neurosis in the subject.
These films, too numerous to cite one by one but visible by their box office
ratings, are commodities that guarantee the subject’s (viewer’s) satisfaction: the
fulfillment of desire through the eyes of the hero. Achieving the impossible object,
the cinema of integration feeds our exaggerated expectations of what the world
In 2001, Peter Jackson heralded his epic Lord of the Rings trilogy with
The Fellowship of the Ring. The story presents a romantic vision, a timeless epic.
The movie visualizes the world of Middle-Earth, a universe that bears little
a universe with its own rules and logic and immense history that sprung from the
Wilson reveals the story as a pastoral high fantasy that conveys a Luddite
with its use of computer generated images and high profile technology to
pastoral, stating that the Lord of the Rings films present a “post-pastoral
such as these require complex computer graphics to render the fantasies real–or
With the Lord of the Rings films, fantasy breaches reality in a way
previously unseen. Take a real place: New Zealand. Impose of spectacular vision
entirety on two levels. First you have a real place photographed: Glenorchy, New
Zealand, for example. Second you have a reference made to an imaginary world:
Glenorchy used as a template for Isengard. When I say template I mean the real
place made virtual. Sweeping shots made from a helicopter were used to create
a map of Glenorchy that was then altered to create a virtual image of Isengard.
computerized construction. The films represent both the real New Zealand and a
9
Thomas Murray Wilson, “Blockbuster Pastoral: An Ecocritical Reading of Peter
Jackson’s The Lord of the Rings films,” in How We Became Middle-Earth, eds. Adam Lam and
Nataliya Oryshchuk (Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2007), 185-196.
64
hyperreal version. Viewers who identify with Middle-Earth adopt the desire to
expectation of seeing Isengard reveals that the fantasy in the empty surface of
this cinema can only exist in the cinema, not in reality. The cinema screen
reflects the fantasy space in which one projects the desire to inhabit Middle-Earth
for his or her individual reasons. That fantasy cannot breach the screen.
production design (visual artists who first painted portraits of middle earth based
on the books and their imaginative representations of it) and images grabbed
from real life (New Zealand and studio sets, real life actors and CGI characters).
constructing the world, it appears more real than real, verifying the Middle-Earth
represented in the film is part real-world part computer graphic, which makes the
otherworld appear more real than real without detracting from its realism.
New Zealand became Middle-Earth. The island nation became more than
the real world parallel to the imaginary place; it transformed into the Middle-Earth
that Tolkein fans and fantasy buffs seek to inhabit in various ways. With that
parallel visualized, what viewer would not desire a pilgrimage to that real space
where the imaginary becomes real? New Zealand becomes the fantasy
landscape where the fantasy of our desire becomes manifest, if just in our own
heads. It is a hyperreal place for those who travel there with the desire to inhabit
65
Middle-Earth.
One of the most important elements of the Lord of the Rings narrative is
the environment. The story relies heavily on the land, tracking the travelers’
journey across hillsides, plains, over mountains, and through forests on foot and
horseback. Director Peter Jackson chose his native New Zealand as the location
for Middle-Earth:
One set removed from experiencing the location as the real place, tourists who
the places are a “pallid imitation” of the image both in their heads and on the
screen.
In the wake of Peter Jackson’s Lord of the Rings movies, New Zealand’s
location spots across the two islands. Merchants pedaled artifacts from the film.
Millions of spectators flocked to see what they had missed in the movies: the real
Middle-Earth:
10
Boorstin, 107.
11
Zygmunt Bauman, “From Pilgrim to Tourist – or a Short History of Identity,” in
Questions of Cultural Identity, eds. Stuart Hall and Paul Du Gay (London: Sage, 1996), 29-30.
66
New Zealand becomes the construct for imagining Middle-Earth. Whether one
massive imaginary world that exists more in a collective belief than in the
physical location. The influx of tourists, traveling to the physical location where
the imaginary world is said to exist, speaks for the power of the collective desire
for fantasy.
Edoras, one of the key locations in The Two Towers, the second of the
trilogy, is a city built onto a hillock in a wide valley. Edoras is actually Mount
Sunday, a remote location on the south island of New Zealand. The production
involved building a massive set at the peak of the hill: a king’s hall in the Nordic
tradition. Upon completion of shooting, the set was dismantled and the remaining
pieces flown out by helicopter. When viewers watch the films, they place
real place. The real thing doesn’t add up to its Technicolor existence. The valley
itself is an unmediated place, and that may catch tourists off guard.
Since the films have a wide fan-base, viewers of The Lord of the Rings
identify greatly with the evocation of place. Live action roleplay and MMORPGs
play upon epic stories similar to The Lord of the Rings, and the fan-bases overlap
inhabiting an imaginary place; the film tells us that these places are real. The
viewer can travel to the shooting location and fulfill his or her desire. But it’s
revealed upon first sight that the cinematic space differs significantly from the
67
real place. As Boorstin elucidates: “People go to see what they already know is
there. The only thing to record, the only possible source of surprise, is their own
reaction.”12 The media mimics reality, presenting us with heightened events and
interesting characters. When the viewer identifies with the image, placing
greater power: one that can never add up to what exists in reality. Did the viewer-
Psychoanalytic film theory posits that the film screen is a mirror onto which we
view ourselves. We all believe in the world as we see it and as we imagine it. Our
experience of the world is based on our ability to negotiate between the two.
Approaching the Lord of the Rings movies requires a negotiation between these
two schools of thought. Because the world and events depicted in The Lord of
the Rings cannot traditionally be called realistic. The film relies on lack and
absence felt in its viewers of something bigger and better than what the real
In his essay on illusion of space and place in the Lord of the Rings films,
David Butler mentions the impossible shots in LotR as situating the viewer in
God looking upon the wonderful imaginary world. The sweeping helicopter shots
sustain His vision, and the viewer is placed in His seat to look upon the world of
12
Boorstin, 116.
13
David Butler, “One Roof and No Walls Make a House,” in How We Became Middle-
Earth, eds. Adam Lam and Nataliya Oryshchuk (Zurich: Walking Tree Publishers, 2007).
68
Middle-Earth, or New Zealand, as his or her creation. The fact remains that this
mechanisms involved allows the viewer to perceive the film world as real: “The
equipment-free aspect of reality here has become the height of artifice; the sight
of immediate reality has become the [unattainable] blue flower in the land of
technology.”14 We want to believe that these things, these places, these people
are real. The suspension of disbelief only functions to the degree that the viewer
allows. What happens when the viewer fully succumbs to the screen fantasy,
internalizing the desire? How much can fantasy be made real by desire?
fantasies.15 In this way, we create our own way of seeing the world through our
interactions. Do we not also create and live out fantasies in our daily lives?
14
Walter Benjamin, “A Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction,” in Film
Theory and Criticism, eds. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen. (Oxford: Oxford University Pres,
2004), 744.
15
“Symbolic Convergenge Theory,” Wikipedia,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_Convergence_Theory (accessed 29 Aug 2008).
69
to an original absence, an object that never existed in the first place. Fantasy and
reality exist on two separate planes. Comparing the cinema to the dream-state,
The delusion of a man awake. The dream delusion has been partly
neutralized, ever since man dreamt, by the bromide that ‘this was only a
dream.’ This time-honored method of trivialization, despite such
equivalents as ‘it’s just a film,’ is harder to apply to the filmic delusion,
since we are not asleep at the cinema, and we know it.16
Do individuals who identify with the images they see it the media, that other
imaginary and the symbolic fuse into a hybridic reality? For viewers to reconcile
their impossible fantasies with their experience with film, the imaginary surfaces
need to be both differentiated and discerned. But since the cinema has
functioned as a dream machine for so long, the process seems inevitable. One
question remains: can the viewer be satisfied with his innate fantasies in reality
16
Metz, 108-9.
71
read that early silent films were shot from a distance to preserve the fourth wall.1
the viewer in the audience with respect to the stage. It didn’t take them long to
much, as we now know. You can sit in the front row of the movie theater and,
though you might experience vertigo, you’ll still recognize that the subjects are on
the screen and not stepping on your toes. Those keen viewers in the front row
can actually see the fourth wall, and also beyond it. The fourth wall is
transparent; it’s the screen itself. We know nothing can get through, but the
events and characters and interactions and emotions affected through that wall
are enormous. At times there seems to be no barrier separating the two worlds.
Based on the yearnings of those front row viewers, there may be no wall at all.
These days, you hold the fiction in your own hands. You own it and you can
reconstruct it at your whim; take fan fiction for example. People become so
1
David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson, Film Art: An Introduction. NY: Knopf, 1979.
72
fervent about these fictional worlds that they worship the stars that play their
favorite heroes. Take for example Jodie Foster’s stalker, or the Crash cult
inspired by famous car accidents. Sometimes people forget that the actor is
merely playing the character. Fandom in this respect resounds from the
disillusionment that the barrier between the real and the fiction can be broken.
Mimetic art forms like storytelling and other time-based media have the ability to
affect their viewers in powerful ways. While the fourth wall–a component of the
suspension of disbelief that tells us the images on the screen are there and yet
not there, true but at the same time fictitious–separates us from fictions, there’s a
part of us that wants them to be real, that can treat them with as much veracity
as the person sitting beside you in the theater. Is the suspension of disbelief
dissolving in the postmodern age, where truth is up for grabs at every turn and
2
Kendall Walton, “How Remote Are Fictional Worlds?” Journal of Aesthetics and Art
Criticism 28: 19.
73
appropriate emotions whether or not he actually feels them. The viewer actually
slime.”3 Walton urges that our experience of fiction, art, and film is more real than
we consciously believe it to be. A belief that humans are innately imaginative and
liminal drives his writing. In “Fearing Fictions,” Walton explores the close
the core of the diegesis play upon this recent upset. The films that employ self-
reflexivity are too numerous to mention: The Purple Rose of Cairo, The Last
Action Hero, Living in Oblivion, Day for Night to name a few. These films fold in
upon themselves to make the audience question the limits of the film world in
respect to the real world. Michael Haneke’s Funny Games in particular provides
rife territory for examining layers of interaction across the fourth wall. This horror-
thriller unveils violence in the media and everyday life by presenting an unsettling
anti-hero, a psychopathic killer who appears very normal and well adjusted,
3
Kendall Walton, “Fearing Fictions,” in Philosophy of Film and Motion Pictures, eds. Noel
Carroll and Jinhee Choi (Place: Press, date), 234-246.
74
breaking the fourth wall so as to ask the viewers which horrible act he should
commit next. Funny Games brings to light the proximity of fictional worlds, how
that constructed worlds are just as real as ours, and that the fourth wall could be
Can we take a step back and question how we view films? It’s anything
through semiotics and literacy theory, through the theory of art. As Thomas
Lumiere’s train arriving at a station drives the hypothesis that film can be
perceived as real, or more real than real.4 According to the story, the first time the
film screened in New York City in the early 1900’s, audience members fled the
theater thinking that the train was actually on the stage about to run them down.
The fourth wall was broken. The suspension of disbelief was a true belief.
Two parallel traditions run through film theory, which argue whether the
world. For Funny Games, the horror of the film rings true according to the
hypothesis that the film presents an open window, a screen that can be
perceptually breached depending on the level of reality that the viewer affords
the filmed world. This realist stance assumes that the filmed world existed in
some real time and place. Funny Games operates on both levels. The film
4
Thomas Gunning, “An Aesthetic of Astonishment: Early Film and the (In)Credulous
Spectator,” in Film Theory and Criticism, ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 2004): 818-832.
75
stratification and a stylized view of the effect that media violence can have on an
audience. In the first sense, the film shows a realist view. In the second, Funny
the viewer himself. An early proponent of the psychoanalytic school, Jean Luis
viewer sees everything that is at once inside him and controlling him. As an
what and how he sees. But this is too all encompassing. The cinema as mirror,
ordained. It’s a Marxist standpoint that makes the world seem as though the
looks into the screen and sees himself. Identifying with a character, or with a way
of seeing (identifying with the camera), this mirror theory requires dissociation
5
Jean-Louis Baudry, “Ideological Effects of the Cinematographic Apparatus,” in Film
Theory and Criticism, ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford University Press,
2004): 352.
76
universalizes the spectator. Truth is, some people watch movies like this
forget that the shots are disparate, the director lingering off screen giving line
with the story world, to give himself up to the fiction. Kendall Walton offers that:
many of the ways that we respond to what we know about the real world.”6
the power in their hands to either accept or reject the filmmaker’s offering. The
viewer can choose to sit back and enjoy–to suspend his disbelief–or to watch
consciously and empirically. But what about inexperienced viewers? It’s false to
assume that every ticket-holder brings with him the baggage to decode Funny
Games. Those viewers who enter the theater expecting an entertainment from
shock.
Funny Games questions the distance between the fiction and the real
world. It’s a movie that’s self-aware, like a unit of artificial intelligence gone
intentional statement:
Haneke employs direct address to counter the comfortable sedation that the
audience might feel while watching a movie, even a horror movie. He turns the
world upside down by placing all the power within his anti-heroes, Paul and his
sidekick Peter.
Peter and Paul, a pair of deranged serial killers, don’t fit our average M.O.
They dress in tennis outfits, converse sympathetically, but refuse to give in during
those awkward moments. This should be the first moment you realize there’s
something wrong, but Anna and George take a moment too long to orient. Peter
and Paul become unwanted visitors and, while they seem well adjusted and
friendly on the outside, they have despicable intentions for the suburban
vacationing family.
intelligent to the point of madness, and he knows he’s being watched. He loves
his audiences, and he entices them to play along with his games. The first time
he looks into the camera lens, everybody’s shocked and a bit taken off guard.
And it only gets worse form there. Half way through the film, when one of his
games goes awry, he grabs the TV remote control and actually rewinds the
7
Christopher Sharrett, “The World That is Known: an Interview with Michael Haneke,”
Cineast 28, Summer 2003.
78
scene. It plays again, and this time he makes it go his way. He is at once the
the end of Funny Games, Peter and Paul try to work out a philosophical problem:
More than any of the violence and bloodshed in the rest of the film, this dialogue
is most unsettling. Paul doesn’t believe that there’s a barrier between fiction and
the real world. Since he knows we’re watching him, and he eggs us on, can we
as viewers be inserted into the drama as confidant killers? Are we cohort to his
show up at my door?
worlds to the real world, and it doesn’t do it lightly. The film evokes fear and
“Since real world novels, plays, paintings, and so forth are what determine
what happens in fictional worlds, we can affect fictional worlds to whatever
extent the nature of novels, plays, and paintings is within out power. We
can destroy an evil picture-man, not with a dagger, perhaps, but with a
paint brush… Painters, authors, and other artists are veritable gods vis-à-
vis fictional worlds. The isolation of fictional worlds seems to have
79
vanished.”8
We can step outside the situation while watching a film to wonder, am I a part of
this? When it comes to film, the industry strips control from the average viewer.
far as the producers are concerned. But the directors sometimes have different
intentions. Haneke, with Funny Games, intended to pull his audience from the
seats. He said that those who walked out on the movie were acquainted with
their views on violence in the media; and those who stayed needed the wake up
call.9 Perhaps the high walk out rate, accompanied by Haneke’s passion to
express his philosophic postmodern intention, is what led to the 2007 American
see–as memories. But where is the barrier between what we remember seeing
By the end of Funny Games, those viewers that maintain a distance from
the filmed fiction can extrapolate social relevance. What Paul says is true to a
degree–the degree to which we afford power to the image and reality to the
fiction. The critical viewer is not afraid; he can see that Paul presents a
questions the viewer’s very perception of the filmed world as a fiction. The
8
Walton, 13.
9
Sharrett.
80
inexperienced viewer who suspends his disbelief during Funny Games leaves
himself open for a shock to the system. Common sense tells us that the film is
hermetic, and that nothing save a memory and a feeling can rupture the image.
Paul convinces these viewers that his world, even though it may be a fiction,
Media products don’t spring forth fully formed. Industry producers create
products (films, TV shows, podcasts, etc.) because, for one, they have a sense
that they will create a profit and a following. Producers also create media based
don’t intend to create an exhaustive list here. Real people make TV and film.
producers.
show popular? How much control do the producers maintain? Does the industry
A Face in the Crowd and Network visualize the invisible forces behind
television. Using reflexivity, the films both raise these questions. In fictional
relationship.
82
fall line-up that recognizes and reinforces anger. A Face in the Crowd imagines
Marcia Jeffries (Patricia Neal) uncovering personal, real life stories for the benefit
production of media, and their disparate intentions to feed popular needs for
The films recognize the need for an uncompromised ethical code as well as a
Diana Christensen thinks she knows what the audience wants to see on
TV. As the new head of entertainment programming at UBS (a network that could
be a CBS, NBC, or ABC) she pitches her audience research report to her team:
“The American people are turning sullen. They’ve been clobbered on all sides by
Vietnam, Watergate, the Inflation, the Depression. They’ve turned off, shot up,
and they fuck themselves limp and nothing helps… The American people want
someone to articulate their rage for them.” Diana recognizes a public need. TV
can supply a release that satisfies that demand. Diana is either a headstrong
nation. Either way, she has a notion of what the public wants, and how to get it to
Diana engrains herself in the UBS power play, gaining control of a news show
Because the news department loses money, it is made accountable for its
83
deficit. The reportage of current events becomes intertwined with economics and
capitalism, paying for its reality. It’s made to dish our sensationalism–that sells.
As a result, the difference between fiction and reality wanes. Network executive
Frank Hackett (Robert Duvall) suggests “adding editorial comments.” This new
position toward the communication of current events plays upon opinion and
perspective, which makes way for the fictionalizing of real events. While Network
ups the ante, we have to wonder as viewers of the film–and of the network
regurgitation than reality. Beale becomes a critic of that self-same system: “I’m
mad as Hell and I’m not gonna take it anymore!” When Diana Christensen takes
over the position as producer of “The Howard Beale Show,” the difference
Howard Beale becomes more of a talk show host on par with David
Letterman and Conan O’Brien than a news anchor. “We’re in the boredom-killing
And Diana Christensen started it all. She not so much authored “The
Howard Beale Show” as cleared the roadblocks for his airtime. By taking a news
pseudo-reality TV show. That’s what she knows the viewing audience wants.
84
fervor for her profession. She’s bloodthirsty for success, recognition, power.
What’s telling about the character of Diana Christensen, and of the prophetic
quality of Network (1976), is how she reads the audience and makes a winning
show. To the audience of the film, The Howard Beale Show breaches the other
time, and the retentive audience eats it up like candy. Diana Christensen is right,
Elia Kazan’s 1957 film A Face in the Crowd, a nearly forgotten relic,
visualizes the invisible forces behind TV. Marcia (Patricia Neal) fills the role of
television producer, with a professional mission to show real life and experiences
through her show from which the film grabs its title. On her mission she comes
tell and the charisma to tell it. Rhodes entrances Marcia. She sees celebrity-
potential.
The film presents three characters who fill different roles in the media. In
this triangular power dynamic, we see perspectives toward the ethical and
intelligent use of the powerful TV medium. Through these character bonds, the
the audience from his first words. He spins language with a force, but devoid of
with a capital S. Lonesome seems like a simple man; he goes with the flow and
prefers, who serves as the star’s writer. Mel soon realizes that his skills are
unneeded; Rhodes works on the fly. Mel performs the vital role of offering critical
opinion of Rhodes’ power. He is the only one who sees Rhodes for what he is: a
vehicle. As he says, “you’ve got to be a saint to stand up to the power that box
and Mel. She created his Rhodes’ persona. Marcia keeps the boat afloat. While
She supports him on his way to iconicity, which also paves her way to success.
Marcia and Mel, both educated and aware of the power of the medium, vigilantly
accompany Rhodes on his journey to stardom. While Marcia maintains her role
attitude allow him to see through Rhodes’ electric charismatic façade. Mel acts
Suppose I tell you exactly what's gonna happen to you. You're gonna be
back in television. Only it won't be quite the same as it was before. There'll
be a reasonable cooling-off period and then somebody will say: "Why
don't we try him again in a inexpensive format. People's memories aren't
too long." And you know, in a way, he'll be right. Some of the people will
forget, and some of them won't. Oh, you'll have a show. Maybe not the
best hour or, you know, top 10. Maybe not even in the top 35. But you'll
have a show. It just won't be quite the same as it was before. Then a
couple of new fellas will come along. And pretty soon, a lot of your fans
will be flocking around them…
In this final speech, Mel demonstrates his power in the industry; he sees beyond
86
the idol to what Rhodes’ manufactured persona has accomplished and will
accomplish in the future. This is a truth that neither Marcia nor Rhodes could
I would like to believe that the media is in the hands of others like Mel
Miller. But unfortunately, I don’t think that’s the case, based on the intelligence of
its programming. The media, with few exceptions, does not commonly employ
employ suspense and repetition (cliffhanger endings and episodic structure for
example), succeed in the marketplace, not those programs that draw attention to
the medium’s weak spots.1 For viewers to watch TV critically, they must bring it to
Critics labeled A Face in the Crowd as “elitist” for its attempt at self-
reflexivity.2 For the media to be intelligent, and ethical, it must allow viewers to
witness the truth of its execution. But this is simply not the case–television lies.
Then we must ask if television exists for the purpose of speaking the truth or of
Face in the Crowd, Thomas Beltzer attempts his own explanation as to why the
film might have been unsuccessful: “people don't like being told they are gullible
1
Take for example The Simpsons, South Park, and The Daily Show on TV, and Wag the
Dog, and To Die For in film.
2
James Wolcott, “An Unforgettable Face,” Vanity Fair, March 2007, 228.
3
Thomas Beltzer, “The Face in the Crowd,” Senses of Cinema 31 (April-June 2004).
87
Edward R. Murrow has a great deal to say along this vein. A contemporary
media, well chronicled in Good Night and Good Luck, led only to his HUAC
inquisition. But, for that matter, how much effect does reactionary media criticism
have on the industry? In his 1958 speech at the RTNDA Convention, delivered to
a room of friends and foes, he indicted the industry for its lack of ethical values:
As history tells it, none of these proclamations have been taken well. None of the
insipid entertainment have been heeded. We stayed on the roller coaster ride.
Perhaps we’d better follow in Mel Miller’s footsteps and keep our media criticism
out of the media. Intelligent criticism must persist. Without it we probably all
would become sheep, as George Orwell has rightly allegorized. If we keep our
messages out of other people’s entertainment, then maybe we’ll be met with
In A Face in the Crowd, the individual appears more intelligent than the
medium. We are shown the lengths to which the forces go to wield the medium,
4
Edward R. Murrow, “1958 Speech,” Kill Your Television,
http://www.turnoffyourtv.com/commentary/hiddenagenda/murrow.html (accessed 15 Mar. 2007).
88
stand up to the intellect, or the heart, of the individual. Mel’s book Demagogue in
Denim serves as the best example. In the book he apparently records the history
of Rhodes’ rise to success to reveal him for an ego-crazy maniac. We also see
American citizens, first accept his words with affection. Once his spiels display
his enthusiasm for advertising and politics, the audience accepts those as well.
But in the end, when Rhodes becomes a two-faced player, his words lose their
And the public becomes aware of their idol’s manipulative ranting. The audience
members in the film, portrayed as normal individuals, display heart. They are not
the faceless masses, as the industry would like to imagine. As Murrow said,
persuaded that the American public is more reasonable, restrained and more
mature than most of our industry's program planners believe.”5 It seems Kazan
executives bared to dish out sensationalism in return for your spectatorship. All
they want is for you to be watching. They already know what you want; they
know it better than you know it yourself. The film places the power in the hands
of this unethical horde who will place any psycho in the spotlight if he (Howard
be.
5
Ibid.
89
media, she can’t step up to the force that she helped to create. Diana, on the
other hand, laid out a plan that came to fruition in Network. She has no regrets–
and why should she? Diana, as a television producer with an ear to the beat of
the audience, dealt out a popular entertainment. Her professional attitude omits
the ethical code, much less a rationale for upholding common sense reality.
producer, Diana Christensen embodies the invisible forces behind the media, I’m
afraid–very afraid.
90
IRRATIONAL IDEOLOGY:
THE MATRIX, HYPER-VISUALITY, AND THE
ABSENCE OF MEANING
technophile, because I watched The Matrix so much. There were days when I set
soundtrack. I enjoyed the thrills of the movie, its inertia, its rule-breaking. I like to
believe I watched the movie in order to decode its messages. And that’s not
exactly an easy task. It’s a movie that’s easy to watch on a basic level. Its simple
structure, its basic story of a man triumphing over a repressive system, not so
much speaks as beckons its viewers to submit to its way of operating. The Matrix
portrays dominant Hollywood ideology in its look and technique. But there’s
complex experience. At once it’s technophillic and technophobic. The film utilizes
universe. At the same time, the film’s heroes–Neo, Trinity, and Morpheus–
91
struggle to “awaken” humankind to the “real world.” They walk a fine line between
Luddites and VR gamers. The rebels have a Machiavellian attitude that puts their
mission before their means. What does it matter if Joe Somebody dies in the
At the heart of it, The Matrix is a film that speaks against itself. While it can
be read on both levels–phobic and phillic–the meanings are covert beneath its
experience but peopled with superhumans. The film presents a call to action to
and fetishism.
views as to how current social situations might play out in the future. But when
alternatives. The film decidedly revels in its own technological genius while
yet still fail to provide a socially subversive message. The Matrix (1999) presents
the viewer with two dystopian alternatives. The film, with an estimated $63 million
budget, was a production of the Hollywood system even though the director-
92
writer pair were relatively new to that system: their work was a commission. The
film grossed upwards of $171 million while in US theaters.1 Although the ideas
inherent in the film’s narrative impel the viewers to question their reality, the tools
and techniques used in constructing the film create a visual experience that
contradicts that message: “The dystopia of the film is particularly gruesome and
especially technophobic for a film that revels in digital special effects.”2 The film
urges its audience to empathize with a group of rebels who know a privileged
secret about the nature of reality. The methods of the characters in the film are
the human race, but they do so by slaughtering innocent civilians. The film,
developed a fan base, largely due to its utilization of special effects, never-
before-seen action styles, and philosophical messages. Given that cinema exerts
a dramatic effect on the viewer’s perception of reality, how does such a message
affect a viewer’s relationship with society? How can viewers of the film’s target
The Matrix tells the story of Thomas A. Anderson, a man who lives two
lives. During the day he works as a software programmer; during the night he
1
“Business Data for The Matrix (1999),” IMDb,
http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/business (accessed 4 Jan, 2007).
2
Edward D. Miller, “The Matrix and the Medium’s Message,” Social Policy (Summer
2000): 56.
3
It is noted in various sources that The Matrix, and other action-based eye candy films,
attracts a younger target audience than previously calculated. An ideal demographic of ages 18-
25 gives way to 12-18: predominantly adolescent males. See: James Bowman, “Moody Blues,”
American Spectator (June 1999): 64-5; Nathanial Kohn, Pat Gill, Thomas Bivins, and Ralph D.
Barney, “Cases and Commentaries,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 18 (March 2003): 308-317.
93
becomes a hacker, Neo. He has the enduring feeling that something is wrong
with the world and, at night, he searches for answers as to why the waking world
seems like a dream. He searches for the man called Morpheus who, in the
Morpheus explains to Neo that in order to know “the truth,” he must make an
ultimate decision. Neo decides to follow Morpheus “down the rabbit hole,” in one
of the film’s many allusions to popular literature, and as a result the world is
opened up to him. Neo discovers that the world he knew is actually “a computer-
the matrix. Human beings are used as battery power by a race of artificial
intelligence, and those that have escaped their control have joined the ranks of a
resistance. Neo discovers that Morpheus is the leader of a rebel squad in “the
real world,” which turns out to be a few hundred years in the future. “The real
emancipate the human race from the control of artificial intelligence. Morpheus
believes that Neo is the prophesized savior that will ultimately free the human
Neo proves his strength and comes into his own. He embraces his destiny so
that he and the other rebels can one day destroy the virtual reality. Because of
the great box office success of The Matrix, two sequels were immediately
commissioned to round out a trilogy: The Matrix Reloaded and The Matrix
Revolutions. However, the sequels concentrated on action and effects even more
94
detective, follows the woman in close pursuit. When Trinity and the Agent
acceptance of them only because they fit neatly into a pre-existing framework of
the more credible, all the more convincing; all the more probable.”4 This first
sequence works to present the viewer of The Matrix with an altered perception of
reality, which will be built upon throughout the film. The viewer continues to
question the rules of the film’s universe and witness the impossible feats of those
unbelievability of the alternative world and then submit to its autonomous laws
and particular narrative logic. Steven Neale, in his essay concerning knowledge,
judgment and belief in science fiction film, contends that films of this genre
4
Steven Neale, “‘You’ve Got to be Fucking Kidding!’ Knowledge, Belief and Judgment in
Science Fiction,” in Alien Zone, ed. Annette Kuhn (NY: Verso, 1990), 163.
95
alternative and unbelievable fictional setting. Science fiction films, which employ
couples such a strategy with a call to action, the results can be destabilizing for
the visual nature of its images and cinematic techniques employed–and attempts
attempting to emancipate the human race from the clutches of a polarized evil
power. The narrative message of the film–question your reality, wake up to the
in the film, which support the use of technology as artificial experience and
out world of the dominant ideology. Cinema is one of the languages through
which the world communicates itself to itself.”6 Cinema is bound up with society
and social responsibility, creating an intricate web in which economy (in the
capitalist American system, at least) is the dominating factor. And even while
some works may try to undermine that ideology, they ultimately fail because they
arise out of that framework. The media itself can include contradiction. While
works of the media may contain subversive messages, those works are still part
the image to disseminate its messages. Taking the extreme stance, ideological
film theorist and critic Comolli argues: “the majority of films in all categories are
construct a story-specific worldview, then the film’s messages act upon the
than in films that present hermetic, highly stylized views in opposition to that of
the world of lived experience. The genres of horror, fantasy, and science fiction
One of the film’s taglines, “reality is a thing of the past,” speaks to postmodern
6
Jean-Luc Comolli and Jean Narboni, “Cinema/Ideology/Criticism,” in Film Theory and
Criticism, ed. Leo Braudy and Marshall Cohen (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), 755.
7
Ibid., 755.
97
social and film theorists alike.8 The film consistently references Baudrillard’s
early draft of the script, Morpheus references Baudrillard by name, telling Neo
that he was living on the map, not the territory.9 Baudrillard’s work reveals the
message: “the film, however, stops far short of Baudrillard’s hyperreal, preferring
created false consciousness that masks it.”10 The Matrix approaches technology
fails to contemplate an effective way to reaffirm a natural reality. Even though the
reification of reality. The inertia of the film relies on the viewer’s acceptance of
That drive to escape the matrix…is carried out throughout the film as a
return to the real… It is an exchange of one set of constraints for another,
hardly a freedom from boundaries and borders, especially since the
implication throughout the film is that one can achieve unmediated access
to the truth, hardly the result of a completed antihumanist critique.11
8
“Taglines for The Matrix (1999),” IMDb, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0133093/taglines (24
Dec 2006).
9
Andy and Larry Wachowski, The Matrix (1997). Drew’s Script-o-Rama,
http://www.script-o-rama.com/snazzy/dircut.html (accessed 3 Jan 2007).
10
Lia Hotchkiss, “Still in the Game: Cybertransformations of the New Flesh in David
Cronenbergs eXistenZ,” The Velvet Light Trap 52 (Fall 2003): 30. See footnote 13 in the
referenced document.
11
Ibid., 22.
98
The Matrix does not intend to make a social statement. Its destabilized ideology
is exactly its demise in the way of its use of philosophical source material. The
Matrix uses its source material to make a statement about reality, psychology,
dreaming, and technology when its source material speaks more to social levels
of reality-perception.
virtual world of the matrix and the film’s impression of reality. In The Matrix,
illusion is the same as enslavement. In this sense, to continue the message put
overtly in the film, since its artifice relies on the mechanisms of filmic illusion.
line between the opposing positions of technophile and technophobe. In the “real
little they have to fight the machines. They possess EMP, computers,
hovercrafts, and the VR technology to re-enter the matrix. Their ultimate mission
bad:
Since the characters of the film utilize technology, the film’s message that
12
Ibid., 23.
99
second of the trilogy, confronts the narrative position on technology, but avoids
clear cut answers as to how the dichotomy can be equalized. The machines that
filter their water, power their lights and hinge their rebellion are necessary. The
debunks the use of technology by the dominant power, the film itself utilizes a
wide range of state of the art digital technologies to convey that message, such
It warns that far from freeing us from the doldrums of ordinary life, new
technology may be aligning computer stations as the assembly lines of the
recapitalized western world, allowing the masses to be controlled by
‘techno-bosses.’ The film urges its audience to wake up to the power
dynamics and recognize the illusions of balance and propriety that
corporate and governmental forces put forth.13
But here’s the rub. What about the illusions of Hollywood cinema? This
picture replete with clichéd good versus evil conflict and gun-toting, vinyl-clad
superheroes. The underlying message of the film may be effective, but the
casing is purely in line with the film industry standards. The actualization of the
and more difficult to separate real life elements in film from computer generated
imagery and special effects. One must come to a film with a precise eye for
13
Miller, 58.
100
telling the difference. The films exist to blend the difference, to make the real and
the effects inseparable. This poses a problem for the viewing audience. If in a
film, The Matrix for example, you are presented with revolutionaries performing
death-defying feats with the aid of wires and blue screens, how are we to know
these acts are impossible in real life situations if the wires are eliminated from the
final shots and the actors superimposed onto digital backgrounds? We all know
that humans can’t fly. But how are we to know that a woman the size and build of
Carrie-Anne Moss can or can’t take out a horde of armed guards with her three-
inch heels? In cutting edge films, the live action and CGI shots are so well
blended that the impression of reality in the audience’s eyes are drastically
altered so that on departure from the movie theater and the viewing experience,
generations past were able to separate fact from fiction through relatively crude
techniques… may not be able to tell the difference so easily nowadays, and that
may pose a problem.”14 With the development of digital technologies in film, there
Without a perspective on the history of film art, youthful audiences are largely
blind to the rapid development of the medium. This makes the target audience of
science fiction and action films all the more susceptible to the contingent illusions
sometimes difficult to ascertain. Science fiction and action films, especially when
14
Ralph Barney, “Cases and Commentaries,” Journal of Mass Media Ethics 18 (March
2003): 317.
101
they employ regimens of digital effects, prove solely escapist. As far as narrative
film presents a hermetic world, and likewise worldview, special effects become a
part of that world to the point where there exists no differentiation between the
natural objects and the artificial: “Like other forms of mass communication,
[science fiction] does not precisely tell people what to think–about technology,
say–but rather forestalls thinking about technology in ways that are outside
authorized categories of reflection.”15 The effects are often taken for granted by
special effects are “transformed from cultural artifacts into natural objects.”16
These types of film defy critical contemplation on their own reflexive practices.
The means utilized by the heroes in the film should make this point evident; the
rebels commit Machiavellian slaughter of innocents, the same people they are
trying to free from the evil system. The rebels rationalize their battle so that their
Of the film’s two representations of reality (the matrix and “the real world”)
the world of the matrix most closely resembles the one of real lived experience.
When the viewers associate the simulation world in the film with the natural
reality, what does this imply about social responsibility? In the film, actions in the
of freeing society from the constraints of illusion. If the world is merely “electrical
signals interpreted by your brain,” then what does society matter? If reality is of
15
Michael Stern, “Making Culture into Nature,” in Alien Zone, ed. Annette Kuhn (NY:
Verso, 1990), 72.
16
Ibid., 69.
102
message: “As movie violence has become more physically ‘graphic’ and thus
and detached from any moral context.”17 The film lessens the consequences of
violence just as the consequences of death are nearly nullified. The physical
downplaying real world consequences and effectively subjugating real life power.
attacks the directors for claiming intentions to present “ideas that challenge
through religious and philosophical allusions that are really transparent: “adult
culture is in the hands of those who invented current youth culture and who never
want to let go of it.”20 His analysis brings to light infantilism in the film industry and
Bowman’s sharp criticism indicts the film industry’s propagation of fantasy while
All the predictable arguments about gun control and violence on TV and in
video games are made ad nauseam, but no one seems to have raised any
objection to the popular culture’s more insidious encouragements to the
kids to inhabit this fantasy world, or thought that their inhabiting it was
17
James Bowman, “Moody Blues,” American Spectator (June 1999): 65.
18
Ibid., 64.
19
Ibid.
20
Ibid.
103
popular culture: all the more reason to critically analyze the messages inherent in
fantasy will recognize entertainments as such, and take their own steps to
the part of the public to take movies seriously, to question the fantastical, and to
We should hope that film spectators have a basic understanding of the laws of
society and reality. The Matrix, as an ideological system, brings into question
these laws and the function of individuals in both systems. In the film, characters
defy natural physical laws and act against the social system. Since the film
presents a call to action to question reality, can we also imply that the viewer
should question physical and social laws as well? If The Matrix presents an
ideology, and that ideology conveys social meaning, then the film works on its
21
Ibid.
22
Barney, “Cases and Commentaries,” 316.
104
Entertainment for its own sake does not come without its requisite
film becomes crucial when considering dominant ideology. While the term
then we must be all the more wary of distortion in order to reclaim whatever
remnant still survive: “The primitive notion of the efficacy of images presumes
that images possess the qualities of the real thing; but our inclination is to
attribute to real things the qualities of images.”23 We can do more than hope; we
objective reality from the images created by popular culture. This includes critical
dialogue, radical action and active statements woven into the very web of the
media. Since the prevalent modes of dialogue exist in the media, the
dominant icons.
23
Sontag, 158.
106
BLOCKBUSTER MANIA:
LOWEST COMMON DENOMINATOR ENTERTAINMENT
The world, populated by morons who can no longer solve their most basic
problems, becomes a dystopia. In the future of 2505, the most popular motion
picture of the year is called Ass, and that’s exactly what it is. It swept the Oscars
Mike Judge’s Idiocracy (2006) imagines such a future. While it didn’t win
any awards itself, and its producers cut their losses, it quickly grew into a cult film
for those who recognized its prophetic message. Judge’s irreverent humor,
memorable from Beavis and Butthead and Office Space, translates into a roast of
can say about all those intellectuals out there bemoaning the degradation of
American culture. An IMDb reviewer remarked: “Just how stupid does this movie
But a year later (2007, that is) another film hit theatres that really drove the
1
“Idiocracy (2006),” IMDb, http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0387808/ (accessed 23 Dec 2007).
107
point home. Critic Henry Miller of Sight and Sound aptly and sarcastically coined
the film’s unofficial title: Giant Fucking Robots.2 Looks like the future came 500
years early. Director Michael Bay, popular culture playboy, explains: “It’s just
fun.”3
Based on the 1980’s Hasbro toy line, Transformers doesn’t so much tell a
story as show off some flashy effects and make your seat vibrate. New York
entertainment. The result is part car commercial, part military recruitment ad, a
bumper-to-bumper pileup of big cars, big guns and, as befits its recently weaned
its roll splendidly. It’s a film for teenage boys, for adults with arrested
development, and for toy fans of all ages. Here we’ve got 143 minutes of blasting
metal and loud explosions. That’s much better than a fireworks display.5
But in all seriousness, where does this leave us? While the movie hasn’t
won any awards, it broke box office records with a $155M opening stretch. With a
sequel planned for June 2009, this transparent franchise is destined to become
the next Pirates of the Caribbean. Not only is the plot mind-boggling; the
When did the lowest common denominator become equivalent to the most
popular? Why do masses flock to films they know can never be as good as the
2
Henry Miller. “Transformers,” Sight and Sound (Sept 2007): 80.
3
Josh Rottenberg, “Heavy Metal,” Entertainment Weekly, 13 July 2007, 28.
4
Manholha Dargis, “Car Wars with Shape-Shifters ‘R’ Us,” New York Times, 2 July 2007,
E1.
5
Transformers was released on July 3, 2007.
108
trailers? In the next few pages I hope to extrapolate the circumstances and
futures of this irrational system and dive into a few pertinent question such as:
what is the relationship between Blockbuster appeal and audience interest; how
are box office grosses and a film’s popularity connected; why does popular
culture thrive off the lowest common denominator? Most importantly, I want to
producers and audiences: Movies “do not simply ‘give people what they want’
(since they define those wants).”6 While scholars agree that popular culture
greatly as to where the power lies. As cultural theorist John Storey puts it, there
are six ways of approaching popular culture: well liked by many people, inferior to
By pushing folk and high culture into the margins, popular culture maintains a
the ubiquity of the mass media passes for perception, the difference between ad
messages and personal taste disappears. You want what they want you to want
because their arguments are that convincing. Just jump on the bandwagon.
6
Richard Dyer, “Entertainment as Utopia,” in The Cultural Studies Reader, ed. Simon
During (NY: Routledge, 1999): 372.
7
John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction (Athens: University of
Georgia Press, 2006), 4-11.
109
beyond its entertainment value. I cannot rest with media analyst James Monaco’s
statement that “American movies and TV are popular because they’re popular.”8
culture justice:
The multiplex is filled with American films because the United States was
first to produce a culture of comfort and convenience whose popularity
was its primary reason for being. All in all, American popular culture is
popular because (and to the extent that) its sleek, fast, fleeting, styles of
entertainment – its commitment to entertainment – dovetail with modern
displacement and desire.”9
While I would like to concede with Gitlin on this point, I believe that there are
consistently reveal their infantalism? Word of mouth leans the same way, yet
masses still push through the doors to see the next greatest spectacle.
When you think about the immense amount of movies and media
produced each year, it’s overwhelming how much it caters to a young audience.
demographic, the audience with the disposable income, the obsession with
violence, destruction, and female objectification, the urge for freedom and the
license for rebellion. Marketers know that it’s the 16-year-old boys who go to the
8
James Monaco, “Images and Sounds as Cultural Commodities,” Sight and Sound 49
(Fall 1980): 229).
9
Todd Gitlin, Media Unlimited, (NY: Henry Holt and Company, 2002), 206.
110
In his book Teenagers and Teenpics, Thomas Doherty examines the birth
in a real past. His short study generalizes the teenpic as a film made for and
Hollywood situation. His study does pave the way for further extrapolation on the
topic. He claims that in the 1960s, “youth became a concept, not a chronology.”10
The Hollywood film industry began to conceive of its audience as young rather
old went to see the movie. The audience itself became a concept.
increasingly aware of its audience, producers learned that there was money to be
Doherty’s study clearly sets up the contemporary situation; the American motion
chronologically. But the theory under much debate is how much American
10
Thomas Doherty, Teenagers and Teenpics (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press,
2002), 190.
11
Doherty, 2.
111
newspapers knocked Transformers for its convoluted plot and lack of character
(to name just a few symptoms). Reviews centered on the film’s spectacular
effects and its resurrection of the Hasbro franchise. Surprisingly few put the film
future of the blockbuster–and some are afraid they’re right.”12 If popular culture
does not include its own self-criticism, we keep spiraling downward. Critical
thought is segregated to the margins so that aid in the decoding process is laid
only for those who seek it–or can see beyond its face value.
Gitlin insists, and develops his argument very persuasively, that American
popular culture rules by “soft power.” Those who do not submit, or do not
recognize its power, are foolish and misled: “The dominance of American popular
not force-fed but delivered in such a way as to mingle with popular interests and
play upon streams of contemporary feeling. Viewers are not dupes in that they
ask for more by tuning in to the most popular shows again and again; viewers
thereby create popularity. Producers insinuate ratings as interest, and feed that
assumed interest with more of the same–but increasingly bigger, better, and
popularity, which makes it risky for different kinds of programs and products that
12
Josh Rottenberg, et al, “Heavy Metal,” Entertainment Weekly, 13 July 2007, 28.
13
Gitlin, 207.
112
this system incomprehensible for the average viewer. There’s always something
newer and better: “To live comfortably with it, we gravitate to our favorites,
classify the parts, get our minds around segments while doing our best to ignore
generally see its implications, foundations in economy, nor its products’ roots in
would appear more likely that the producer’s power works on us rather than with
us. Attributing “soft power” to the production of cultural material raises the
Transformers. This population hardly allows such a film to rise to the status of
pop culture. Media makers these days take cues from past successes,
The top grossing films of years past are bound to be copied in the future. That’s
what the people want. It should be apparent, however, that statistics do not
represent reality. Since the industry relies on consumer capitalism rather than
intelligence, its future products will grow out of what has historically sold: and
that’s spectacle. Popular films, and American popular culture in general, gravitate
toward action based on cheap thrills, sensation rather than cogitation. The lowest
common denominator will attract the widest audience, for it’s more likely that a
14
Gitlin, 119.
113
consumer will lower his or her standards for accessible media than will
consumers. Stuart Hall offers a helpful way of theorizing the popular, and his
Hall’s statement applies well to producers and products of popular culture, in this
consciousness? Again, looking historically, we can see that the media industry
flood of reality TV programs in the 1990’s to present, for example. But the
differentiation between organic and created popularity may help here. Does the
consumer base ask for more reality shows or do producers simply reproduce the
formula until it runs dry? Of course, television networks cannot force viewers to
15
Stuart Hall, “Notes on Deconstructing the Popular,” in The Cultural Resistance Reader,
ed. Stephen Duncombe (NY: Verso, 2002), 187.
114
termed “culture industry” in a way that, I believe, accurately depicts the power
clear. Even though Socialist writing continued through the 20th century paralleling
back seat to the pleasures and comfort of the media. Even Edward R. Murrow,
1958 could not shift the path, as influential and motivating his words may have
been. It seemed like the entertainment industry was burgeoning in profits, but the
American imagination was paying the price. The news became increasingly
Sure, criticism continues. But how much difference can an article make
Most of us simply block it out. Who has the time? The entertainments try so hard
to please, to play on the surface, that real world issues and ethics are cast out
16
Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer, “The Culture Industry,” in The Cultural Studies
Reader, ed. Simon During (NY: Routledge, 1999), 33. Note that the Dialectic of Enlightenment
was first published in 1947.
115
other robots down the urban streets turning buildings to rubble. These are
images of domestic terrorism with civilians are caught in the crossfire. An hour
and a half into the story, riding the waves of action, how likely is it that you’ll
wake up to the social realities portrayed in this fantasy? What’s more likely, you’ll
sit back, shut up, and enjoy the rest of the movie. Because “it’s just fun.” But
Entertainment Weekly critics Juarez and Vary disagreed, calling the scenes
“unapologetically bombastic.”17 How could director Bay have known he would rub
people the wrong way? By the climax of the film shouldn’t viewers have hooked
into the characters so that the real world falls into the periphery? In response,
Bay says: “When you’re doing a fantasy movie, you can’t think like that.”18 Juarez
and Vary’s biting remarks stand lonely beside a slew of reeling reviews. Four
other articles in Entertainment Weekly alone cheered hurrahs for the 2007
summer blockbuster: “This toy story is hugely entertaining.”19 While they mention
the heavy advertising (“this two-hour ode to consumerism is probably the most
“More explosions! Better special effects! Even more villains!” doesn’t make
a better movie. But with all this riding on your side, you’re sure to make a big
profit. The situation could easily be the plot of a movie itself: Forging its way
17
Vanessa Juarez and Adam Vary, “Explain Yourself!” Entertainment Weekly, 20 July
2007, 14.
18
Ibid., 14.
19
Joshua Rich, “Aye Robot,” Entertainment Weekly, 26 Oct 2007, 53.
20
Ibid., 53.
116
the point of severe infantilism. Men become boys in this world where Giant
Fucking Robots rule the screens as well as the popular imagination. This is
hardly 1984, for rebellion is taken out of the equation. You can run but you can’t
hide. You are part of the mechanism itself. You go to see the movies, feeding the
machine. And even while you may protest to the messages of domestic terrorism
culture is to equate its qualities with the desires and ideals of society at large.
Caribbean: At Worlds End, Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, and The
Bourne Ultimatum fill the top slots for the year’s highest box office ratings.21 It
was called the summer of the threequels because of the release of multiple
such as Spidey, Jack Sparrow, Jason Bourne, and Optimus Prime. I wonder if
they would be truly mourned otherwise. The fact is that, while critics revealed the
slackening quality of the films this year, box office grosses increased from
previous years. Banking on past successes, character and story hardly matter
anymore: “Bloated scenes, murky plots, and superfluous characters didn’t stop
[the threequels] from generating $1.4 billion (and counting) at the box office.”22
21
“2007 Yearly Box Office Results,” Box Office Mojo, www.boxofficemojo.com (accessed
28 Dec 2007).
22
Jennifer Armstrong, et al. “Showdowns of Summer.” Entertainment Weekly, 7 Sept
117
The blockbusters are still on a roll, and they’re showing no sign of stopping any
time soon. What’s astonishing is that the general decline in the quality of
cinematic storytelling did not affect the apparent popularity of these films. In order
Sequels have been all the rage in Hollywood since the 1970s, and the
know, based on the success of a single film, whether viewers will pay to see
more. What’s surprising is that, today it seems like the trailers are better than the
features. It’s style over substance. What’s the use of a good story when people
will flock to see Spider-man versus Sand Man? That’s all you need to know. This
situation speaks volumes about American popular culture. When the most
popular film of the year can be reduced to such a high concept, you get a picture
of what the people are looking for in their entertainments: action over substance,
predecessors, you can expect the same but different–more extreme but missing
industries. Transformers has its iron claws in GM, Mountain Dew, eBay, and
Burger King. Spider-Man appears on Papa John’s pizza boxes. In a culture such
entertainment, and economics are not easily dissociated. The fusion of media
and ads today is becoming more apparent with product placement, tie-ins, and
corporate partnerships.
2007, 46.
118
it’s difficult to discern the difference between organic and constructed interest.
Would you have gone to see Transformers if the ads hadn’t made it look like so
much fun? Movie studios pump millions of dollars into these films to ensure that
the audiences turn up at the right place and time. Connecting movie marketing
and the popularity of blockbusters in this way raises the pertinent question: How
much does a movie’s ad campaign determine its popularity and resultant status
in popular culture? Even while the word of mouth on Transformers was highly
negative (outside its fan subculture), it still broke opening weekend box office
records. Friends tell you to skip it: “it’s the longest commercial I’ve ever seen.”
The commercials tell you “you can’t miss it.” Who do you listen to? They say it’s
worth it. Those giant, amorphous, ambiguous voices in the media finally pull you
into the theater. Nielsen Media, a leading research organization, tells us:
popular culture operates in such a way, the autonomous American hardly plays a
role at all. The market forces fueling consumerism are too strong for any one
person to argue with. This model places the power in the hands of the
corporation.
mass culture where the most valuable products are not just the most popular but
the most commercial. The two go hand in hand. If you’ve got access–or a TV, or
produced for our pleasure. According to the Nielsen ratings and box office
23
“Top TV Ratings,” Nielsen Media, www.nielsenmedia.com (accessed 23 Dec. 2007).
119
Star Wars, Shrek rank highest in both statistical popularity and profit.24
Mountain Dew (Pepsi), and GM tightly knit into the film’s plot: “Transformers
represents not just another big, shiny, effects-driven blockbuster but the prime
example of extreme product placement… How successful that fusion proves will
likely provide a harbinger for the future.”25 Entertainment and consumerism fuse
unrecognizably into the core of popular culture. Transformers marks a high point
in cross-marketing, but for film audiences the future looks bleak. If Transformers
represents “a harbinger for the future,” leave me out. The advertising in feature
product identity. If James Bond only drinks Coke, viewers attribute seduction to
the product. In Transformers, a Mountain Dew dispenser comes alive and attacks
We must also consider the huge budgets flowing into these films.
Producers would like to think that spending millions of dollars promoting a movie
helps determine its final gross. In many ways, they’re right. An extreme case:
Sony pumped more than $25 million into promoting The Di Vinci Code, as if the
bestselling novel and controversial atmosphere surrounding its release were not
24
Statistic are based on Nielsen ratings, www.nielsenmedia.com, and Box Office Mojo,
www.boxofficemojo.com (accessed 23 Dec. 2007).
25
Rottenberg, “Heavy Metal,” 28.
26
John Consoli, “Spending more than $25 million.” MediaWeek, 18 June 2007, SR4.
120
shows, and internet contests. The marketing team “blanketed eight major media
markets, including New York, Los Angeles and Chicago, with out-of-home
promotions in the form of billboards and transit posters. In one real eye-catching
example, New York's Museum of Arts and Design was wrapped with a sign
seriously, and winning the hearts and minds of American viewers these days
requires not only appealing to the lowest common denominator. They grab the
seats of our pants with campaigns such as this. How can you refuse?
uncovers some marketing tactics that help unweave this mind-boggling tangle of
to know what we want better than we do ourselves? New ambiguities enter into
‘desire’ and ‘function.’”28 Does the entertainment industry, fulfilling its cultural role
of play and pleasure, accommodate for its $1.4 billion slice of the market?29 If a
culture can be judged by the way it plays, America is in a sad state where
character-driven drama. The summer blockbusters are the new spectator sport.
We live in the Age of the Blockbuster, which could be said to have begun
in the 1970’s with the disaster pic. Once films like Jaws, The Poseiden
Adventure, and Indiana Jones tore into theaters, we sensed the world would
27
Ibid.
28
Daniel Boorstin, The Image (NY: Vintage, 1961), 232.
29
Jennifer Armstrong, et al. “Showdowns of Summer,” Entertainment Weekly, 7 Sept
2007, 46. Authors estimate that the major summer blockbusters of 2007 generated $1.4 billion by
the end of the season.
121
never be the same. One thing is clear: American pop culture is getting dumber.
The 1980’s brought remakes, which spoke to the point of slackening originality
that continues on Hollywood to this day. The next decade has often been
blockbuster.30 That quest continues through the turn of the century with
desperate conclusions. It turns out the perfect blockbuster will not only be pure
box office gross. Are these the kinds of films we want to see in theaters?
The age of the blockbuster marks a shift from what has classically been
well as you can, because you won’t be able to make heads or tails of the plots
Caribbean made this point quite clear: “It’s already obvious that market forces (or
30
“Film History,” Filmsite, www.filmsite.org (accessed 23 Dec 2007).
31
Tom Charity, “Pirates of the Caribbean: At Worlds End,” Sight and Sound 17 (August
2007): 73.
122
and his car... That’s all we needed to know.”32 What’s left in this flood of high
concept glitz: Spectacle entertainments that act more on the viewer’s electrical
synapses than their hearts and minds? No more empathizing with dynamic
Let’s take a step back from this devastating present for a moment to
Imagine a world like our own where popular culture does not revolve around the
lowest common denominator. What if entertainment was not the center of the film
parallel pop culture, the population wanted intelligent films? Motion pictures have
always provided us with visions that fuel the imagination. Movies reflect our
cultural imaginary, give us insight into ourselves and others, allow us to play with
situations and their outcomes. Cheap thrills belong in theme parks where the
adrenaline is your own, not felt vicariously through Captain Sparrow. If this is the
best Hollywood can churn out, we’ve got some tough realizations to make.
Hollywood is an entertainment industry, and its products are made for the
32
Rottenberg, “Heavy Metal,” 28.
124
CONTROVERSIAL CHILDHOOD:
SEXUALIZATION, SOCIALIZATION, AND SATIRE
IN TERRY GILLIAM’S TIDELAND
adolescence, particularly sex, that urges them along the way quicker than we
expect? Children forget about play, about wishing and fantasizing, when their
imaginative faculties are infringed upon by the media and their social play time
We’re growing up quicker, but to the level that has crystallized in American
popular culture: perpetual adolescence. If it’s shame that sustains childhood, and
TV and other popular, ubiquitous media that extinguishes shame, then children
learn what it means to be adult quite early: early enough to urge some to
“Shame is an essential part of the civilizing process. It is the price we pay for our
triumphs over nature.”2 To apply Postman’s theory, we could view the objecting
1
American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls,
Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (Washington, DC: American
Psychological Association, 2007). See also Sylvia Rimm, Growing Up Too Fast: The Secret
World of America’s Middle Schoolers (Emmaus, PA: Rodale Books, 2005).
2
Neil Postman, The Disappearance of Childhood (NY: Delacorte Press, 1982): 48.
125
producers and critics as symbolic of the shameful society. Adults have the
undying urge to protect children from grown-up secrets. In this effort, adults
The sad tale of Terry Gilliam’s Tideland–its commercial and critical failure–
confirms for us that decent adults don’t like to see little girls take their clothes off.
The film provides us with a surrealist social satire that pits sexualized childhood
against adult sensibilities. The former plays center stage while the latter proves
such a backlash upon the film’s release to ensure its box office demise. At first
moves with her father to Texas and becomes immersed in a world of her own
awareness of social reality, who constructs her own concepts of sexuality and
considering the world she’s grown up in; neglectful dope-addicted parents treat
her like Cinderella. The dramatis personae include Dell, a one-eyed widow with a
deadly allergy to bees and a propensity for taxidermy. We also have Dickens,
sharks.
3
Michael Wilmington, “Tideland crafts a sordid dream world.” Chicago Tribune, 20 Oct.
2006.
126
unwitting observer, but it’s populated with the magical, grotesque beings of
for her lack of social interaction. Her best friend is Mystique, a Barbie doll head
that she wears on her finger like a ventriloquist’s puppet. Besides, “the squirrels
make it less lonely.”4 Tideland is a truly imaginative tale, following the tradition of
Lewis Carroll, which shows the creativity of childhood in light of the dysfunction
beneath the general storyline. The satirical nature of the story rests in its
sexuality, pregnancy, gender, and heterosexual intimacy from the media. She
in an original fantasy world that sets her circumstances apart from social reality.
This leads to the justification of her tale as social satire in the fairytale tradition.5
are easily attainable. Neil Postman writes that the contemporary media liquidate
4
This is the film’s main promotional tagline.
5
Historically, the fairytale genre has been taken up to convey socio-political subversion.
Tales from the German Romantic tradition display utopian urges disguised as children’s stories.
127
What’s more, television liquidates all necessity for literacy. Could this in some
way explain the A.D.D. generation? In the age of rampant visual media, it is not
only the children who suffer. All of society shifts, since we rely less and less on
knowledge of the outside world. But we still require a filter to separate the truth
(much less the believable) from the fictitious and false. This filter does not exist in
the minds of uneducated children. It is those minds that are becoming distorted
and distracted.
For children, who place less value judgments on information and media
information in the TV format. And while one program may be more oriented to the
child’s age group, the other does not prohibit its knowledge from free access.
for its display of anything and everything that would promise a profitable
The plain facts are that television operates around the clock, that both its
physical and symbolic form make it unnecessary–in fact, impossible–to
segregate its audience, and that it requires a continuous supply of novel
and interesting information to engage and hold that audience. Thus,
television must make use of every existing taboo in the culture.7
shows and soap operas, in their ubiquity, need material. And they loot the
prohibition of adult secrets. The problem is that you don’t need a pass to attain
children.
developments, such as the printing press and the telegraph. Much as Marshall
McLuhan preaches, “the medium is the message,” Postman extrapolates that the
media of any age connote the social relationships. The printing press deemed
become necessary. In much the same way, digital media literacy predicates the
social knowledge of our age. Postman writes that, since television creates a level
playing field where all information is equal, digital media exterminates the need
for print literary as well as the social concept of shame. Since shame protects
childhood from adult secrets, childhood disappears in the age of digital media.
intentionally chose their material for its satiric value, its fantastical qualities, and
its penchant for surrealism. The controversial nature of the film should be looked
on as social satire, not taken at face value. To read the film, as Gilliam has said,
one must approach it with an open mind, and rediscover what it was like to be a
129
child with innocent eyes. The dividing line between the censors and the
Postman fails to mention tolerance and taste in the mix, however, which is
one of his argument’s only downfalls. Those critics who objected to Tideland’s
technology that equalizes its programming, he overlooks the fact that children
tend to lean towards children’s programming, and have less access to late night
shows. Sure, a boy might have a TV in his bedroom, but can we assume that he
childhood should also have a tolerance for its use in fiction–especially when a
development in the media age. If we are to approach fiction in its social role–its
capacity to draw upon social topics and interpret social problems–then we must
consider that stories are not merely representations of the social world but also
fantasy, viewers must recognize its satiric value to appreciate its message.
the media it becomes clear how her concepts of childhood and adulthood have
immediately enters her into the cult of grown-ups. However, her education is full
130
of holes since the TV has been her sole teacher. Without real life cohorts, without
can merely integrate her botched TV education into her fantasy world to create a
liquidates the need for imaginative visualization, this girl is an exception to the
rule. Jeliza-Rose’s imagination, which she utilizes in her solitary play, is that of
the ideal child: one who discards adult concepts of reality so as to experiment
with fantasy. Perhaps ideal is the wrong word here, since her imagination has
activities, we would automatically notice how she performs solitary play with an
unbound imagination. In the digital age, child’s play has been nearly obliterated
longer provides an important function, since visual stimuli short circuit the mind’s
ability to create original images. Sharna Olfman supports the importance of play
Play?”:
8
Sharna Olfman, “Where Do the Children Play?,” in Childhood Lost, ed. Sharna Olfman
(Westport, CT: Praeger, 2005), 203-4.
131
play in forming social relationships and emotional identity.9 Even solitary play
provides children with valuable lessons, though social skills are less applicable.
alone to gaze and wonder at and then embody the butterfly in her play, trusts the
discoveries of her senses and her bodily experiences She begins to understand
environment, and in the process acquires a deep empathy with her subject.”10 In
as Alice’s. In the use of her imagination, she displays her abilities to interact with
her environment. However, her solitary existence out there on the plains and in
the deserted farmhouse, ensures that she remains antisocial. But she’s hardly
alone; she has her Barbies to keep her company. Jeliza-Rose’s life is more rich
than the average TV child, since she intentionally peoples her world with
imaginary friends.
socialization. She sees herself much like a starlet. At one point, she discovers
her grandmother’s costume chest in the farmhouse attic. A childlike Gilda, she
dons a feather boa, paints her face, and then goes around kissing things.
9
Olfman, 205.
10
Olfman, 210.
132
Presumably, she learned this behavior from the movies. Feminity means
makeup, glamour, physical beauty: “Girls are taught that they should have skinny
bodies and that they need to be consumers of clothing, makeup, and accessories
in order to look ‘pretty,’ ‘grown-up,’ and ‘sexy.’”11 Jeliza-Rose takes these lessons
at face value, and no one in her life questions these facts. In all probability, she
acclaimed Little Miss Sunshine, which won an Academy Award for best original
screenplay in 2006 (Tideland was not recognized). The film follows the Hoopers,
the pageant commences with little girls masquerading as beauty queens, big
hair, and skimpy clothing and all. The reaction of the Hooper father (Greg
Kinnear) says it all. He fervently objects once his daughter, Olive, takes the stage
with an overt strip tease. What is wrong with our culture that would allow 6-year-
old girls to be objectified in such a blatantly sexual way? The social criticism
remains latent in the struggle between the Hoopers and the rest of the pageant
11
Diane E. Levin, “So Sexy, So Soon: The Sexualization of Childhood,” in Childhood
Lost, ed. Sharna Olfman (Wesport, CT: Praeger, 2005), 137-153.
12
American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls, Report
of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls (Washington, DC: American Psychological
Association, 2007).
133
it is the films’ disparate styles that separate their receptivity. Little Miss Sunshine
and an intentionally mute brother. They all had problems. Gilliam’s style in
Tideland could have proved to be its downfall, since his mind tends to turn to the
surreal: “Like the surrealists, Gilliam is interested in showing the ‘real’ and the
sur-real’ (the more real than ‘real’) at the same time. ‘That’s the way I see the
expressionist: full of dutch angles, extreme lens use, and stylistic production
design. Could the visual style of the film have gotten in the way of its reception?
visual style, its surrealism, its scathing social criticism, or its low budget.
Obviously, the critics have already judged. The glory of the film rests in its fervent
bifurcation of positions between those who despise it and those who revel in its
originality.
While traveling the festival circuit, it could not have been much more
obvious that the film divided its audience. As a result, Gilliam slapped an
introduction onto the film to in part apologize and in part defend the material. In
his artist’s statement, he pleas for open minds. The film should be interpreted as
an innocent tale, without shame and without judgment, but through the eyes of a
I have a confession to make. Many of you are not going to like this film.
13
Nick Roddick, “Brittle House on the Prairie,” Sight & Sound. 16 (Aug 2006): 5.
134
Many of you, luckily, are going to love it. And then there are many of you
who aren’t going to know what to think when this film finishes. But
hopefully, you will be thinking. I should explain: this film is seen through
the eyes of a child. If it’s shocking it’s because it’s innocent. So I suggest
you try to forget everything you’ve learned as an adult: the things that limit
your view of the world. Your fears, your prejudices your preconceptions.
Try to rediscover what it was like to be a child: with a sense of wonder and
innocence. And don’t forget to laugh. Remember, children are strong.
They’re resilient. They’re designed to survive. When you drop them, they
tend to bounce. I was 64-years-old when I made this film. I think I finally
discovered the child within me. And it turned out to be a little girl. Thank
you. Thank you. Thank you.14
But this plea proved more troubling than anyone could have expected. How
is more difficult than watching with an open mind. Or even rediscovering your
innocence lost.
Tideland has many more detractors than advocates. The nay sayers
condemn the film for its grotesquery and its shameless depiction of childhood.
They call it “disturbing, and mostly unwatchable.”15 New York Times critic A.O.
Scott says: “this time [Gilliam] has stumbled into a different no-man's land, the
one between the merely bad and the completely indefensible.”16 Indeed, most
critics did not know what to make of the film. But this does not mean that they
should react with sharp-toothed aggression. It is best, when you don’t know what
Critic Owen Gleiberman called the film “gruesomely awful.” His synopsis
recounts the plot in adult terms, which situates his perspective in shame:
14
Terry Gilliam, “Tideland Intro - Terry Gilliam Speaks,” YouTube.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aRcvDaw0WB4 (accessed 12 Apr 2007).
15
“Tideland,” Rotten Tomatoes, http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/tideland/ (accessed 12
Apr. 2007).
16
A.O. Scott, “A Girl Endures a No-Man’s Land by Dwelling in the Make-Believe,” NY
Times, 11 Oct, 2006. E5.
135
Jeliza-Rose (Jodelle Ferland), a little girl who likes to play with scrappy
disembodied doll heads, watches as her mother (Jennifer Tilly), a Nancy
Spungen wannabe, expires with a croak from a methadone injection. The
girl then goes off with her rock & roll junkie father (Jeff Bridges), whom she
helps to shoot heroin, and a few minutes later he's dead as well, a corpse
propped in a chair, with its purplish tongue sticking out.17
Gleiberman’s interpretation, since the film is not the least bit realistic or
straightforward, derives from his reliance on shame and indeed his intolerance of
alternate views of life. He decidedly makes the statement that his view is the only
view, and that nothing productive can come of a discussion of the film: “Trying to
decipher the ‘signs’ of Tideland will get you nowhere. The only way to make
myopia that continually afflicts the reception of artistic independent film, not just
of Gilliam’s. Is it idealistic to wish for tolerance? Or is the film industry just that
For those acquainted with Gilliam’s previous work or Mitch Cullin’s novel,
the film can be seen as following in the tradition. Critic Michael Wilmington is
among the few who received the film with an open mind. The language in his
review clearly expresses his understanding of the film as well as his ability to
step outside himself. He calls Tideland: “a shockingly brilliant off-color effort that
of nuttiness that takes you, for a while, over the edge.” Even Wilmington includes
warnings in his writing, to those viewers less willing than himself to delve into
Perhaps this is where the critics should leave it. Wilmington presents the
film in as bright a light as could be expected from a journalist. It is not the critic’s
duty to decide what the public will like or should like. But then again, individual
taste predetermines which films a movie-goer will see. And Tideland is not a film
that the majority of American audiences will be aching to see in any respect.
adolescent before they’ve truly experienced their childhood, what happens to the
arc of experience over a lifetime? Childhood is about more than play and
innocence. It’s a time filled with wonder and magic and curiosity about the
mysteries of life to come. When that time is cut short by the artificial processes of
an advanced society, we miss out on the joys of life–only to dive all too quickly
coming of age.
138
ADULTOLESCENCE:
COMING OF AGE IN MASS SOCIETY
aestheticized: an ideal that conditions the natural way of seeing to become more
real than real. Is there a way to step back in order to realize the difference
between images and reality? Media images are so pervasive that they become
ordinary: to the point that their look equals and to some extent extinguishes the
cope in their daily lives? How much is the gap between the media and everyday
life a dividing line that instills at once satisfaction, escape, and identity
displacement?
In the mass age, ruled by the media, adolescents mature on their own turf.
With the dissolution of social norms, what Emile Durkheim called anomie, what
has historically been called “coming of age” evaporates into a long, drawn-out
same time, a much needed and helpful term to describe what’s happening to
our options. Zengotita calls it “the drift factor.” How do you know when you
are.1 Technology takes over where culture leaves off. Vying for your attention,
the media make it seem as though you are the center of the world: “MeWorld.” In
this state, everything is for and about you. You are the sun of this solar system.
Forget about rituals, because traditions require social consensus and approval.
media that decide for you? Either way, there are myriad paths to decide upon.
Has the term “coming of age” lost their meaning? Given the absence of
substantive communities, which provide the infrastructure for personal and social
graduation and weddings matter only as much as the participants believe in their
value to change identity. In this way, boys remain boys for as long as they deem
1
Thomas De Zengotita, Mediated (NY: Bloomsbury Publishing, 2005), 94.
140
necessary.
On one end, the tern “coming of age” is too specific. It connotes a self-
contained experience, a rite of passage, a specific time in one’s life, ages 18-21
respectively. On the other end of the spectrum, the phrase is too general.
Coming of age is an individual’s experience; you choose which one. The period–
ones maturity, sexual or social. But who’s to say when an individual has matured
individual to actualize that label. The coming of age process only becomes
On the other hand, you can choose to never grow up. You can drift. Or
you can choose, little by little, to grow into an adult. At some point society
expects you to grow up. Coming of age requires that you actively do something
The Big Chill. It’s a nostalgia-fest of regrets and memories and togetherness
that’s too sentimental to be honest. Richard, the outcast of the ensemble, drops
141
the line over an uneasy midnight breakfast, “your life isn’t exactly the way you
wanted it to be… Nobody said it was going to be fun, at least nobody said it to
her coming of age: skinny-dipping. In talks during the film’s development, she
explained how her first skinny-dipping experience opened her eyes to sexuality
and freedom. Making the film helped her recognize the difference between the
original event, her recollection of it, and her attempts to reassemble that event.
She explained that she had tried to re-experience that first event by going back to
the spot, enlisting friends to replay that time, and wishing that nothing had
changed. Her film is riddled with nostalgia and sentimentality. It comes across as
honestly. By going back to the river, she had poisoned the memory.
Perhaps addiction is not precise, but I’m hard pressed to find a more
recapture the feeling of originality, but by its very nature the replay can never add
that past moment creates a morbid sentimentality that not only hinders her ability
2
Stanton Peele, “The Addiction Experience,” The Stanton Peele Addiction Website,
http://www.peele.net/lib/addexp.html (accessed 19 Oct 2008).
142
to construct new experiences but distorts the meaning and power of the original
event.
principle in tact; you don the outward appearance of sickness. But simulating
sickness manifests the symptoms so that it becomes real to an extent: “For if any
sickness can be ‘produced,’ and can no longer be taken as a fact of nature, then
loses its meaning since it only knows how to treat ‘real’ illnesses according to
their objective causes.”3 In searching for feelings, for truth, for originality, we blind
ourselves to the reality of our existence. The return to the past in our memory, to
the moment when we felt the revelation of coming of age, is to stop growth in its
path.
and nostalgia relies on repetition. But what one seeks is precisely that whim, the
recreate that original moment not just to re-experience but to one-up the original,
experience, only better and more of it. Nostalgia sustains the belief that it can be
that way again. But in reality, life moves on, with or without the driver.
3
Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press,
1994), 3.
143
My student made a spiral for herself by replaying the event again and
original event, a hope that returning to the place one can re-ascertain the joy and
catharsis.
I can’t help but reserve nostalgia for the way things used to be, in times I
have never seen. I’ve read about cultures that mandate rituals to make this
in traditional cultures, the group designates the child as a child, and marks the
path to adulthood in a ritual setting. Adolescents are removed from society for a
for the individual and society. Adults, the wise men, the mentors, initiate the
“neophytes” by passing along sacred knowledge, giving the young their tribal
power. They return to society immediately reborn, at once mature adults. Quick
and simple, right? Obviously this short description is a simplification, but it’s a
Traditional cultures contained these rituals to protect the initiates and the
society as a whole; liminal beings are dangerous. They’re neither this nor that,
but both.5 Novices in the liminal period pose danger to society because of their
4
See Van Gennep, Rites of Passage, Turner, “Betwixt and Between,” and Eliade, The
Rites and Symbols of Initiation.
5
Victor Turner investigates liminality in his essay “Betwixt and Between.”
144
mysteries of the past, and to the presence of demigods: tabooed knowledge that,
coming of age with liminality and danger reflects upon contemporary society.
cultural anthropologist Victor Turner, connotes “that which is neither this nor that,
cultural pull toward transcendence. The liminal being is first and foremost the
dangerous and disastrous as the norm. He is neither here nor there, and
therefore nowhere.
Jim Jarmusch’s 1996 film Dead Man provides a great example of rites of
passage in the clash of modern and traditional society. Set in the late 19th
century, William Blake (not the poet) travels west to find a new job. Only the job’s
already been taken, and he’s broke and alone. After being implicated in a double
murder, he flees into the wilderness, pursued by bounty hunters. His journey is a
contrived effort at a modern day rite of passage. With the help of a Native
American, called Nobody, Blake adopts roles of friend, seeker, and spirit warrior
6
Turner, “Betwixt and Between,” 235.
7
Victor Turner, “Betwixt and Between,” in Reader in Comparative Religion, eds. William
Lessa and Evon Vogt, 234-242 (NY: Harper & Row, 1979), 237.
145
in his vision quest to nowhere. Blake doesn’t seem to have a destination, nor a
purpose apart from escape. He’s not quite running but rather slowly heading
toward realization. Trust is placed in Nobody to lead the way, for lack of a better
guide. Blake suffers through the film from slow blood loss as a result of an injury
during the initial gunfight. This wound serves as a symbol of the traditional rite of
passage, the loss of life, of social status: but Blake does not recover. While the
ending of the film remains ambiguous, it’s dark and pessimistic. Interpreting
Dead Man as a modern day rite of passage implies doom. Meandering through
life without purpose, without destination, Blake discovers his own identity, but too
late.
path. Using the media as a guide through adolescence perverts perception and
morality. Adolescents start to replay experiences like TiVO, in their heads, in their
daily lives. There’s a point when it’s got to break: for individuals, a sudden
Like the age-old chicken and the egg scenario, which came first: the story
entertainment turns on its head. The formless structure of everyday life pales in
comparison to the clarity of stories. Coupled with the allure of images, narrative-
based media refine the way viewers see the world: and experience everyday life.
Humans are storytellers: homo narans. We tell each other stories to make
We used to think of the stories we read, listen to, and watch as little more
than trivial amusements employed to “kill time.” Now we know that people
146
learn from stories, are emotionally affected by them, and actually need
stories to lend color and interest to their everyday lives. That is why some
scholars have described humans not as Homo sapiens, man and woman
the knower, but as Homo narrans, man and woman the storytellers, the
tellers of tales.8
reality through events and imaginary characters. Narratives offer a gateway into
this otherworld so that we can view reality from a distance. In this otherworld
events have form, paths have definite objectives, and conflicts are neatly
resolved. We may learn from the character’s mistakes and gain solace through
their achievements. Returning to reality, then, we may see in our everyday what
we had previously thought was lacking. We bring back the lessons we learn from
these imaginary characters to real-life so that we may apply them to our own
experiences.
three-phase journey that concludes with a revelation, his coming of age. Age-old
narrative forms teach us that stories are best told in an arc of cause and effect:
ways, and simple story structures exist, such as lack–lack liquidated (from
We have never been a race to tell stories so as not to live our own lives
post-modern disorder. Take for instance the case of Christopher Suri, a 10-year-
his father’s replica sword and strode through the Everglades in search of trolls
and pixies. The rescue squad found him early the next morning, no worse for
enormous sway of the media, caused a local uproar of grief condemning the
fantastic.
I empathize with Christopher Suri, since his story is so much like my own.
palaces never own up to the pictures dreamed individually or lived first hand.
Screen dreams are bigger than life. But in the real world, the only magic
expectations of what the world holds, and how experiences come to fruition.11
Suri sought Terabithia without realizing that it can only exist in the imagination.
Narratives tell us about the world in manipulative ways. But life isn’t like it is on
the movies. Voyeurs come to believe that life should come in three acts, but the
pattern just doesn’t seem to work like that. Voyeurs want to be the heroes that
As Thomas Hine writes in his prophetic book The Rise and Fall of the
more than with our own generation. The youth of a culture infuse it with vitality.
anything from children’s literature, it’s that home doesn’t infuse the world with
wonder. Vitality, youth, and adventure are found in otherworlds like Neverland
and Oz. It’s not that we don’t need to grow up. The Captain Hooks of the world
are vital to the balance. A culture infused with youth can be a good thing, too.
Narratives are structured through their exploration of equilibrium, loss, and the
10.
149
IMPOSSIBLE TERRITORIES:
NEVERLAND, OZ, AND PERPETUAL ADOLESCENCE
places are first imagined, then sought. It’s to the credit of explorers that these
places have been mapped and quantified. Places like the West Indies and Brazil,
Baum’s The Wizard of Oz, comparably American, both arose around the turn of
the 20th Century and equally captured young and adult minds with their
explored. The territories remain intangible, but that doesn’t mean they don’t exist.
the wake of Barrie and Baum. We’ve become enraptured with these children’s
stories, because they’re not just for children. Harry Potter and His Dark Materials,
for example, offer children the excitement and escape of an adventure starring
characters they can engage with. The themes in these two series’ are very dark
for children, and the adults who adventure in these worlds find it tough to believe
that kids can get these deep and macabre themes. This same trend flows into
animation as well with Pixar’s recent films. Anyone who’s seen Wall-E will
wonder how this kind of entertainment can be geared at children. The gap is
closing fast. Is it the kids who are growing up too quickly, or the adults who enjoy
I don’t want to seem like a hypocrite. I enjoy reading young adult fantasy
as much as the next person. It’s just that at the intellectual level I see something
deeply disturbing about the wide appeal of a series like Harry Potter. When I
went to see the third movie there were as many single adults in the audience as
families with chldren. There was a boy sitting behind me who, with an audible
lisp, asked his mom what “Voldemort” meant, when Riddle wrote it out on the
screen. The boy hadn’t reached reading level, and he was sitting in this theater
watching Ginny dying. I don’t think it’s a problem with the ratings system. It’s
popular culture and the media, explains: “If Peter Pan has a story for adults
hidden in a story for kids, then Harry Potter is a story for kids that adults can
enjoy, if they want to be kids again.”1 Zengotita, in his section on “The Cult of the
Child,” brackets the first half from the second half of the 20th Century. The first
half he associates with the influence of Peter Pan; adult authority reigned. Dating
a shift in the 1960’s, he says: “Adults no longer wished to observe kids from
above, no longer cared to instruct them by rote or preside, all knowing, over their
independent quests. Adults wanted instead to see things through children’s eyes,
to share their point of view.”2 With the aid of popular media and literature, adults
idolize children for their innocence and obliviousness while children dreamed of
childhood had nothing to wait for. Pan was adulthood full fledged, in its idealized
form.
Peter Pan and The Wizard of Oz, dating from the early 20th Century, read
on levels appropriate for both children and adults. The similarities between the
texts as well as the film adaptations, of which there are many, reveal aspects that
make these stories popular. In the first part, Neverland, I will look at the film
Hook along with texts that inform the landscape. In the second part, Oz, I look at
The Wizard of Oz with an eye to how viewers perceive fantasy and desire.
entertainment, and the absence of coming of age rituals may help to explain how
1
Thomas de Zengotita, Mediated (NY: Bloomsbury, 2005): 58.
2
Zengotita, 54.
152
Neverland
Dr. Dan Kiley wrote a pop-psych book back in the 1970’s titled The Peter
Pan Syndrome–he went on to write The Wendy Dilemma two years later. In the
profile: Male 16-50 middle to upper class. The category couldn’t be wider. Kiley’s
reader is his initial description: “Do you know this person? He’s a man because
of his age; a child because of his acts. The man wants your love; the child wants
your pity. The man yearns to be close; the child is afraid to be touched. If you
look past his pride, you’ll see his vulnerability. If you defy his boldness you’ll see
his fear.”3 This self-help book reads like the Red Scare. Perhaps Kiley reads like
attributes. The Peter Pan Syndrome has become so widespread that it’s more a
many individuals in today’s society empathize with the character, it’s because
we’re all in some way liminal. What goes unnoticed today is that adolescence
continues well into adulthood. In this way, adultolescents are liminal; this is a
dangerous state in which you are neither here nor there. Contemporary
Read as imaginal field, for its mythic and archetypal context, Barrie’s novel
affords us a descriptive image of the dual dynamic at work in the psyche
caught in adolescent or transitional space. Barrie’s Peter Pan-field
3
Dan Kiley, The Peter Pan Syndrome (NY: Avon, 1983), 3.
153
Liminality yields awkward placement: spaces and persons are both here and
she exists in between two planes. The person is both there and not there. Rituals
of initiation take place in liminal space; the novice must be separated from
dangerous.
There’s no better example that Steven Spielberg’s 1991 film Hook. Robin
Williams’s Pan is hardly the epitome of the Peter Pan Complex. The “Peter
Banning” of the film is a work-a-holic. He’s got a family, but no time to commit.
Hook chronicles Peter Pan’s later years after he’s left Neverland to make a family
forgotten his roots and become the embodiment of everything you hate about
America. He’s stuck in his idea of what an adult should be, the polar opposite of
Pan. Hook, in the great Hollywood tradition, shows us that people are black or
adults to adopt childlike behavior. The film shows a foolish acceptance of wishing
Barrie’s text as well as the early script draft in order to appeal to a wide,
transparent audience.
4
Ann Yeoman, Now or Neverland (Toronto: Inner City Books, 1998), 171.
154
that human beings are either this or that. Her explanation of Peter Pan revolves
around his quarrelsome relationship with Captain Hook. According to the Jungian
archetypes, the characters represent puer and senex: eternal boy and old man.
They’re two halves of a whole, each idealized and polarized toward their own
popularized, misguided intent. Hook gets his in the end. All the other adult
characters in the film egg the kids along. When the Lost Boys sit down to dinner
with Peter, the table’s empty–as it is in the book and the first draft of the script.
But in the film, the boys just have to believe that there’s an eight course
Thanksgiving dinner at their fingertips in order to enjoy it. They eat emptiness,
agendas, portrays Peter as a self-obsessed “adult,” the kind of person you never
Jim Hart describes the scene beautifully: “We see it in Peter’s face. This is hell.”5
It makes me wonder, especially since the scene was cut from the film to make
room for a lengthy introduction of Pan’s adult character through work and family,
how much grown-ups really want to be able to fly–without the airplane, I mean.
Hart places Peter in a horrible position, and the character reacts accordingly. Are
grown-ups really so full of fear and anxiety? In this kind of situation, who wouldn’t
5
Jim Hart, Hook!: The Return of Captain Hook, First Revised Screenplay Draft (Tristar
Pictures, 1990). http://www.script-o-rama.com/snazzy/dircut.html (accessed 3 Nov 2008).
155
want to shed the age label and fly out the window. The screenwriter describes
When Peter first meets Tootles we see that he, Peter, forgot what it was to
be a child. Tootles is a figure that is tough to look at. Childhood drove him mad.
Over time, he lost all connection to the real world. “Peter pities the crazy old man
at the end of his life.”7 Tootles is an altogether different version of coming of age
gone wrong.
emphasizes that she and her family read stories to each other: “Reading is the
window into life,” she says.8 Wendy later tells Peter, sincerely trying to ease his
Wendy finally tries to explain to Peter about his past and what really
happened: “The stories are true. Tootles grew up just like you. He went crazy
trying not to. He never forgot. You forgot the child inside you. You gave up
immortality in one world for the pain and joy of life and death in this one”10
On the first full shot of Neverland, the script reveals the land as: “not a
cartoon. It’s not a painting. It’s real.”11 Peter undergoes the difficult realization
that fantasy is real. He first interprets his vision through plain adult reason. But
6
Hart, 5.
7
Hart, 21.
8
Hart, 12.
9
Hart, 15.
10
Hart, 27.
11
Hart, 37.
156
that’s not accurate to account for the world in front of his eyes. He’s in denial.
Peter doesn’t want the fantasy of Neverland to be real: “I just can’t accept this.
It’s not rational adult thinking. I can’t believe this is…possible.”12 Tinkerbell
Spielberg’s Hook revolves around family and parenting while the first draft
of the script foregrounds freedom and age-consciousness. During the final battle,
Hart places important words in Hook’s mouth–words that were omitted upon
filming: “I AM DEATH!”13 Hart’s script includes all the weird adult moments you
would expect if Pan were an adult: having difficulty believing, using reason as a
details are absent in the film, which speaks for its simplicity, “family movie”
book: “Peter Pan is about mortality, about the inevitable limitations of earthbound
authentically tragic vision only an adult could understand.”14 The story embodies
the wish, through its mythic protagonist, that children could never grow up, never
experience difficulty, reality, and, in the end, death. It’s a wish that trivializes all of
the positives of adulthood without the flip side; there’s freedom, autonomy,
adventure, love, camaraderie, struggle for the greater good, and notoriety. But,
without his Hook. They’re extremes, and they have to mediate at the end of it all.
12
Hart, 38.
13
Hart, 115.
14
Zengotita, 50.
157
Oz
Is the real world our home or do we actually belong in Oz? Dorothy says
once she returns to Kansas, “if I ever go looking for my heart’s desire again, I
won’t look further than my own back yard.” The film tells us that while we may
need to search for Oz from time to time, while we may need reassurance that it
does exist somewhere, we must remain content that we can find everything we
novel, begs its viewers to question the real world in relation to their individual
escape fantasies. Those who find haven in impossible landscapes have difficulty
with the film’s message: “there’s no place like home.” Those of us who harbor
escapist fantasies haven’t found adequate appreciation for home. But it begs the
Witch, that parallels the terror of the Kansas draught and tornado. The story
While the film affirms the value of the imagination, it also villainizes
retreat into the otherworld. It stresses, however, that we can’t separate ourselves
from our home; we belong in reality, not make-believe. While the departure may
be desirable, the return is what counts. Dorothy appreciates home only once she
158
is distanced from it. She realizes the real world can be beautiful and full of
adventure. She says: “If I ever go looking for my heart’s desire again, I won’t look
further than my own back yard. And if it isn’t there, I never really lost it to begin
While the film spends the majority of its time evoking the polarities of Oz, its
wonder along with its horror, the ending proclaims that reality is better. Jack
Going to Oz, whether in the imagination, the movie theater, or as Dorothy herself,
fulfills our desire for the fantasy, which is never truly attainable. Dorothy helps us
to vicariously relieve the desire. The overarching theme of the film asserts that,
ultimately stay in the real world. Oz exists to bring the meaningfulness of Kansas
to light. Had Dorothy stayed she might never have come to the realizations she
had in Oz. The relief of the return justifies Dorothy’s quest for home, her desire to
get swept away, and her wish to transcend the rainbow. Only with this passage
can she come to the understanding that Kansas is where she belongs.
The film, however, paints Kansas in dismal black and white–mostly gray,
Anyone who has swallowed the scriptwriters’ notion that this is a film
about the superiority of ‘home’ over ‘away’…would do well to listen to the
yearning in Judy Garland’s voice, as her face tilts up towards the skies.
What she expresses here… is the human desire of leaving, a dream at
least as powerful as its countervailing dream of roots. At the heart of The
Wizard of Oz is a great tension between these two dreams… In its most
potent emotional moment, this is unarguably a film about the joys of going
away, of leaving the grayness and entering the color, of making a new life
in the ‘place where there isn’t any trouble.’16
While the film stresses the importance of the return, that our wishes can be
fulfilled “in our own backyard,” it also visualized the need for escape. Dorothy’s
journey parallels her original escape from home when she meets the surrogate
Wizard, Professor Marvel. One may wish to live eternally in Oz, or one might
agree with the wish-fulfilling qualities of reality. Dorothy, having experienced the
wonders of the magical world of Oz, accepts her reality. While in the real world it
may be impossible to leap over the rainbow, we have our imagination. The power
also experience a momentary escape from the real world through films–
Conclusion
reality. Both places awaken troubled desires: for death, an end, a release, an
there’s something to return to. That these themes arise out of children’s literature
hints to a twentieth-century shift away from age labels and toward liminality.
In his study on youth culture, Jon Savage devotes a chapter to Peter Pan:
On the surface, Peter Pan is a play for children: like The Wonderful World
of Oz, it demands a suspension of adult skepticism and linear thinking,
and plays upon the archetypal fears of being lost and orphaned. But if Oz
is benign and forward-looking – full of optimism of a new continent – Peter
Pan is haunted and haunting: if, for Dorothy and the Darling children, there
is no place like home, then for Peter there is no home.17
I remember going to see Peter Pan: The Musical when I was in Kindergarden. I
was immediately enchanted by the green flying person soaring across the stage:
lofty and free and happy. I also remember liking Return to Oz much more than
The Wizard of Oz when I was a child. In the sequel, Dorothy really has to
escape. She’s not trying to get back home. It’s dark and dangerous and truly
frightening. Return to Oz is more a film for adolescents: a cult film. I still wanted
Fantasy kingdoms stay with us in our heads; no Disney World vacation can help.
Reconstructing imaginary places in reality only makes then seem less real.
Theme parks heighten the fact that places like “Peter Pan’s Flight,” a Magic
Kingdom attraction, only exist for real in facsimile. And the characters never look
the way they do in your head – or even in the movie. The actors cast bear a
remarkable similarity, but it’s a simulacrum. Facsimiles only posit the truth.
17
Jon Savage, Teenage (NY: Viking, 2007), 80.
161
What if the childish belief in wishing and fantasy never truly recedes? If we
and thereby our belief in reality by living in the mass-age? If so, is it odd to posit
that adults still believe in the fantastical–and in the reality of that fantasy? As
fantastical in its otherworldly sense. But adults still fantasize; we never lose our
me back in my hometown, at the high school I graduated from in 1999. With the
including the Youth Action Coalition (Amherst, MA), Burlington Firehouse Arts
(VT), Raw Art Works (Lynn, MA), and the Gann Academy (Waltham, MA), I
understand the Indie students, having spent my high school years in the area. I
the Autism spectrum. After a few years, ASPIE dismantled. Indie Programs
serves at-risk rural high school students, re-engaging them in their studies and
helping them to excel in school. Executive Director Russell Richardson, who took
164
on the role in July 2007, explains: “‘When it started, there really were these tough
kids. The school didn’t know what to do with them. They’d tried everything.’”1
Since its inception, Indie Programs has fluxed through many forms. Two effective
courses have remained consistent: community school and filmmaking lab. While
and Social Studies through the media, the filmmaking lab offers the whole high
The difficulties that Indie has experienced over the past eight years are
Richardson said, “over the years the program grew attracting a population of kids
who were ‘too bright, but too bored,’ scoring low on exams, but who found
motivation through the Indie media techniques.”2 Using media in the classroom
Indie-Onteora Relationship
struggled with the public high school’s administration since its inception: “Every
said.”3 The ongoing struggle centers on the disparate standards of Onteora high
1
Lisa Childers, “Still Indie: High School Program Survives into Another Semester,”
Woodstock Times 4 Oct 2007, 12-3.
2
Ibid.
3
Ibid.
165
school and Indie Programs. When the new Superintendent and Principal took
their seats in September 2007, Executive Director Richardson (also new to the
post) found not only differences of opinion but seriously divergent standards in
Having been involved with the program for a few years in roles ranging
What matters is that Indie behaves differently from the school, and if
pushed will defend that difference. There are times when the school
administration accepts and encourages this flexibility as a real source of
strength of the school as a whole. There are times when different people
see the complementary stance of Indie as variously immature, disruptive
and time consuming. The current school administration and Indie
administration have an uneasy truce where we must be seen to work
together (due to Indie’s high public profile and support from the
community) but have difficulty being open and having any kind of
dependable, continuous relationship. Indie is always two strikes down. I do
not believe any true alternative program can avoid such conflicts but, more
often than not, it makes our position very vulnerable, as long as we are
highly dependent on monies through the school for financial viability.4
open door for students who feel outcast by the mainstream system. This safety
net becomes a real culture within the walls of Indie. As a refuge for students who
don’t fit in, the place is full of acceptance and rarely are students sent away. Indie
also offers a resource to artistic students who have trouble engaging in the
traditional curricula. For some students, Indie is their reason for coming to
school.
Relying almost entirely on funding from the public school district, Indie and
4
Russell Richardson, interviewed by author, Indie Programs, Boiceville, NY, 19 May
2008.
166
Onteora are married in this sense. Indie staff often joke about the marriage in
terms of custody and child support and alimony. At times, divorce comes up as
an option. But it comes down to the fact Onteora pays the way. In order to be
financially stable, Indie has to find sustainable income. With economic resources
slim, Indie relies on pro-bono grant writers and fundraisers, not to mention
Media Literacy
Spending a large amount of time playing video games, watching TV, and
cruising the Internet, teenagers these days have not just lost interest in reading
audio tape. She expected her students to react positively to the Mercury
Theatre’s War of the Worlds broadcast. Much to her dismay, the radio play had
little effect on the students. In its time, the War of the Worlds broadcast stopped
across the country. Listeners visualized the action in their heads, imagining that
the country’s major cities under attack. My friend’s classroom sat inert. Have
children lost their ability to visualize? Could video games and TV have something
some of these problems. While the programs are still in infancy, it is apparent
that the skills generated are crucial for students in the Information Age.
borders; America and Canada approach the discipline from different positions.
While media literacy in the Canadian educational system has been operative and
vital for over a decade, the United States has yet to implement a strategy for
Non-profit organizations speckle the map, but few exist that work
cooperatively with public schools and mandated curricula. Most notably, the San
school programs and focus on the arts, personal expression, and community
development.
5
Faith Rogow, “Media Literacy Education: Comparison Chart of Definitions,” AMLA,
2006. This handout, created for the Wolfsonian Museum New Literacy Symposium, offers a chart
of different definitions of media literacy.
168
Coming to Indie in the Fall of 2007, I noticed that the community as well as
context. Not only was Indie hidden beneath the umbrella of the public high
school. The community at large didn’t have a good idea of why Indie existed. I
attribute Indie’s invisibility to the lack of awareness of the necessity for media
education, the misguided educational standards that are taken for granted, and
result, Indie Programs received a positive piece of press that attracted the public
eye:
There’s been a lot of buzz recently about the crisis of secondary schooling
in America–about the achievement and resource gaps between schools in
wealthy and poor districts; about the inflexibility of the industrial bell-
ringing high school model in a tech-driven highly individualized culture;
about the widespread disengagement among even high-performing
students. Solutions have been offered by experts across the country, but
we in Ulster need look no further than Boiceville to find a model that
works. That model exists in the Indie Programs. Indie is an innovative
collaboration between teacher and student in pursuit of creative, hands-on
learning experiences.6
attached to a small rural high school (with a population of around 800 students),
6
Doug Muller. “Reel Life: Indie Program Hosts End-Of-Year Show,” Woodstock Times 19
June 2008, 3.
169
it offers a progressive model for media literacy and integrated English and Social
“The atmosphere is relaxed and students can talk freely on topics or any
other ideas and there are no formal textbooks,” says Richardson.7 Taking this
Hoping to create a forum for students to discuss relevant issues of media and
youth culture, I enlisted a core group of a dozen students for weekly meetings.
Antioch thesis. As an outlet for the students, the project served as a theoretical
base for understanding what it means to be a teenager. I was pleased to find the
Media Preferences
Hollywood cinema to classic films. The students in this group, having a few years
of film studies under their belts, were generally able to articulate their
preferences.
Livvy and Noria, for example, both gravitate toward an odd mixture of Joss
Whedon and lesbian-gay subculture media. Tessa and Paloma explained that
7
Childers, 12.
170
they enjoy watching French films. Ace expressed his interest in watching TV
programs and films for their writing. Alex explained that he likes Chris Marker’s
seen in these preferences. The media that we watch couples with the opinions
we express and the ideals to which we hold strong. Participation and association
with subcultures, likewise identity, can be gleaned from the media we watch.
These associations are also evident in the students’ appearance and behaviors.
citing Hedwig and the Angry Inch, The L-Word, Queer as Folk, and Shortbus as
bohemians through their favorite films: The Triplets of Belleville and Amelie.
preferences. Their examples were broad and haphazard. The 9th grade students
cited films like Batman and Robin, The Lion King, Boogie Nights, Seven, and
Fight Club, largely based on positive viewing experiences coupled with illicit
material and the prohibition of watching R-rated movies. In particular, Aleya, a 9th
grader referred to Indie because of low grades and behavioral issues, expressed
a keen awareness of the media. She said that she refused to watch TV shows: “I
think they’re completely biased.” Additionally, she said: “New movies these days
are all the same. They’re all generic.” Aleya’s understanding of the media can be
interpreted in two ways. First, her disapproval of media content and production
the regimented structure of the high school. Second, her perspective on TV and
culture, which is not to be taken for granted when it comes to the media.
media for their effectiveness in engaging youth. I also wanted to differentiate for
myself as well as for the students the divide between authentic youth culture and
dispensation of youth culture through the media. The classic film Rebel Without a
Cause, about youth and the struggle of growing up, comes across to
contemporary teens as dated, set in a repressive 1950’s society that does not
transcend the gap of time. Natalie Wood’s performance, in particular, struck the
dated. Its use of a 70’s style (in the opening credits) and references to Orson
Welles and Saved by the Bell define the film as a product of adult nostalgia
Kevin Smith, and John Hughes. The immense media market geared at teens
172
holds little (conscious) relevance in authentic youth culture. The plethora of films
and TV shows are produced by adults both as nostalgic forays into dead
traditions and attempts to pedal outdated strategies onto teenagers who operate
Horkheimer in his early 20th Century writing, stands in opposition to high and
level culture, producing a society that appears uniform. Authentic culture, in this
case that of youth, performs on an individualized basis and is most often invisible
occurring within geographic groups. The hard task is to distinguish between the
authentic and the embedded remains of popular culture influences, which may be
culture infiltrates our understanding of the world and the way we operate within it,
the media, I engaged the students in a discussion of local youth culture based on
activity and community. Focusing on sites, the students related their experiences:
“It’s a rural area. There’s no unified youth culture,” said Ace. Much to their
surprise, it came out that youth culture in the rural communities of Woodstock
8
John Storey, Cultural Theory and Popular Culture (Athens: University of Georgia Press,
2006): 50.
173
and Shandaken was more vibrant than they were aware. On the Woodstock
Village Green, in the Hudson Valley Mall, and in living rooms across the area,
sack, x-box live, or strolling through the mall, youths create culture in ways
“People assign labels to you based on the people you spend time with.” Proving
the point that cultures are visible, the group concurred that, locally, groups bind
Noria called it “lookism,” meaning that you can tell what culture or group
one adheres to based on the way they dress and make themselves look. “You
grow up influenced by your environment. And that’s who you are,” she continued.
Youth culture, even in a rural area such as Ulster County, is vibrant and thriving
based on its active participants. But Livvy intelligently questioned the discussion:
“Can you really take yourself out of all the media and become an authentic
person?”
My next task was to conceive of the teenage mind in the Information Age.
to find out about their perspective of the 20th Century. Using a host of references,
I interrogated the students on their views of the Internet and the media as far as
174
they influence their way of life. Thomas Hine’s The Rise and Fall of the American
proved essential to this endeavor. At times I quoted passages from the texts to
the students that offered new perspectives on viewing the “teenager,” the 20th
I began with my own initial reaction while watching All the President’s
Men. In the film, Washington Post reporters Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein
watched the film how easy research has become, and how impersonal. The
Internet flows information into our offices and homes while disconnecting us from
first hand, often more reliable and revealing, sources. The film illustrates
communication.
None of the students had seen the film. After explaining the situation, I
asked the students to offer their impressions of the differences between pre- and
post-Internet age. Tony said, “it’s faster [living in age of the Internet].” Ellena
offered, “people would be more active [without the internet and so much
technology]. They’d spend more time outside.” Moving the subject to television,
How do you get perspective, when you have known nothing else? These
students, between the ages of 14 and 18, have lived their whole lives with
technologies that put the world in their hands. It’s not that simple to transport
175
yourself back to the 1970s. “What surprises me… is how unphased people are
[about the difference the Internet and technology makes,]” said Nick. I wondered,
from Zengotita’s Mediated. For example, his coined term “MeWorld” requires little
background, for it can be seen played out in our daily lives: “The everyday
MeWorld they are constructing out of all the representational options that
surround them reflects their own tastes and judgments back at them constantly–
think of a teenager’s bedroom–that MeWorld they have been taught they are
entitled to, morphs quite naturally into solipsism when they come to talk
music–the boy who wanders the school corridors bouncing to the silent rhythms
of his iPod. Nick’s comment explained quite clearly to the other students the
reality of MeWorld.
We spoke briefly on the size of the world, and the sizes of our respective
worlds. The students gave anecdotes from their everyday lives according to how
they made sense of the world and how they attained information. While this
hoped to dive into, I think the students grasped a basic understanding of present
history of Atari and 1980s arcade games. “A whole new place of reality had to be
9
Thomas De Zengotita, Mediated (NY: Bloomsbury, 2005): 77-8.
176
added to human perception,” he said. The conversation took a dramatic turn into
technologies are “taken for granted,” she explained her theory. Once it’s been
appreciate Geneva’s perspective, I can only hope that she realizes that her ideas
are theory. I know she believes in them wholeheartedly. Her views on reality and
fantasy are both a symptom of the contemporary age and a window into
them the question: If your life were a movie, what would it look like? The
students, having considerable experience in film studies and watching the media,
they viewed the world, and how the media sensitizes that view.
Noria said that her movie would look like a Gondry film: “He looks at the
world backwards.” Ace said that his movie “wouldn’t make any sense.” Our
world–the government can tell you how to look at things; your chosen leader will
show you what to look at; religion tells us how to see the world. The students
generally accepted that real life and film narratives tell stories in similar ways; the
prior remains common and the latter most often concerns heightened events.
Nick astutely concluded: “Nobody knows what it’s like to live in somebody else’s
177
head.”
The students had trouble grasping the heavy theoretical ideas I threw out
integrating theories from Zengotita and Gitlin, which came across at greater
ease.
Preconceptions of “Teenagers”
Owing much of my inspiration to Hine’s The Rise and Fall of the American
term teenager: “The concept of the teenager rests in turn on the idea of the
adolescent as a not quite competent person, beset by stress and hormones. This
idea… rests on data and assertions that have not withstood scientific scrutiny. At
most, we can say that the teenager is a social invention.”10 I wanted to find out
how much these conceptions of the “teenager” penetrate the minds of youth, how
The students immediately made it quite clear that they felt that teens were
looked down upon in society. Their views of the established power systems
placed youth on the bottom rung. Based on the rights and responsibilities
afforded to young people, they made their case. Livvy said, “we have to battle for
everything… Society has unwritten rules [for teens and work, teens and school.]”
Jacob added: “teenagers don’t have any rights.” No one objected to that. It
seemed to me that the students were making themselves appear victimized but,
in light of Indie’s ongoing conflict with the high school, I could understand why.
Rights.”11 Jacob again expressed his intelligent opinion on the matter: “The only
reason you have rights is because you’re weaker than someone else. And the
Coming of Age
fluxed and morphed over the past ten or so years. While I was a teen I was
youth culture, I find myself sifting through new approaches to coming of age.
In his book Teenage, Jon Savage spends a great deal of time on Peter
Pan and Dorothy Gale–how the characters reflect and engender our conceptions
of youth, how they recreate comparatively English and American journeys for
traversing age gaps. Also, Hine writes that society creates artificial categories for
the nature of the categories. In the 20th Century, society adapted to new
technologies. The minds of the people came to reflect the cultural imaginings in
Information Age. People sometimes say that the TV raises the kids these days.
Our perceptions of what life is, should be, and can be, are constructed in large
In a culture that worships youth, there are fewer and fewer examples of
age rituals, the journey from childhood to adulthood becomes treacherous. The
markers are gone; what’s left are vague conceptions of social agreements. Your
parent tells you that you’re an adult when you get your first credit card, or your
diploma, or your first job. But it comes down to the fact that no one really knows
what makes an adult, since our individualistic society tells us that we’re all
from the students what their impressions were of adulthood and adolescence.
For teens, when do they think they’ll become adults? What marks the
boundaries?
As always, Nick broke out with a precise opening statement: terms like
teen, adolescent, and adult expand stereotypes. Using terms and defining normal
placements exacerbate the dividing lines between teen and adult. “There’s this
very lose classification between adolescent and adult,” he said. There’s a grey
area between the terms and the stages of life and the labels people call
themselves by. There’s also a prejudice in the terms and in the division, he said.
Geneva, holding fast to her beliefs that people make the world through
their own perceptions, explained: “It depends entirely on the person.” The
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their own, and ones they hope to make in the future. For Livvy, the difference
between teen and adult lies in “maturity levels.” “You grow up when traveling
alone. It’s like a rite of passage.” Paloma agreed: You become an adult “when
you get your own house. [It’s about] responsibility and maturity.” Nick joined the
bandwagon: “Going out on your own, proving yourself, [makes you an adult.]”
Geneva added her thought that, “you feel more grown up when you move in to a
college dorm, when you first set foot on campus. And road trips make you feel
more adult, more grown-up, more independent.” These personal statements can
the roles of teens and adults. If teenagers experience prohibitions of freedom and
responsibility, it’s right for them to assume that adults are free from such
constraints. Each of the students expressed their own hopes that at the
But the absence of social markers makes the journey difficult. Paloma
said: “People just kind of grow up and say, ‘wow, I’m an adult’… It’s so gradual.”
Contemplating the chicken and egg scenario, I wondered which came first:
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Conclusion
developed over the past year, allows the kind of casual discussion vital to this
ethnographic study. While I wish the discussions could have involved more
media and culture theory, I must realize that the philosophies of Baudrillard and
vision I have achieved while working with the students at Indie Programs.
Serving as an instructor at Indie Programs has given me the insight into the lives
what the future holds in store for me, I hope to continue work with youth and
Postscript
aided in research gathering and preparation for writing my Antioch thesis. In the
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2008-2009 school year, I continue to work at Indie Programs as lead teacher and
media director. The staff has changed, with our previous lead teacher moving to
underachieving students with behavioral and learning issues. With him went our
key intern. As a replacement, a former Indie student rose to the position of media
The other major change this year is determined by the contract made with
Onteora high school, which grants Indie less money than the previous year. Our
core courses have been eliminated (9th grade Community School, and 10th and
11th Works). Our contract secures the filmmaking elective (Lab) and after-school.
This change means that the Indie student body has decreased from 80 to 15.
Students in the Lab course are the ones who most frequently attend the after-
school time, who identify as Indie students. Mainstream students rarely pass
Despite offering Indie to the school body, our facilities remain underused and
underutilized.
Center for Photography in Woodstock, the Woodstock Film Festival, and the
Taleo Gallery. This year, the Indie staff are also taking to heart our appointments
Mirand’a.
It looks unlikely that Indie will continue working with Onteora for another
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year. While the sustainability of the program has always been weak and
uncertain, this time the prospect looks grim. Executive Director Russell
including grants and collaborations with other local media programs. His hope is
to shift Indie into the community to offer continuing education, GED accreditation,
and job creation for underachieving students. Whether the program survives
depends upon the community’s awareness of Indie as a vital project for its youth.
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CONCLUSION
trial. Those in power treat education as if it were a second rate institution, and
schools suffer accordingly. It’s a complicated system, and I don’t want to pretend
that I know how it works. It’s a lot of politics and personalities and agendas. Why
should all this get in the way when it comes to the children?
had a media literacy curriculum in place for nearly a decade. The United States
still cuts back peripheral programs, depriving students of arts, music, and sports.
I’m surprised that the United States, its government institutions, grand-
funding organizations, and education system doesn’t recognize the need for
media literacy. When a good proportion of young people spend their time not
reading but watching TV or playing video games, it drives the fact home that our
supports this new kind of education. Primarily grant-funded, these bodies teach
students how to use the media that infect their environments. Students learn that
the media can be manipulated, and not just by the powers that be. Media literacy
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Perhaps Onteora High School (Boiceville, NY) is not a paradigm case, but
it’s a place where I have some history. Indie Programs, a not-for-profit media
education organization, first began working with the Onteora High School in
2000, a year after I graduated. It started small, with a few classes a week
targeting students will low-performance and at-risk of dropping out. Indie used
performance. The hope was to provide a sustainable education model that would
retain students in the school, rather than shipping them out to the alternative
Indie has yet to succeed in this mission, and gauging the climate right now
Communication could be better. Funding is sliced every year, as are class sizes.
In the end, it looks like Indie suffers from its liberal agenda. The philosophies
Digital bytes, IM chat, texting, and blogging rules our society today. Pretty
soon print will go out of fashion, and the Internet will rule Information. I have a
student, Roman, who, on a recent project, wrote in “OMFG” as a title over one of
his film images. I told him to omit the “F,” recognizing suddenly what it meant and
a Scrabble game, the teen spells out “ROTFL” (rolling on the floor) on the board.
“WTG,” (way to go) says Grandma. Mom checks the dictionary, “is texting all you
level. Technology companies peddle their new gear to young people, aiding in
the dissemination of information and the speed of communication. But the bell
curve has increased exponentially to the degree that users become an in-crowd.
Those of us who don’t choose to use the software or add on the functions to our
be, loves to read. In an attempt to get her involved at Indie, I tossed her a copy of
The Giver one day. She threw it back to me saying, “I’ve read it.” I tried to
engage her in a conversation over its contents, but she withheld any
commentary. The book includes what is, for me, a critical dystopian anecdote on
the fate of language. She didn’t want to talk about it. I inferred that she didn’t
recognize its applicability. She either didn’t get it or didn’t want to talk to the
teacher.
The Giver, Lois Lowry’s sci-fi novella set for middle-school reading level,
Words must be accurate and meaningful. When you say “love,” you mean it.
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Lowry’s community has raised stakes, but her purpose should be clear.
I have the feeling that some day popular culture will give
I have slowly come to terms, within the past two years working at Indie
Programs, that young people believe in the Information Age. It’s a way of being.
They live in their own microcosms without realizing that the world is as large, if
not larger, than they think. Any agoraphobe could sit in their room these days
I asked one of the students, during my research into youth cultures, what
her favorite film was, and she only replied, “HALO on X-Box.” This blew my
world. I’d never heard of MMORPG’s (Massive Multi-player Online Role Playing
Games) before. It struck me, when I go home to watch TV or cruise the Internet,
she goes home to interact in this new media. Millions of people play MMORPG’s
on a daily basis, as a lifestyle even. I later met a family that played World of
Warcraft together on the net– while they were in the same room together. Father,
son, and daughter explored the world of Azeroth through their avatars, while
standing side by side in real life watching their individual monitors. When I asked
them about how it worked, their explanations were clear and grounded. They
189
didn’t seem to think that there was anything weird about Multi-player gaming as a
thesis, the program administrator explained to us the process for submitting our
drafts. Signatures and originals are important in this process. She explained that
we had to submit the original copy of the cover page, with the real signatures
from your academic advisor and thesis mentor. Have you ever realized that, in
conversation, that you use the word “copy” rather than “original?” It’s almost as if,
anymore. Take a Microsoft Word document, for instance. Where is the original?
Is it the digital version on the desktop of the computer? The “hardcopy?” The first
print out? It’s almost as if we have no use for the word anymore.
The same is true in the world of film (or video, which is used to more
extent these days). We still call it the film industry, though we use video more
than actual celluloid film. In this digital age, the film actually goes through many
more degrees of degradation than necessary during its path toward exhibition.
Those directors who insist to shoot on film suffer for it. There are very few films
these days that are edited manually (on film as opposed to in the computer). The
film is processed in the lab (chemically), and then digitally processed into a
computer. Using software, editors adjust color and add digital special effects. It’s
amazing what you can do with a computer that you would never be able to
produce in real life–or on celluloid. The very existence of the DVD (digital video
device) supports the premise that celluloid film won’t last much longer.
190
The theory works the other way around, too. Those few filmmakers who
stand rigidly beside their Steenbecks know that their artistic methods can only be
cutting the film based off a digital version–is already the industry standard. Film
There’s a tribe at Indie that insists on originating all of their own material.
Nick, Tony, and Paloma are not so much stuck in the past, due to the fact that
they were born in the 1990s, but revere classic films. Tony wished nothing more
than to get his hands on a Steenbeck. He was the first Indie student to work on
celluloid film. Russell brought in his ancient Russian 16mm camera for him to
play with. Nick and Paloma walk around recording ambiance with their cassette
player. They make some pretty funky music. Nick, a photography enthusiast,
views the world by the color wheel and in F-stops. It’s tough talking with him
about video; he’s hardcore about celluloid. You have to admit, there’s a purity to
the ancient analog media. Nick insists on originating all of his own material: no
grabbing it off the Internet or stealing it from Final Cut Pro. He’s got to go out and
record something real. I admire this quality about him. But the celluloid tribe is a
marginalized kind. Most students who come to Indie jump on the computers and
What happens when, generations from now, people fail to see the
(CGI)? To some extent, this shift has already come to be. The only difference is
that some of us know the difference. I wonder if a time will come when the
191
Movies and media becoming more like video games. DVD extended
editions give you the chance to view the whole “making of” process, with “behind
the scenes” features, extended and deleted scenes, and outtakes; it’s at your
MMORPGs. Melding with Internet technologies, you can interact with millions of
people you will only meet as fantasy creatures in the World of Warcraft. To the
the pre-Internet age exists in living memory, the world is people by those who
know what reality means without the mediation of digital technologies. What will
happen when there’s no one around to tell us we’re living a simulation? What
happens when people fail to remember what unmediated reality truly means?
192
Ace, Aleya, Alex, Dylan, Ellena, Geneva, Jacob, Jericho, Kaela, Livvy,
Nick, Noria, Paloma, Robin, Tessa, Tony, Ub. Interviewed by
author. Indie Programs, Boiceville, NY. 31 March 2008, 14 April 2008, 21
April 2008, 28 April 2008, 5 May 2008, 12 May 2008, 19 May 2008. In
order to protect confidentiality, the surnames of the interviewees have
been withheld.
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FILMOGRAPHY
Stand By Me. Dir. Rob Reiner. Perfs. Wil Wheaton, River Phoenix, and
Corey Feldman. Columbia Pictures, 1986.
Strange Days. Dir. Kathryn Bigelow. Perfs. Ralph Fiennes, Juliette Lewis
and Angela Bassett. Lightstorm Pictures, 1995.
Superbad. Dir. Greg Mottola. Perfs. Jonah Hill, Michael Cera, and
Christopher Mintz-Plasse. Columbia Pictures, 2007.
Tideland. Dir. Terry Gilliam. Perfs. Jodelle Ferland, Janet McTeer, and Jeff
Bridges. Capri Films, 2005.
Terminator: Rise of the Machines. Dir. Jonathan Mostow. Perfs. Arnold
Schwarzenegger, Nick Stahl, and Claire Danes. C-2 Pictures and
Intermedia Films, 2003.
Terminator Salvation. Dir. McG. Perfs. Christian Bale and Bryce Dallas
Howard. Intermedia Films and The Halcyon Company, 2009.
Transformers. Dir. Michael Bay. Perfs. Shia LeBoef, Megan Fox, and Josh
Duhamel. Paramount, 2007.
A Trip to the Moon. Dir. Georges Melies. Perfs. Victor Andre and Bleuette
Bernon. Star Film, 1902.
Wall-E. Dir. Andrew Stanton. Pixar Animation Studios, 2008.
The Wizard of Oz. Dir. Victor Fleming. Perfs. Judy Garland, Frank
Morgan, and Margaret Hamilton. MGM, 1939.
Workers Leaving the Lumiere Factory. Dir. Louis and Auguste Lumiere.
Lumiere, 1895.