An Introduction to

(ST)RIG ALGEBRA

Gert Voerman
Utrecht, The Netherlands

To all people of the world, for a good long read

VOERMA PRESS
 Preface

This book is meant as an introduction to subject of the relation between ring-theory

and string-theory. The author of this book has discovered these connections
after he played for some time with an expanded version of ring-theory.
An acquaintance with the basic ideas of ring-theory and string-theory is helpful but
not absolutely essential. Since string-theory is nowadays such a vast and extensive
subject, some focus in the subject material is of course required. Where needed
references to standard books on the both subjects are given.
The calculations have been done with the aid of the program mathematica of the
company “Wolfram-Research”. This ensures that errors in the formulas have (very
likely) been eliminated.
Some of the mathematical formulas in the book are very complicated, but are relatively
easy to implement in a mathematical program. The many different types of operators in
the book can be confusing to the reader. The author has tried to keep the flow of
formulas and text to be as clear as possible.

Gert Voerman.
Utrecht, 2008
 Contents

Chapter 1 Ring Theory

1.1 The Field Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Properties of the field Extension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2 The Madeces

2.1 General Commutativity and Associativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Associativity of the Multiply-Operator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.3 Associativity of the Add-Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Distributivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Chapter 3 Conditions on the Madeces

3.1 Invariance of the Trace and Determinant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.2 The inverse of a Madex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 The Commutator relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 4 Connections with String-Theory

4.1 The Commutator in (St)Ring-Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.2 The dimension parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
4.3 Dimension twenty-six and the existence of the tachyon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Chapter 5 Conclusion
5.1 Madeces and their properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.2 Defining the operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5.3 A theory with an open-end. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

Bibliography 14

Index 14
 Chapter 1
Ring-Theory
In standard books (Ref. 1) about ring-theory the concept of a field is defined.
A field S= { ℑ ,+,*} is defined as a non-empty set ℑ , together with two binary operations,
called addition (+) and multiplication (*) . The two binary operators obey the commutative,
associative and distributive laws. Every non-zero element of a field has an inverse.
Define an field-extension (F/S) as an upper-field (F) that is based on a lower-field (S).

1.1 The Field Extension

Let F[ P ] = {ℜ P ,⊕ FP ,⊗ FP } and S= { ℑ ,+,*} be two fields and let F[ P ]/S be the

field-extension.

Let ei2 = 1 ( ei is called a sign) and let P be a shortcut for the parameters {α , β , e2 } .
If we demand commutativity, associativity and distributivity, then the two binary operations
of the upper-field F[ P ] in terms of the lower-field S are uniquely given by: (Eq. 1.1.A)

+ a1 + a 2 ( X + Y ) + a3 X * Y + b1 + b2 ( X + Y ) + b3 X * Y
X ⊗ FP Y = X ⊕ FP Y =
+ a 4 + a5 ( X + Y ) + a 6 X * Y + b4 + b5 ( X + Y ) + b6 X * Y

a1 = + (e2 − 1)(+Cos (α ) + Cos ( β )) b1 = +(e2 − 1)Cos ((α − β ) / 2)

a 2 = + (e2 − 1)(+ Sin(α ) + Sin( β ))
a 3 = −(e2 − 1)(+Cos (α ) + Cos ( β )) + 4e2 Cos ( β )
a 4 = −(e2 + 1)(+ Sin(α ) + Sin( β )) + 4e2 Sin( β )
a 5 = +(e2 + 1)(+Cos (α ) + Cos ( β ))
a 6 = + (e2 + 1)(+ Sin(α ) + Sin( β ))
b2 = + (e2 − 1) Sin((α − β ) / 2)
b3 = + (e2 + 1) Sin((α − β ) / 2)
b4 = + (e2 − 1) Sin((α − β ) / 2)
b5 = + (e2 + 1) Sin((α − β ) / 2)
b6 = −(e2 + 1)Cos ((α − β ) / 2)

Let us define P0 = {α , β , e2 }0 = {+3π / 4 + e1π / 2,+3π / 4 − e1π / 2,−1} . (Eq. 1.1.B)

Then S= F[ P0 ].
Conclusion: F[ P ]/F[ P0 ] is a field-extension for every parameter P = {α , β , e2 } .

1.2 Properties of the Field Extension

Let K [ X ] = −e2 X ( − e2 ) , E = + (1 − e2 )π / 4 and (Eq. 1.2.A)

f P [ $ ] = + K [(+Cos (α + E ) + Cos ( β + E ) * (1 − 2 * $ )) /( + Sin( β + E ) − Sin(α + E ))] .
 1
Recall that upper-field is defined as F[ P ] = {ℜ P ,⊕ FP ,⊗ FP } and the lower-field
as S= F[ P0 ]= { ℑ ,+,*}.

We have the following relations

( f Ρ [ M ]) ⊗ FP ( f Ρ [ $ ]) = f P [ M * $ ]
(for all M , $ ∈ ℑ and all P ) (Eq. 1.2.B)
( f Ρ [ M ]) ⊕ FP ( f Ρ [ $ ]) = f P [ M + $ ]

Then the map f P is called a homomorphism ( f P : ℑ → ℜ P ) of the field-extension

F[ P ]/F[ P0 ] .
 2
CHAPTER 2

THE MADECES
In this chapter we need some definitions.
Let P[C ] = {α + C , β + C , e2 } and let X,Y,Z be three independent parameters.
Notice that X ⊕ FP[ A] Y = X ⊕ FP[ B ] Y = X ⊕ FP Y .
The variable G X , A will be called a madex (X is a matrix and A is called a G-index)
The name ‘madex’ is derived from ma(trix,in)dex.
The operators ⊕ M ,⊗ M are the usual matrix-operators with respect to the field.

2.1 General Commutativity and Associativity

We commutativity and associativity:

( X × Y ) = (Y × X )
( X × Y ) × Z = X × (Y × Z )

Then,
+ a1 + a 2 ( X + Y ) + a3 X ⋅ Y
X ×Y = Eq. 2.1.A
+ a 4 + a5 ( X + Y ) + a6 X ⋅ Y

with

a1 = + (c0 − c 2 )(cos(α ) + cos( β )) + c1 (sin(α ) − sin( β ))

a 2 = + (c 0 − c 2 )(sin(α ) + sin( β )) − c1 (cos(α ) − cos( β ))
a 3 = −a1 + 4c0 cos( β )
a 4 = − a 6 + 4c0 sin( β )
a 5 = +(c0 + c 2 )(cos(α ) + cos( β )) − c1 (sin(α ) − sin( β ))
a 6 = + (c 0 + c 2 )(sin(α ) + sin( β )) + c1 (cos(α ) − cos( β ))

2.2 Associativity of the Multiply-Operator

Let ( X ⊗ FP[ A] (Y ⊗ FP[ B ] Z )) = (( X ⊗ FP[ C ] Y ) ⊗ FP[ D ] Z ) with condition A + B = C + D

The condition on the parameters is: f [U , f [V , W ]] + f [V , W ] = f [ f [U , V ],W ] + f [U , V ]
Define: f [ X , Y ] = X ⊗ EA Y
 3

The result is the following formula for ⊗ EA : (we have used Eq. 2.1.A)
(Eq. 2.2.A)
X ⊗ EA Y = −(− dd + ( X + Y ) + ee * X * Y ) /((1 + ee * X )(1 + ee * Y )

Later we will see that:

dd = +2 A * (1 + A * Cot[2σ ]) /(1 + A 2 ) (see Eq. 3.1.D)
ee = +2 * (Cot[2σ ] − A) /(1 + A 2 ) (see Eq. 3.1.E)

Associativity: (G X , A ⊗ GA GY , I [ A] ) ⊗ GA G Z , A = G X , A ⊗ GA (GY , I [ A] ⊗ GA G Z , A ) (Eq. 2.2.B)

(Notice the cyclic positions of A,I[A]). The associativity-law is valid,only if I [ I [ A]] = A

G X ,U ⊗ GA GY ,V = G( X ⊗ M Y ),W
W = U ⊗ EA V (Eq. 2.2.C)
DIM
( X ⊗ M Y )[u , v] = ∑⊕
i =1
F
P ( X [u , i ] ⊗ FP[W ] Y [i, v])

2.3 Associativity of the Add-Operator.

Next we must construct the E-addition operator. This can be done by taking the same
formula as the formula for the associativity of a commutative ring,
We have ,however, to place a restriction on the structure.
The result is the following formula for ⊕ EA : (we have used Eq. 2.1.A)

(Eq. 2.3.A)
X ⊕ EA Y = (T / $ )
T = +(−2 + ρ A + (2 + 3ρ A ) X * Y )Cos[σ ] − ρ A (−1 + X * Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2( X + Y )(−1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ]) Sin[σ ]
$ = + (+2 + ρ A )( X + Y )Cos[σ ] + ρ A ( X + Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2(−2 ρ A + (−1 + X * Y )(+1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ])) Sin[σ ]

Associativity: (G X , A ⊕ GA GY , A ) ⊕ GA G Z , A = G X , A ⊕ GA (GY , A ⊕ GA G Z , A ) (Eq. 2.3.B)

G X ,U ⊕ GA GY ,V = G( X ⊕ M Y ),W
W = U ⊕ EA V (Eq. 2.3.C)
( X ⊕ M Y )[u , v] = X [u , v] ⊕ FP Y [u , v]

(Notice that now the voer-indeces in the associative law for ⊕ GA are all the same)
 4
The operators (⊕ M ,⊗ M ) are the well-known matrix-operators (with respect to the newly
constructed fields).

2.4 Distributivity and the special dimensions

The distributive law (if active) of order R is:

(Eq. 2.4.A)
C[n] = { A, I [ A]}[[1 + Mod [n − 1,2]]]
R L[ m ] L[1] L[ R ]

∏⊗ (∑⊕
m =1
G

n =1
G
A G X [ n ],C [ n ] ) = ( ∑ ..... ∑ ) ⊕ GA (G X [ n[1]],C [ n[1]] ⊗ G ..... ⊗ G G X [ n[ R ]],C [ n[ R ]] )
n[1]=1 n[ R ]=1

The distributive law is active if and only if we have the following values for ρ A :

(Eq. 2.4.B)
d [m, n] = 1 + m + 3n − m * n
ω A = (1 − A 2 ) * Cos[2σ ] − 2 A * Sin[2σ ]
ρ A = (d [e 4 , e5 ] * (1 + A 2 ) + 2d [−e5 , e4 ] * ω A ) /(d [−e5 , e4 ] * (1 + A 2 ) + 2d [e 4 , e5 ] * ω A )
X ⊕ EA Y = (T / $ )
T = +(−2 + ρ A + (2 + 3ρ A ) X * Y )Cos[σ ] − ρ A (−1 + X * Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2( X + Y )(−1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ]) Sin[σ ]
$ = + (+2 + ρ A )( X + Y )Cos[σ ] + ρ A ( X + Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2(−2 ρ A + (−1 + X * Y )(+1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ])) Sin[σ ]

Let L[m] ∈ {1, LE$ } for 1 ≤ m ≤ R

The values of LE$ for which the distributive law is active are:
1+N*1 (e4 , e5 = −1,−1) (Eq. 2.4.C.a)
1+N*3 (e4 , e5 = −1,+1) (Eq. 2.4.C.b)
1+N*4 (e4 , e5 = +1,−1) (Eq. 2.4.C.c)
1+N*6 (e4 , e5 = +1,+1) (Eq. 2.4.C.d)
The minimum value of LE$ for all values of e4 , e5 is 13.
Later we shall see that LE$ must be 1+2*N (odd).
This makes 5 for the (special) minimal dimension.
We will call the combination s = {e4 , e5 } a sector.
 5
We also must have: ( X ⊕ Y ) = ( X ⊕
E
A
E
I [ A] Y). (Eq. 2.4.D)
This means:

I [ A] = A or I [ A] = + ( A * Cos[2σ ] + Sin[2σ ]) /( −Cos[2σ ] + A * Sin[2σ ]) (Eq. 2.4.E)

Notice that we have I[I[A]]=A. (Eq. 2.4.F)

Conclusion:
The minimum of LE$ , for all values of the internal parameters, is 13.
The minimum (special) dimension is 5.
 6
CHAPTER 3

CONDITIONS ON THE MADECES

In this chapter we will fix some of the parameters ( dd , ee ) of our theory.
We also will make it probable that the minimal values of LE$ (5 or 13), as found in chapter
2.3, is equal to the minimal values of dimension of the matrices.

3.1 The Invariance of the Trace and Determinant.

We demand that the trace and determinant of the matrices must be independent of the
operators ⊗ E ,⊕ EA . This give us three different equations:
LE$

∑⊕
m =1
E
A ( I [ A]) = I [A] (Eq. 3.1.A)

LE$

∏⊗
m =1
E
A ( A) = A (Eq. 3.1.B)

LE$

∏⊗
m =1
E
A ({ A, I [ A]}[[1 + Mod [m + 1,2]]]) = A (Eq. 3.1.C)

Equation 3.1.A is already valid because we assume that the distributive law is active.
Equation 3.1.B is valid only if LE$ =1+2*N.
Equation 3.1.C is valid if Condition B is valid and if:
ee = +2(+Cot[2σ ] − A) /(1 + A 2 ) (Eq. 3.1.D)

3.2 The inverse of a Madex

Let G X−1, A = G X −1 , J [ A] then

J [ A] = (+ dd − A) /(1 + A * ee)
J [ J [ A]] = A
( A ⊗ EA J [ A]) = 0
( I [ A] ⊗ EA J [ I [ A]]) = 0

We have G X−1, A ⊗ GA G X , A = G I , 0 with J [ A] given above.

 7
Next we demand that G I , 0 ⊗ G X , I [ A] = G X , I [ A]
G
A

We must have (0 ⊗ EA I [ A]) = I [ A] ,the result is:

dd = +2 A * (1 + A * Cot[2σ ]) /(1 + A 2 ) (Eq. 3.2.A)
This makes J [ A] = A (Eq. 3.2.B)

3.3 The Commutator Relation

Rule 1: G X−1, A = G X −1 , A
Rule 2: (G X , A ⊗ GA GY , I [ A] ) −1 = GY −1 , I [ A] ⊗ G X −1 , A (Eq. 3.4.A)

The commutator is (a definition):

(GY [ m ], A ⊗ GA G X [ m ], I [ A] ) −1 ⊗ GA (G X [ m ], A ⊗ GA GY [ m ], I [ A] )
= G \ X [ m ]−1 , I [ A] ⊗ GA GY [ m ]−1 , A ⊗ GA G X [ m ], A ⊗ GA GY [ m ], I [ A] (Eq. 3.4.B)
= G[ X ,Y }[ m ],dd

We have the important relation:

g

∏⊗
m =1
E
A (dd ) = dd if g = odd . (Eq. 3.4.C)

We shall call this relation the commutator-relation in ring-theory.

Thus we have the important result: g=odd

 8

CHAPTER 4

Connections with String-Theory

As promised in the preface of this book, the author has discovered a couple of connections
between (our) Ring-Theory and String-Theory.
First, the commutator in ring-theory mimics a famous relation in string-theory.
Second, after some interpretation there is an exact match of the dimensions both theories.
This parameter, called the genus of a surface, hasn’t been calculated before.

4.1 The Commutator in String-Theory

In string theory we have an analoge to the commutator relation (see Eq. 3.4.C)
g g

∏ (b
m =1
−1
m a b a m ) = I or (translated): G I , dd = ∏ ⊗ GA G[ a[ m ],b[ m ]}, dd
−1
m m
m =1
(Eq. 4.1.A)

The parameter g is called the genus of the surface and is odd.

String-theory alone has not been able to produce this value of the genus!

Figure 4.1.A

This surface Σ g is called a Riemann surface of genus g.

We also have c m = a m−1 a m +1 or (translated) GC [ m ], 0 = Ga−[1m ], A ⊗ GA Ga[ m +1], A (Eq. 4.1.B)

4.2 The dimension parameters.

We will call the integral ∫$

over a submanifold N a chain.
 9
A closed chain is called a cycle.

The p-th homology group H p ( K ) of a manifold K is:

H ( p ) ( K ) = (closed p-forms / exact p-forms) (Eq. 4.2.A)

The dimension of the p-th homology group H ( p ) (Σ g ) of the Riemann surface Σ g

is equal to the (p)-th Betti number B p (Σ g ) = B p

Given a set of generators S ip (1,.., B p ) of H p (Σ g ) , one can always choose B p

harmonic p-forms hi( p ) in such a way that

∫h = δ i, j
( p)
j (Eq. 4.2.B)
S i(1)

r r
The chains form a vector space ei = ∫ (1) with Dim(ei ) = D = B1
Si

In the case of a genus g Riemann surface Σ g the first Betti number is:

B1 (Σ g ) = 2 g (Eq. 4.2.C)

This means that their the dimension of the vector-space is B1 (Σ g ) = 2 g .

Thus we have g=13 for the dimension of the bosonic string (D=26)
and g=5 for the dimension of the superstring (D=10).

These two special values of the genus g of the Riemann surface correspond with the two
special values of LEN, ,namely 5 and 13. (see Eq 3.1.A,B,C)
Thus if we can prove that the genus g is equal to LEN, then we have predicted the
dimensions of (super) string theory.

We must prove that we can write:

g
G X , I [ A] = ∑ ⊕ EA G X [ k ], I [ A] (Eq. 4.2.D)
k =1

10
4.3 Dimension twenty-six and the existence of the tachyon.

The most general dimension for our theory is twenty-six, because then all the four
sectors (see Eq 2.4.C)are included.
This means that their are tachyons present in the general theory (all four sectors).
If we exclude the sector {+1,+1} then the theory can be described by a (bosonic) ten-
dimensional theory.
Contributions from the {+1,+1} sector can (possibly) make this theory supersymmetric and
free of tachyons.
Tachyons may exist, but then not in our part of the universe.
Maybe their is some connection with the assumed presence of dark-matter in our universe.

11
 Chapter 5

Conclusion
We have seen that there is a close connection of ring-theory with string-theory.
Therefore our (ring)-theory most likely is the Theory Of Everything. (TOE).

5.1 Madeces and their properties

We have I [ A] = A or I [ A] = + ( A * Cos[2σ ] + Sin[2σ ]) /( −Cos[2σ ] + A * Sin[2σ ])

We have I [ I [ A]] = A and for the associative laws on the madeces ( G X , I [ A] ):

(G X , A ⊗ GA GY , I [ A] ) ⊗ GA G Z , A = G X , A ⊗ GA (GY , I [ A] ⊗ GA G Z , A ) (Eq. 5.1.A)

( A, I [ A] must appear in cyclic order)

(G X , I [ A] ⊕ GA GY , I [ A] ) ⊕ GA G Z , I [ A] = G X , I [ A] ⊕ GA (GY , I [ A] ⊕ GA G Z , I [ A] ) (Eq. 5.1.B)

( A, I [ A] don’t appear in cyclic order)

The distributive law is in accordance with both types of associative laws.

Next, we also have the following rules:

Rule 1: G X−1, A = G X −1 , A
Rule 2: (G X , A ⊗ GA GY , I [ A] ) −1 = GY−,1I [ A] ⊗ G X−1, A (Eq. 5.1.C)

5.2 Defining the operators

The field-operators ⊕ FP ,⊗ FP have been given in chapter 1.1.

The matrix-operators ⊕ M ,⊗ M and the madex-operators ⊕ GA ,⊗ GA are defined in chapter 2.2.

We found for ⊗ EA :
(Eq. 5.2.A)
X ⊗ EA Y = −(− dd + ( X + Y ) + ee * X * Y ) /((1 + ee * X )(1 + ee * Y )
dd = +2 A * (1 + A * Cot[2σ ]) /(1 + A 2 )
ee = +2 * (Cot[2σ ] − A) /(1 + A 2 )
 12
We found for ⊕ : E
A
(Eq. 5.2.B)
X ⊕ EA Y = (T / $ )
T = +(−2 + ρ A + (2 + 3ρ A ) X * Y )Cos[σ ] − ρ A (−1 + X * Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2( X + Y )(−1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ]) Sin[σ ]
$ = + (+2 + ρ A )( X + Y )Cos[σ ] + ρ A ( X + Y )Cos[3σ ] − 2(−2 ρ A + (−1 + X * Y )(+1 + ρ A Cos[2σ ])) Sin[σ ]
ω A = (1 − A 2 ) * Cos[2σ ] − 2 A * Sin[2σ ]
ρ A = (d [e4 , e5 ] * (1 + A 2 ) + 2d [−e5 , e4 ] * ω A ) /(d [−e5 , e4 ] * (1 + A 2 ) + 2d [e4 , e5 ] * ω A )
d [m, n] = 1 + m + 3n − m * n

5.3 A story with an open end.

Until now, all we have done is to do calculations on the indeces in the madeces.
The matrices in the madeces have been left unspecified.
Because further research will probably be much more complicated, the author has come
to the conclusion that he can’t do the job alone anymore.
 13
Bibliography

[1]: Castellani, L. and Dáuria, R. and Fre, P. (1991) Superstring and Supergravit;,
A Geometric Perspective, Vol. 3: Superstrings page. 1402-1403
[2]: Cohn, P. M. (2003) Basic Algebra; Groups, Rings and Fields
[3]: Polchinski, J (1998) String Theory

Index

Betti number, 9
Commutator, 8
M-index, 3
genus, 9
homomorphism, 2
madex, 3
Riemann surface, 9
sector, 5
sign, 1
14