Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Mark Allen
April 2010
Abstract
Musical identities and taste are among the most important developing factors of personality. Such
a study is important in order to determine the strongest elements that effect its formation.
Childhood and adolescence are crucial years in this development, and by focusing on areas such
as family, school, instrumental learning, class and most importantly peer relationships, we can
understand how people use music to express emotion or feelings, and represent themselves.
Children and adolescents spend the majority of their youth in school environments, surrounded by
others, interacting and socialising through music. School and peers have some of the largest
influences, as the school environment provides a place to meet others from a variety of
backgrounds. They strive for social acceptance and use comparisons of others to shape their own
personalities. By looking at studies from a number of global sources and conducting research of
my own (see Appendix A), the main conclusions drawn are that adolescents create and desire
their own musical journey of discovery from a variety of sources. They gradually move from the
music played to them by their parents onto music of their own choosing, often in an opposing
direction. Social class has also become less important in recent years due to the increased blurring
of class boundaries and mass-access to global music styles. The development of musical identities
Introduction...........................................................................................................................1
Chapter 1: Identity..............................................................................................................5
Chapter 2: Childhood.........................................................................................................8
Chapter 3: Adolescence..................................................................................................14
Chapter 4: Questionnaire.................................................................................................26
Conclusions.........................................................................................................................28
Bibliography.........................................................................................................................31
Web References..................................................................................................................36
Appendix.............................................................................................................................37
i
Introduction
Music can enable people to make daily work easier and to celebrate and dance; to
protest against oppression and to establish contact with the Gods' to tell the history of
the past and to dream about the future; to encourage the fi ghter and to calm the
worried; to shout out pain and bring messages of love; to keep weariness away and to
Music appears within every facet of our existence as humans. We are constantly bombarded with
sounds in multiple formats from multiple sources. We can use it to share meanings 'even though
[our] spoken languages might be mutually incomprehensible' [Hargreaves et al. 2002: 1]. Our
society revolves around music, and it is a huge part of an individual's life. It can generate emotions,
stir memories, educate and inspire. In Seashore's Why We Love Music dating back to 1941, he
states that music 'creates a physiological well-being in our organism...it carries us through realms
of creative imagination...' [1941: 9]. This statement alone indicates that music has some sort of
underlying effects and stature within our personalities other than providing entertainment. Musical
identities can be defined as the styles or tastes of music we choose to associate with and listen to.
'The development of a musical identity is not only a matter of age, gender, musical taste or other
preferences, but is also a result of cultural, ethnic, religious and national contexts in which people
live' [Folkestad 2002: 151]. Musical identities are complex and detailed, and are an area which can
be deeply explored.
The years throughout childhood and adolescence are some of the most, if not the most infl uential
in creating and shaping personalities and identities. There are huge biological changes and
developments, fusing with social incidents to form our personalities. Music is one of the largest
entertainment industries, and a strong social medium. We inherently feel rhythm and tones from
birth, and as we grow, music takes an ever increasing role in many aspects of ones life, and it can
1
Throughout childhood, primarily during pre-school and school age, we are subjected to a number
of events and important changes within our surroundings. Often without realising, these new
experiences play a role in shaping our overall musical identity. It is often at stages where we are in
controlled environments, often subject to the external decisions of others. We are subjected and
forced to experience the opinions and values of others, which have an effect on us in some way or
another. At 4 years of age in the UK and many other countries, children begin compulsory primary
education. This is often one of the first times of interaction with other children, which is a key part
Identities continue to develop and form throughout our childhood years, leading to adolescence,
where huge changes occur. The teenage years are some of the most crucial in the development of
identity; we begin to think freely and become more susceptible to external infl uencing factors, such
as our peers. The age at which adolescence is reached is becoming increasingly reduced, with
The Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development placing the beginning of adolescence as early
as 10 years, whereas most argue it begins around 2 years later. This is much earlier than it would
have 50 or 100 years ago [Christenson et al. 1998], and acceleration like this could be caused by a
range of social and technological advances, as we involve ourselves with them much earlier than
previous generations.
Musical Identities do not just focus on the genres or styles of music listened to, but on the role in
which music plays in shaping our image and how we are perceived by others within society.
Farnsworth's statement in The Social Psychology of Music explains one of the common
The fact that several of one's friends may enjoy only jazz and other colleagues
receive their greatest pleasure from the music of Beethoven is often brushed aside with
an airy what's one man's poison, signor, is another's meat and drink. The assumption
seems implicit in this statement that taste is whimsical and thus without pattern of any
2
This statement is an interesting and relevant one, as although it is clear that the majority of people
would admit external factors in determining their musical identity, we often ignore or deny them. It
appears to us to just be 'something that has developed' or shaped over time, with no signifi cant or
Cook states that 'In today's world, deciding what music to listen to is a signifi cant part of deciding
and announcing to people not just who you want to be...but who you are' [1998: 5]. We look to
musicians and performers, people who are expressing their views and ideologies to the world, for
inspiration and guidance. Music has the ability to determine how we dress, how we act, who we
associate with and our behaviour to others. We discuss it to inform and understand each others'
personality [Rentfrow & Gosling 2006], often in an attempt to further enhance our own.
Within society, certain genres can carry strong codes of conduct and values, which the listener has
to abide by in order to fully appreciate it [Hargreaves et al. 2002]. ' It provides a means of defining
oneself as an individual belonging to and allied with a certain group, and of defi ning others as
belonging to other groups which are separate from one's own' [Folkestad 2002: 151]. The way we
dress can be used as a way to express strong statements and opinions, and it is often one of the
first aspects of a person that we use to develop an understanding of them. Very few people will
express little or no taste in music, and the majority of people when asked will insist on a strong
However, one thing to consider when looking at studies on musical identities is the notion that due
to certain music evoking various reactions and emotions to different people at different times, it is
often important to understand that the results may not necessarily provide a concrete answer to a
person's taste. Hargreaves et al. state that 'music can have short term, transitory effects as well as
a more deep-seated influence on our beliefs and behaviour' [2002: 11]. This is vital to
Identity as a concept can be looked at from many angles. Identity theory has been researched for
many years within Psychology, as we try to unravel the many facets of our personalities, and the
elements that construct them. It is one of the most complex aspects of our being, as there are so
many variable factors, that change and fl uctuate depending on things such as our location,
3
upbringing and ethnicity. By looking at identity theory and concepts within it, we can use this to
understand some of the most important issues that aid our musical identity development.
Music taste is an aspect of our identities that has been studied within the academic areas of
Philosophy, Psychology, Sociology and Musicology, and countless studies have been undertaken
to try and understand what the major factors are for what we choose to listen to. These
preferences develop primarily during some of the most important and elemental stages of our lives.
It is at times when we are discovering tastes not just in music, but in cultural and social domains
too. Identity development occurs at a dramatic rate, and we look to sources for inspiration on how
to form it. Rentfrow & Gosling argue that although there has been much research and information
about personality, there is not a huge level of attention to behaviour in real life in regards to
psychology and social personality. It is our behaviours in everyday life that can tell us huge
surrounds us in daily life, and for that reason alone it must be a crucial aspect of our development
of personality.
Rentfrow & Gosling [2006] also argue that there are three mechanisms for people's musical
preferences revealing information within our personalities. Firstly, they may seek out particular
styles because they sound pleasing. Someone may enjoy choral music because they enjoy sounds
of the human voice, or on a higher-cognitive level, they might have religious links with it. Secondly,
they might use it to regulate mood. Thirdly, individuals might use music to make identity claims of
themselves and others, such as intelligent people listening to complex music because it projects
the image of sophistication. I believe the most important is the last point, particularly within
personality development, but they often actively work together. It also emphasises how important
music is for identity purposes. People choose to listen to many different styles of music for a
number of different reasons, and their research also suggested that users understand that music
There are many different approaches that could be taken when studying musical identities, but a
number stand out as having the greatest effect. The main areas of focus will be around family life
and parental involvement throughout childhood and adolescence, as it is arguably family life that
4
has one of the greatest parts to play in shaping identities. Education and school life is another
highly important time to consider, as along with it being one of the main social environments we
encounter throughout our youth, due to the social, psychological and physical development that is
occurring. I will also look at the effect that instrumental learning or formal tuition has, as they can
show how children interact with music in a particular environment, such as school or the home.
Peers and peer culture in school and social life are also some of the major creators, developers
and instigators in our musical tastes. Their infl uence can sometimes go unnoticed, as it is often a
very gradual or seemingly ordinary process, but their role for some is the most important of all, as
can be seen in sub cultures and cliques around the world. By comparing studies, looking at results
from my own questionnaire and examining sociological theory, the aim is to highlight what the
Chapter 1
Identity
Identity can be one of the most complex and intricate elements of human life, as it is one of the
most malleable and changeable aspects of our personality. Developmental psychologists have
strived to pinpoint certain key areas of our personality development, and many have different ideas
or opinions. It begins in childhood, with the establishment of the self and areas or people around
us. Continuing through childhood, it reaches a peak in adolescence. Erik Erikson's [1968] writings
on development within adolescence provided much of the basis for many studies and experiments
to follow, with Erikson arguing that late-adolescence was a crucial time for development of the self,
achieving identity without identity confusion. According to his works, it is by the age of 2 that
children can recognise themselves. 'Children have developed a clear image of self a sense of
separateness and personal identity.' [Slee 2002: 228]. From this early age, children begin to
understand that they are separate entities to the people who raise them, and it is from then on that
their surroundings begin to influence them. Another concept by Alexandra Lamont [2002] states
that the development of a child's' identity takes two paths, Self understanding, or understanding
5
ourselves as individuals, and self-other understanding, or how we begin to understand and relate
ourselves to others. The latter is often the initial stage, as one will gradually establish the roles of
the people surrounding them, before developing a sense of 'who they are' or how they fi t within the
group itself.
In regards to identity study as a whole, it is only in the last 60 years or so that studies and
explorations into the complexity of identity have been made. These searches have had a central
purpose: 'to define individual identity and to show how identity leads one to find (or not find)
meaningful connections and pursuits within a larger cultural milieu' [Kroger 2000: 4]. Kroger's
statement highlights two important points: the importance of culture and environment in the
definition.
Society and our interactions with it arguably play one of the largest roles in identity formation.
Burkitt argues that individuality is 'not innate or prior to society', but 'comes only into existence
through social relations...the many facets each of us have in our personality are differentiated and
divided in the way we relate to other people; they are not pre-given aspects of the self with which
we are born' [1991: 2]. This statement can be applied to musical taste, as it is our interactions with
others throughout the primary developmental years that can effect our musical taste.
Self-identity is often a search for reason or meaning in one's personality. It is constant monitoring,
updating and amending of biographies to present particular conceptions of self to others and
oneself [Smith 1994]. The word 'individual' is often used as a synonym for 'person', and Conger
argues that this 'implies a need to perceive oneself as somehow separate from others, no matter
how much one can share with them. Closely related is the need for self-consistency, a feeling of
wholeness' [1991: 55]. This search for self-identity can continue throughout life for some,
The desire to appear unique or individual becomes strongest during adolescence, as many
struggle to determine the social groups they adhere to or follow. This feeling of 'wholeness' could
refer to the desire for acceptance within social groups; the idea of being 'normal'. Farnsworth views
and situations with other people in everyday life [1969]. It is often these daily interactions that help
6
us to understand and construct particular favourable traits within our personalities. Ksa also
shares a similar view, stating that 'the individual, infl uenced by specific agents, acquires approved
social norms, roles and behaviour through active participation in the socialisation process from
early childhood' [2005: 121]. The 'specific agents' she refers to could be parental/family fi gures, or
By understanding the basis of identity models, they allow us to pinpoint key times in youth where
identity is most fluid and changeable, and key areas that we draw desirable qualities from. Our
understanding of this and self-identity make for greater clues as to the major constructors of our
musical identities. The understanding of self-identity and the presentation of one's self is
fundamental to music, as it is often music that is used to present or establish this. Music is a huge
factor in social awareness, and Laughey states that it 'retains a social and cultural force of
identification and presentation in nearly all young people's lives whether they like it or not' [2006:
1].
It is clear that music is more than just an entertainment and pleasure entity in our youth, and the
media as a whole influences children with ideas and desirable qualities. Their 'perception of reality,
of social norms and of socially accepted behaviour are influenced by intensive use of both
images and symbolic models' [Flp 2005: xiii]. These interactions are no more apparent and
applicable today, with youth culture being surrounded by communication and interaction with
others.
7
Chapter 2
Childhood
The social aspects of music for children and youth culture is one that has been covered from many
angles. From exploring the social environment of a group of children, one study by Amanda Minks
aimed to show that music is 'a transitional link between child and youth cultures, as a means of
drawing social boundaries of belonging, and as a tool of identity construction that is tied to notions
of gender, race, class, ethnicity, and nationality' [1999: 78]. The factors stated are clearly important
to this construction, as they will define traits within a person's personality.
The musical abilities and interactions expressed by children has been something that has baffl ed
and fascinated psychologists and parents for many years. Countless toys and sound-making
instruments have been put on the market, allowing children to musically express themselves, in
often random and puzzling ways. The smallest of sounds can cause joy for infants and small
children, oblivious to the attention of the parents. 'The child's preoccupation with the raw materials
of sound often go completely unnoticed. The pleasure in rattles for instance, is not shared aurally
with his parents they watch, but do not listen to the source of his delight...' [Phillips 1979: 13]. A
sound such as a rattle that the majority of adults ignore or look bewildered at could be the initial
discoveries of 'sound' or music for this child. Similar to how colours and shapes can provide
stimulation, rattles for example 'help in finely honing the senses' [Mirpuri 2010]. One could argue
that due to our exposure and sensory development, we fi nd these sounds meaningless compared
to the depth and diversity we experience today. Campbell shares a similar view, arguing that
children's engagement with music is 'frequently paid minimal attention by teachers and parents,
even when it may be the rich repository of children's intimate thoughts and sentiments' [1998: 4].
Interaction with music is key to a child's musical identity. Even if they personally cannot explain
why in detail, they sing along and explore music with others. 'Children think aloud through music.
8
They socialise, vent emotions, and entertain themselves through music. Their bodies stretch,
bend, step, stop, hop, and skip in rhythmic ways' [Campbell 1998: 4]. This dancing and moving to
musical rhythms is often for enjoyment at this stage in their lives, as they focus on rhythms and
melodies, ie the music itself. Lamont argues that it is around 7 years old that children can begin to
make comparative judgements and decisions in regards to musical taste and they should be based
initially on 'external and observable activities and experiences' [2002: 43]. This could be brought
earlier by these external factors, as they could almost accelerate this development. The
importance of socialising through music are also beginning to show by this point, as they group
together and experience it with one another. They also use it and listen to it in their most private of
times [Campbell 1998]. It is interesting to note even at this early stage children begin to almost
Family and parents undoubtedly have an influence on their children, and the 'nature or nurture'
argument is one that has raged on for many years. Parents often believe that certain
characteristics that they bestow upon their children will change their roles or behaviours within
society. Parental pressures are also crucial in the development of a child's personality. Family is at
the forefront on social interactions until the age of school, and are 'intense, sustained and varied'
[Wenar 1971: 305]. Erikson promoted the importance of strong family relationships, stating that
children are '[he is] deeply and exclusively identifi ed with [his] parents, who most of the time
appear to him to be powerful and beautiful, although often quite unreasonable' [1968: 115]. Older
siblings can also provide sources for new music and styles [Minks 1999]. Parents are prominent
role models in identity as a whole, but with growth, more and more models become involved [Ksa
2005]. These role models often over take parents in infl uential importance, particularly in
adolescence.
Gesell and Frances [1943] believed that if parents or teachers assumed they could mould a child
into particular patterns, they would become autocratic. But, if they began with the assumption that
every baby had a unique individuality, their task would rather be to interpret this individuality, to
9
allow it to grow. This concept is one that needs to be considered when determining musical
identities, as the freedom allowed by them to develop their own ideas and opinions will affect their
personality in some way. Looking more at musical identities, a recent article in the Guardian
My first musical crush was Adam and the Ants; but I don't think I would have
fallen in love with them if my dad had come home with a copy of Kings of the Wild
Frontier and started lecturing me on its genius. What made Adam and the Ants special
was that I discovered them for myself, in the front room, watching Top of the Pops.
[Petridis 2009]
This idea of 'self discovery' is important in developing musical identities, as we almost feel like it is
wrong to like an artist put upon us by someone else, particularly a parental fi gure; part of the
enjoyment is this discovery.
Sharing and communication is also a vital progression, as argued by Paul Elek. 'A small child
allowed to help mum or dad cook or mend the car is going to grow up with an interest in and
respect these activities. That is perfectly obvious' [1979: 14]. One might argue that this is not
necessarily the case, as partaking in certain hobbies or activities with parents as a child could hold
complex emotions or memories that could cause them to dislike it when older.
The acknowledgement of a parent's influence on music taste is widely fought, and children
expressing a dislike for their parent's music is a stereotype throughout the Western world. In
particular interviews conducted by Dan Laughey with children from the North of England during
2006, the majority of children abruptly denied family elders having an infl uence on their musical
preferences [2006]. A study conducted by Christenson [1994] showed a 20% drop in a child's liking
of a parent's music from third and fourth grade (8-9 years) to fi fth and sixth (10-11 years). This
follows the majority of ideas about children entering adolescence, and becoming more removed
Instrumental learning can also be an area to look at, as 'children learn discipline from the rehearsal
process, self-expression from performance and social interaction from group studies' [Pollick
10
2010]. Although not necessarily linked to taste directly, it can highlight how pressure from parents
and other sources effect personality and development, and in turn affecting taste. Highly supportive
parents can be linked to the success of students [Davidson et al. 1996], and parents are often
encouraged to become involved with the learning process. For many, it is seen as part of the
fundamental learning process through school, and many continue throughout their adult life.
Parents who are musicians and perform themselves may provide a very different learning
environment for those who do not. Non-performing parents may be more inclined to merit minor
musical accomplishments, therefore enhancing their child's sense of self-esteem. A highly skilled
parent might present an unattainable bar to match or achieve [Davidson et al. 1996]. A year-long
study by Borthwick [1998] of a family with two highly prolifi c musical parents highlights the
complications with encouragement and support. The Mother was a younger sibling, and therefore
had been regarded as less able musically in her family, whilst the Father was the eldest, and
therefore regarded as a musical genius. They mirrored similar developments in their own children,
with the eldest being deliberately encouraged, and the younger being regarded as untalented
though perfectly competent for her age. Borthwick suggested that the parents ignored the age
Musical learning also carries strong social connotations, and these can be the most important in
What many young leaners do in their social relationships with others, and with
their engagement in music-making itself, is to develop the self in such a manner that
music becomes an essential construct for their personal identities...they see the 'self' in
What Davidson is saying is that music-making and instrument playing is a hugely interactive and
By looking at these studies of supportive parents, we can begin to relate them to musical identities.
Parents widely encourage children to learn instruments, primarily whilst at school, as it is well
integrated into the learning system. As discussed later on, tastes begin to change, primarily during
11
adolescence, and for some, a less structured learning/musical interaction becomes more favoured.
This could also be linked with a change in musical taste to suit the instrument or setting.
School is a vital part of any child's development, as it is one of the fi rst times they have had the
opportunity to mix with others of the same age on a larger scale. 'Children begin to come into
contact with many more children of the same age at nursery school and school. Before this,
children's social identities are shaped largely by their family circumstances' [Lamont 2002: 43].
This is an important factor to consider, as they defi ne themselves, or are shaped by, a relatively
small selection of people initially. These early surroundings often have more competent or older
influencers, which means it is only when children reach social surroundings with other similar-aged
individuals can self-other understanding and self-comparison begin to occur. Schools often provide
children with different cultures, and this is a factor in their social development. 'At school, children
often come in contact with a much more diverse range of people than they encounter in their
homes and neighbourhoods.' [Minks 1999: 78] With these interactions, they will bring with them
their own listening experiences and share them appropriately. Parents also have the ability to
determine how much they interact socially. 'The infl uence of the larger social groups is limited by
the trends initiated through family' [Gesell et al. 1943: 37]. For some, they may have been around
children their own age or older from birth, or perhaps only really started to interact in formal
The musical experiences at school are very different to those in the home [Corrigan 1979], and
both of these locations form together. A particular study by Corrigan emphasised this importance of
context. Each boy he analysed had some relation with pop music, and he argued that by listening
to this music in dance halls, they are there 'not only for the music...but also for the social
institutions that [they] can create out of the freedom that [they] are allowed' [1979: 110]. The
location that this music is played is a very different environment to the home, and this shows the
beginning of the social importance of music for these individuals. Minks [1999] studied a class of
Fifth grade children (10-11 years) in Philadelphia, USA, where the teacher would allow them to
12
play their own recordings at the end of class. 'I t was an eagerly anticipated opportunity to hear the
latest cool song, to show off their ownership of a cool song, or to demonstrate their worldly ways
by singing all the words to a song' [1999: 79]. Mink's study emphasises the social aspect of music,
such as this idea of 'owning the newest song', and the increasing effect peers have on them in
both development and acceptance. Radio is another medium that, although having declined
heavily in the last 5-10 years as a means for listening to new music for children, was the main
source for the latest song; 'when they listen to radio or other sources of pop music, children are
(especially as they near adolescence) but which is not yet theirs' [Christenson and DeBenedittis
1986: 29]. The songs, artists and personalities they hear on the radio may be ones they aspire to
The results of the questionnaire also indicate that the vast majority of people were encouraged to
learn an instrument by their parents. It is often seen as a good skill to acquire, and is something
sociable and enjoyable to do. Davidson's [1999] study on the continuation of musical learning
looked at children aged 7-9, and the effect the school environment has on it. Few of them cited
their parents active involvement in music as a reason for learning the instrument. Rather, he found
that 40-45% of the children stated that their exposure to other students in school bands was the
biggest influence. This could be an example of the early signs of peers becoming a larger
influencing factor in children's lives. Students were 'learning to play for the school band for the
social opportunities it brought with peers and staff' [1999: 34]. Peer infl uence and social relations
are important from an early age, and we can use Davidson's research to get an idea of how they
disagreed that their peers at school made them want to learn an instrument. Students were
'learning to play for the school band for the social opportunities it brought with peers and staff'
[Davidson 1999: 34]. Peer influence and social relations are important from an early age, and we
can use Davidson's research to get an idea of how they interact in school locations.
13
Chapter 3
Adolescence
Teenage and adolescent years are the most key in the development of identity. It is a 'continual
intense search...forcing the individual to ask 'Who Am I?' [Ksa 2005: 123]. They are often
surrounded by individuals all looking for desirable traits and qualities, or ones that are socially
accepted as 'good' qualities to acquire. As stated previously, adolescents are going through a
number of changes biologically, physically and socially, and Conger [1991] argues that
'adolescents may at times feel like spectators observing their changing selves. They need time to
integrate the rapid changes of body and mind into a gradually emerging sense of identity'. [1991:
56]. He also argues that 'at no other state of development is the sense of identity so fl uid' [1991:
281]. This 'fluidity' that he describes is fundamental to understanding the number of external and
internal sources and their effect on our musical identities. 'The process...is always changing and
developing: at its best, it is a process of increasing differentiation' [Erikson 1968: 23]. Music
becomes increasingly important throughout adolescence, as they start to actively choose what
they listen to, in return for some gratifi cation for themselves. They form statements of attitudes
towards society as a whole, and the factors that infl uence their musical taste increasingly changes
and moves. It is without doubt that taste develops from experiences at home, church, club or
In 1972, Frith interviewed a number of students in Keighley, a small industrial town in the North of
England, speaking primarily to 14-18 year olds, the majority of them liking rock music. Typical
responses on influences of taste were 'I like what I like, no one changes my opinions on music' and
'I like what I like, not what I'm told or influenced to like'. These statements are interesting, as
adolescents are often adamant to be recognised as having made their own musical taste
14
decisions. Approximately a third of respondents to my questionnaire agreed or strongly agreed that
they created their musical identity without their peers or parents infl uence.
By adolescence, the family and parents are becoming less and less infl uential, and external factors
become more prevalent. 'In trying to define themselves they actively seek role models from outside
the family as possible alternative choices' [Ksa 2005: 123]. As they discover these alternative
sources, the traits, in this case musical, may seem childish or associated with the past, and
therefore something to move on from, or 'grow out of'. 'They adopt less idealised images of their
parents, relinquish some of their childish dependencies on them, and form a more individual idea
of self' [Steinberg & Silverberg 1986: 849]. Their independence, no matter how small, is becoming
important.
The interviews conducted by Dan Laughey [2006] provided one of the largest insights into the
musical minds of adolescents. They have shown that many adolescents understand, recognise
and acknowledge the effect and influence their parent's or family have had on them as they grew
up. In one particular interview, a girl stated that her father 'had always infl uenced her', because he
would play his music frequently to her in various settings. In another, one girl's preference for
Gospel music came from attending church at the will of her grandparents, who had strong religious
beliefs. Another girl reportedly got into such 1970's artists as Queen from her Dads' experiences
as a DJ. It is these interactions in home and local spaces that have the largest infl uence. Many
people, when asked, can remember listening to their parent's music as children, but often deny it
From the questionnaire, when asked to rate the statement - 'I believe my parents helped to shape
my musical taste', approximately 48% of people responded between neutral and strongly disagree,
possibly showing that it is often something that is not necessarily directly linked. 'Very few teens,
we expect, look to their parents for musical infl uence, and even fewer would admit it if they did'
[Christenson and Roberts 1998: 82]. For many, it is not socially acceptable to say you like similar
15
music to your parents, as it is regarded as 'old' or 'uncool'. 'Popular music is the crucial battlefront
in the war between the generations [1998: 7]. Teens use it to sometimes distance themselves from
their parental pressures. It can also work in the opposing way, with studies showing parents having
a willingness to listen and enjoy their children's music too [Borthwick and Davidson 2002]. We
could take this to mean two things. Encouragement and support from a parent for a style may
cause the teen to change or rebel against it, disliking the parent's desire to be part of their social-
strata. Or on the other hand, it could strengthen the relationship, and possibly change or enhance
The stereotypical image of adult's distaste for teen music is one that has stood for many years.
Shown often in media, parents express a strong distaste for teen or 'chart' music, either referring to
it as 'noise' or 'unmusical'. Adults often feel they have superior taste to young people, but this is
something that has continued for years. 'Ours is not the first generation to think that what younger
people listen to is drivel; but we are perhaps the first generation conceited and self-centred enough
to think we have to do something about it' [Petridis 2009]. Parents feel it is their duty sometimes to
'educate' or direct their children musically. This trend seems to be continuing, almost as if it has
become a social norm for many family settings. 'For some kids, surely, it [parental infl uence] is
direct and positive, essentially a form of modelling. For others, the infl uence is reactive no music
will do unless it enrages their parents' [Christenson and Roberts 1998: 82].
Adults often see particular styles and genres as causes for personality and identity development.
Genres that represent strong views or traits have been slammed by the public media for creating
and moulding the opinions and ideas of adolescents. Youth music and its themes often clashes
'For every critic who urges the censorship of Rap and Heavy Metal lyrics, there is a free speech
advocate who views these genres as the last bastion of meaningful social criticism' [Christenson et
al. 1998: 6]. Lyrics are something used to express ideas or emotions, but 'many adolescents
naturally resist the notion that something as trivial as music lyrics could infl uence them in any
important way' [1998: 7]. Parents and the media often try and account for a child's bad behaviour
or rebellious nature through listening to explicit or lyrics about 'undesirable' or explicit topics, but it
16
is arguable that many understand that they are lyrics and nothing more, and that they are a strong
Heavy Metal is a genre that is sometimes linked to delinquent behaviour, but one argument is that
it 'turns children into monsters...they [adults] lose sight of the reality that many kids may be
monsters already and simply seek out musical fare that resonates with their monstrous inclinations'
[1998: 7]. This statement shows one opinion that is often shared, presenting the fact that these
children may already have these views or opinions, and have found someone or something that
appears to share them too. Looking at the genre more specifi cally, Hansen & Hansen's [1991]
study of Heavy Metal and Punk Rock found the former to have fans with particular characteristics.
Their results concluded that Heavy Metal fans were more likely to endorse disrespect for women
and male hyper-sexuality. It portrays Heavy Metal fans in a very unfl attering way, and although this
was a relatively small sample size and undertaken in a university environment, it is interesting that
these traits, often linked to genres such as Heavy Metal, have been reported.
Punk Rock is another genre associated with poor behaviour or attitude, and research by Gold
[1987] in family dynamics with punk fans and non-fans found it linked to personality. He found that
fans felt misunderstood by parents much more than non-fans, and did not feel close to their
families whilst growing up. Delinquent or misbehaviour is something often linked with minimal or
difficult connections with their parents. Just because a person has minimal family relations does
not necessarily mean they will automatically turn to 'rebellious' music. Some may turn to it because
they feel that the lyrics and ideas of the musicians refl ect their own, and it is someone with shared
opinions, and they feel they can relate to them in a stronger way than their parents, or any other
adult figures.
Frith [1983] noted that during the 1950's changes within adolescence were occurring. 'American
sociologists noted that middle-classed children were deliberately adopting lower-class values -
17
toughness, excitement, chance-taking, indulgence...thus making a conscious decision to oppose
the values of their parents (unlike working-class teenagers...life of conformity)' [1983: 190].
Although focusing on the USA, some mirrors can be seen in British culture. Many strived to move
from their upper and middle-class values, and music was often a way to show this.
Class and wealth are two areas that are arguably involved in identity shaping, but where an
adolescent stands within society 'is more than a simple matter of parental education or income'
[Christenson and Roberts 1998: 96], and there are more than just these factors at play in
developing musical taste, particularly when placed in a school environment. They also found from
other studies that social class and preference for particular styles showed little or no correlation.
There were, however, certain relationships that appeared. From looking at the results of my study
also, the majority of people disagreed that their family's social status determined their musical
taste. Christenson et al. also found that 'In most studies, lower parental occupation and education
tend to go with a preference for mainstream or Top 40, higher status with a taste for Jazz,
Classical, progressive forms of rock, and world music' [1998: 95-96]. These results are interesting
to consider, as these genres are often represented as such. Frith argues that class does not
influence taste for teens; 'all adolescents use music as a badge and a background, a means of
identifying and articulating emotion. Youth culture is, from this perspective, classless' [Frith 1983:
216].
Research by Schuessler also found that Classical and Light Classical music had the greatest
appeal for the upper classes, while Jazz and Hill-Billy music had the greatest appeal for the lower
classes. He concluded that members of the upper social classes were more likely to receive formal
music training or tuition (something I will cover later in this chapter), thus infl uencing an appropriate
music taste. He also added that socio-economic position may cause a person to be exposed to
those particular styles more frequently, whilst being isolated from others. [1948]. Although this
study is over 50 years old, and musical preferences within the general public have changed some
what, there are certainly reflections within society with other genres that can be seen.
Linking intelligence and musical taste is something that few sociologists and scientists have looked
at, and one study conducted by Virgil Griffi th [2008] correlated American children's results in their
SATs (the standard college entrance exam for students in the USA), and their favourite artists. He
18
found that artists such as Radiohead (Rock), Beethoven (Classical), Counting Crows (Rock) and
Ben Folds (Indie) were top of the list, and Lil' Wayne (Hip Hop), Beyonce (R&B), T.I. (Hip Hop) and
Gospel correlated with students of low SAT scores. We can read any number of thoughts and
ideas into Griffith's results, but classical artists and 'high brow' musicians are often associated with
intelligence. Hip Hop artists such as Lil' Wayne are often branded as coming from lower
intelligence, or even low-income families, and this could mean he appeals to people from similar
backgrounds. A study by Keith Roe [1993] on Swedish adolescents also examined the relationship
between school variables and music preference. He found that teens who performed badly at
school and achieved less academically had a taste for music associated with rebellion such as
Heavy Rock or Punk, and having little or no desire for Classical, Jazz or Blues. He also found that
the higher achievers had a preference for Pop, Disco and Synth music. These results alone show
links between rebellious music and bad school results or bad behaviour.
Mulder et al. [2009] conducted a study on a number of Dutch adolescents over a 3 year period
from 2004-2007, looking at their favourite artists. They found that the level of education did not
affect their musical taste, and all the students rated artists such as DJ Tisto (Trance), Robbie
Williams (Pop) and M Borsato (a best-selling Dutch artist). These artists represent the majority of
popular music for these people, and highlight that for these adolescents and this culture, education
was not an influencing factor in musical taste. It could be argued that their culture has a greater
effect on their musical taste in Dutch society than education level itself.
As stated previously, instrumental learning is an interesting topic to explore when studying musical
identities. The encouragements and environments that different adolescents share when learning
an instrument or any type of musical tuition can be looked at to show us evidence of changes in
musical taste and personality. Tarrant found from one study that 'those participants who currently
play an instrument use music for different reasons than those who used to play an instrument, but
have since ceased, or those who have never played at all' [2000: 172]. From this, we can gather
19
Learning a musical instrument can be seen as a socially or culturally benefi cial thing to do, and as
Laughey [2006] found with one interviewee, children and teens are often encouraged to learn an
instrument by their parents. He found that one person for example, from Singapore, could 'see it as
a good thing to make your child do', and that they could also put it down to cultural reasons, as
piano (the instrument in question) becomes a status symbol, and playing the piano, or having a
musical ability is a socio-cultural value. The questionnaire also indicated that well over half of
Another concept that comes out of adolescence is the move from formal or structured learning to
favour more unorganised methods of music-making. One could argue that this goes with the
change or development in musical taste through adolescence. Children are often encouraged to
learn traditional instruments through school life, as it is appropriate for the setting of learning. As
tastes develop more strongly, some may favour 'cooler' instruments, or ones associated with their
favourite artists or genres. Results from a large sample of 2465 adolescents aged between 13 and
14 supports this.
School music is out of touch with the needs of many pupils. This is shown by the
alarmingly high proportion of our respondents who reported having started to learn an
instrument and subsequently giving up, as well as by the generally negative view of
classical music which they expressed. [North, Hargreaves and O'Neill 2000: 270].
School-based musical learning is often part of the compulsory curriculum for many students, and
how they choose to associate and how involved they decide to become with it can have an effect
on their musical tastes and attitudes towards formal learning as a whole. Bray [2000] found that
regardless of the mandatory part of the curriculum, students favour other subjects over Music
when the choice became available, such as at GCSE level. The school teaching structure is often
seen as rigid and as teens grow and become desperate for 'individuality', they may feel that they
are being restricted by the formal environment. Lamont feels that 'by age 14 years, children who do
not participate in these activities do not consider music something worth studying or something
they are able to do, whilst children who do are likely to have developed a more positive musical
identity' [2002: 46-47]. The ones who continue with music will have a much more fond and
strengthened bond with the formal process, and this may infl uence their taste in some way.
20
As stated previously, throughout their secondary education in the UK, children's attitudes to music
in their environments and the school environment change and fl uctuate, and a study by Lamont
and Tarrant [2001] of students between the ages of 11-14 illustrates this. The following results are
taken from Lamont's chapter in Musical Identities [2002], from a sample of 284 children, comparing
two different schools. They found that only 6% of non-players took part in extra-curricular musical
activities, whilst almost a third of the playing musicians did so. Many of the playing musicians also
came from homes where someone else played a musical instrument. The number of non-
musicians also increased by 20 points from 51% to 71% from years 7-9 (age 11-13), trained
musicians dropped from 19-9%, and playing musicians also dropped 10 points from 30-20%.
These drops in overall musicianship across the school is an example of the changing attitudes of
these young musicians. They are often forced or actively encouraged to learn music in a formal
setting, and this can act as a driving force to move away from genres that include those
instruments or genres. Teens begin to favour music experiences away from the pressures of
adults, even encouraging ones such as music teachers, as they increasingly look to their peers for
School and education as a whole is a huge part of a person's life, as for most children, and it is an
area in which they spend the majority of their childhood. Identity is continually being shaped, and it
is arguably these interactions at school that play the largest role in musical taste. It is where the
majority of initial social interactions occur. During adolescence, 'the adoption of a certain music
style that is, a type of music and a personal style to go with it is one of the most powerful
Keith Roe [1993] also found Heavy Metal to be a genre scoring highly amongst all five of the social
classes he examined, and although it was strongest amongst lower achievers and low incomes, it
was also one of the most liked with lower-achieving upper and middle classed adolescents. These
taste differences associated with class and academic level made him conclude that 'upper working
class adolescents doing badly at school try to distinguish themselves, by means of musical style,
from their lower working class counterparts'. These teens are all working together at similar levels
of academic skill, so therefore need to find other ways of distancing themselves from their peers.
21
He then argues that school achievement helps to structure music tastes. His research links the
In another examination of Swedish students in 1984, he argued that 'the connection between
school orientation and popular music taste arises from the process of academic
evaluation...separates students into two classes the successes and the failures...peer group
structure based primarily on academic achievement towards school'. He also concluded that
because of this causing stronger peer relationships for poor-performing adolescents, they naturally
developed a taste for defiant music. [Roe in Christenson et al. 1998]. One thing that is extremely
important in Roe's study that Christenson et al. raises is that because it studied students for a
period of 3 years, it indicates that early school achievement led to later musical choices, not the
other way round. This can then rule out the argument that early exposure to 'oppositional' music
causes negative school attitudes. This is a view that is often shared with the media and parents, so
this is a key study in understanding how for some, musical preferences are almost 'decided' by an
Adolescents spend a huge amount of time with their peers, and excluding time spent in classrooms
(23% of waking hours), high school students spend nearly twice as much time with peers (29%) as
with parents and other adults (15%) [Feldman & Elliott 1990]. Although family have been the major
contributor in identity formation, by high school they are much more reliant on their peers, much
more than younger children, as their ties to their parents become looser as they gain greater
'independence' [Conger 1991]. Peer socialising peaks at around the age of 15 or 16, where their
ideas and values overtake those of their parents or other adult fi gures [Steinberg & Silverberg
1986]. Mulder et al. state that after this peak, 'an increased individualisation of music taste can be
Socialising through music is something that has occurred for hundreds of years, and it is
something that many believe is hardwired into our existence as human beings. Within the peer
22
environment at school, it acts as a medium to connect through, and can provide instant
identification and topics of discussion; 'popular music is seen as one of the several distinct and
often competing agents of socialising' [Christenson et al. 1998: 31]. Adolescents can and actively
use music as identifying factors when socialising with others. This peer-group network is vital in
secure a positive evaluation of their peer groups, and hence maintain a positive self-concept'
[Tarrant et al. 2002: 111]. His statement could mean to say that they use other groups as a way of
reinforcing their own group choice, viewing theirs as elite or better, thus enhancing their own self-
image. Lamont describes these 'social comparisons [as] more important in older children's more
specialised identities' [2002: 43]. In this way, they look to others for guidance and assistance in
defining their character into something liked by their peers and others around them.
Sharing music is an important part of this, and with the technological age, it has never been easier
to introduce friends and peers to new music. Holbrook and Schindler [1989] argue that familiarity
from frequent exposure, such as sharing of music in a college dorm, will develop musical taste.
Laughey found that 41% of the 96 people he tested exchanged music. Looking further at his work,
one interviewee when asked about her musical preferences stated that she was 'more inspired by
her friends...if your friends made a tape and you hear it and you like it then it's inspired by that.'
[2006: 136]. Interestingly, my questionnaire results differed, in that approximately 55% disagreed
that if their friend at school liked an artist, they would like them too. This could go with the
conventional idea that people may not wish to appear conformist, or prefer the idea of self-
It was during the 1920's that peer youth culture began to develop in the United States, mainly
through college life and institutions. Paula Fass described conformity as 'the glue of campus life'.
[Paula Fass in Frith 1983]. These groups were a way for individuals to defi ne themselves from
others, and music is one of the largest identifying factors. It is a time when conformity and groups
Adolescence is the high-water mark for group prejudice, when caste and class
lines are sharply drawn and inclusions and exclusions are absolute...striking contrast
23
to that of middle childhood when an individual was included merely because he was
Wenar's statement is one that shows how our social needs and desires change as we grow up. In
childhood, children who were good at sports or skilled in some way were the most included/liked,
and although this does continue for many into secondary school, socio-cultural factors become
much more apparent. Wenar also argues that this conforming to the group is more than it 'has
been before or will be again...though adolescents may be united in their defi ance of adults, they
are conventional in their own peer culture quite literally so, since they vigorously uphold the
conventions of their chosen group'. This conformity and loyalty is at is strongest with their peers
groups, and he adds that 'they champion fads in style and taste as if they were a matter of
principle, and punish slight deviations with ridicule' [1971: 301]. These 'fads' he refers to could be
in regards to clothing, hair and other identifying features that adolescents use.
Looking back at the work of Erikson again, he also talks about how groups and cliques 'insistently
test each others capacity for sustaining loyalties in the midst of inevitable confl icts of values' [1968:
133]. What we could take Erikson to mean by this is that adolescents are constantly challenged
with ideologies and strong opinions from opposing groups, and their upholding of the group's
Frith research examined particular groups within the school, and he found that one group, the
'Hairies' (long haired Hippies) tried to move away from the simple peer group.
displaying exclusive musical tastes. Their tastes weren't just a matter of identifi cation,
This group clearly try to distance themselves from other social groups, attempting to show an elite
24
Adolescents are often prone to popular trends and they see them to help 'establish a clear line of
demarcation from adults' [Conger 1991: 282]. It is clearly important for them to distinguish
themselves in unique ways. This idea of 'uniqueness' or 'individuality' is often sought after, and it is
the different perspectives of the observer that determines what one might see as conformity or a
bold exercise in individuality. Erikson thought that adolescents were so preoccupied with these
fads that they lost sight of the real truth behind forming their personalities; 'more concerned with
faddish attempts at establishing an adolescent subculture with what looks like a fi nal rather than a
transitory, or, in fact, initial identity formation' [1968: 128]. Their appearance and presentation to the
world is highly important, and they are 'sometimes morbidly preoccupied with what they appear to
be in the eyes of others as compared with what they feel they are' [1968: 128].
Peer culture during adolescence can be confusing to outsiders, as the looks, attitudes and
behaviours of youths within group culture can seem ridiculous or strange, particularly to adults.
'Parents are often mystified, and in some cases threatened, by the shifting trappings of adolescent
peer culture from fashion in clothes and music to special and rapidly changing vocabularies
[Conger 1991: 283]. Laughey describes these alternative tastes as being 'displayed to others
through these music consumers' unconventional clothes and hairstyles in ways akin to promenade
performances' [2006: 137]. From these statements alone we can see how important the way we
style and dress can affect a person's integration with a peer group and how they appear to the
outside world. 'It tells others who a person is and what group he or she belongs to' [Christenson et
al. 1998: 100]. Frith's research however, found that some people felt that dress-style was often a
matter of convenience, with some saying they wore the clothes associated with a particular genre,
but did not like the music. [1983]. It is possible the adolescents in question still associated with
their friends from childhood, and had not 'musically' made the transition themselves, but their
Parents often associate these behaviours with phases or brief moments of satisfaction from these
groups, and although for some it is just a group they can associate for a small period of their
teenage life with, and many move away from 'obvious' displays of devotion to them in older life, it
appears that initially it must be a blatant expression; their peers and adults alike must know their
attitudes and opinions, and this is a way to express them effi ciently. The parents may see the
25
adolescent as conforming to the larger peer group, whilst the adolescent himself sees it as a way
of being apart from his parents and other adults [Conger 1991]. These sub-cultures often overtake
family in importance and influencing factor, as they seemingly provide the right qualities and traits.
Chapter 4
Questionnaire
The questionnaire (see Appendix A) was distributed mainly to university students, asking them to
rate certain statements by how strongly they either agreed or disagreed with them. A total of 217
people took the questionnaire, with many of the statements relating to adolescence, school
environments or family relationships. The nature and aim of the questionnaire was to get an idea of
the general opinions people had of their youth and the role of music within it, and the results of
When asked to rate the statement 'I was forced to listen to my parents' music as a child/growing
up, and now I hate it', nearly 90% of respondents either disagreed or strongly disagreed. The
majority also agreed that they still listened to their parents music now. It is interesting to fi nd that
most people either enjoyed or at least tolerated their parents' music style growing up, whereas as
stated before, the representation in the media, particularly in earlier years, such as during the
1950's-1970's when youth culture was developing in Europe and the USA, many teens sought to
actively repel their parents' style of music. Two ideas could be constructed from these results. It
could suggest that adolescents have become much more accepting of their parents' music taste in
modern years, or perhaps that with technological developments and their increasingly early
interactions with it, they are able to access and develop their musical tastes much earlier than in
the past.
26
When asked whether social status determines music taste, the majority of people did not feel it
was an influencing factor. In today's society, social status could be seen as less important,
particularly in determining something as simple as which genres you choose to listen to. As stated
previously, some genres are associated with particular classes or social upbringings, and although
this may be the case, respondents might feel that they would not like to be portrayed as having this
Focusing more on school and peer relations, one result stood out from the others. When asked to
rate the statement 'I wanted to learn an instrument because my friends did the same ', over 70% of
people disagreed or strongly disagreed. Instrument learning often begins in school environments,
as it is an encouraged activity for building social relations and interacting with peers at an early
age. These results could argue that it is not peer influence that causes instrumental learning
necessarily, but most probably from other sources, such as parents or social interactions.
The results were split when asked if music determined friendship groups during their school life,
and also when asked if they dressed or acted in particular ways according to their music taste
during adolescence. Both these results were surprising, as stronger responses were expected.
The role in which music plays in friendship groups in schools is something that may vary due to a
number of factors, but from studies it arguably has a part to play in how friendships are formed.
Dress codes in school and social cliques are fairly prominent in teen culture, particularly at school
where individuality and friendship groups are key. In regards to peer culture, when asked to rate 'If
a friend at school liked a certain artist, I would like them too', only 21% agreed. Again, this is an
interesting result, and one explanation for this could be that people do not wish to be seen as
trend-followers; they wish to have their own musical adventures and fi ndings, and do not want to
When correlating certain results, I found that the majority of people who answered either 'strongly
disagreed' or disagreed' also responded similarly when asked whether they liked a particular style
and dressed/acted appropriately. Nearly all also responded that music did not determine friendship
groups at their school. This could indicate that for these people, music was not necessarily as
large part of their school and social interaction. For some, it may be a stronger infl uence in
27
To broaden the data, it would be worthwhile to put some of the questions to primary and secondary
school children separately, to see if the results varied. The primary school results would
undoubtably show a weak connection musically with peers, as this appears later. It would also be
interesting to see if there were any differences between British and American students. One point
was clear from the study; music is still an important aspect of identity, with over 70% of
Conclusions
Our musical journey is a complex and lengthy process, littered with various infl uencing factors that
change and fluctuate as we grow up. Its massive integration within society and our environments
clearly indicate that it is more than just an entertainment force in our lives. It has so many functions
and purposes, and we choose and modulate these to suit our desires.
Music is undoubtably one of the major factors in social interactions and identity development for
children and adolescents. It can define their dress sense, hair styles, who they associate with and
how they behave to others. They use it as a force to disseminate themselves from adults and
parental figures. Family and the interactions with them musically appear to have an affect on many
in determining taste, but it is not necessarily them who defi ne it. We could argue that it is
dependent on how much the parent wants to influence music taste, through encouragement or
otherwise, but it is apparent that although it does have some effect, it is not until adolescence
where they will discover the majority of their taste for themselves. Many will deny parental
influence on musical taste, and Laughey's [2006] research particularly shows that children and
adolescents can describe experiences in the home and elsewhere, understanding that they have
had some effect. Pressures from parents with any learning such as musical instruments will affect
how a child behaves growing up. Parents may feel that by playing and encouraging certain styles,
28
instruments or genres it will develop their children in particular ways, but it can often drive them
further away, as they strive even harder to fi nd their own identity and style away from the ones
School is an environment where the majority of Western children spend youth, and their
experiences during this time clearly have a large effect in identity formation. School often provides
the first interactions with children of a similar age, and they bring with them new styles, ideas and
cultures passed onto them by their own interactions elsewhere. The increasingly make self-
comparisons with others, or make note of what styles are accepted. Musical experiences within the
school can be used to enhance social awareness, and strengthen relationships with friends.
adolescence, as many may begin to feel like they can relate to many of the artists they listen to,
through the lyrics and musical style. Teenagers are often seen as choosing music that 'deliberately
outrage their parents', and it could be that adolescents often choose music that has strong
meaning. This could be because they are trying to develop their self personality, and without
realising it, using this music to represent themselves to the outside world.
Culture and class proved to be complex areas to study in regards to musical preferences, as
although there are common associations with certain genres and class, it is diffi cult to determine
musical taste as being caused by class as such, as adolescents increasingly mix with people from
many different backgrounds. In modern society, we have much more freedom to mix and interact
with people from a variety of cultures than in previous years, and this could be a reason for this
'blurring' of class boundaries. The results from linking intelligence and music taste have proved to
be varied, and it would be impossible to link the two in a concrete way; the number of external
Adolescence and the teenage years are monumental in the formation of identity, as they move
from parents and other adults to their peers for guidance. They are searching for meaning and
purpose, and they feel that music can provide some of these answers. They wish to appear
individual and unique in their musical tastes, showing little or no sign of infl uence from others,
particularly not their parents. They turn to social groups for acceptance, and these often centre
29
around music as a relating point. Their music taste is their own, and their personal musical journey
to find 'their style' is important to them. Clearly, people listening to 'heavier' or 'darker' genres will
not necessarily lead to dishonourable actions, and music with these strong ideas or opinions are
not to blame for 'lost youth', particularly in adolescent's eyes. These genres provide them with
Ultimately, it is the school and peer environments that appear to have some of the greatest effects,
as they are prevailing at the height of identity formation. The myriad of smaller factors throughout
the initial years of life have something to account for, but this is hugely dependent on personal
30
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