THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

Causes of the French Revolution

King
Absolute monarch

1st Estate 2nd Estate Nobles

The Church collected taxes from Pay little tax, but not all are rich
the poor
Crushing weight of taxes and feudal dues fell on the poor

3rd Estate

Poor in towns
Middle classes Rural labourers
Many out of work
Growing in wealth Burdened with taxes
Poor living conditions
 Causes of the French Revolution

People had different reasons for hating the Ancien Regime

• The French Revolution is a complex event, with multiple causes.

•The poor in the countryside did not share the same problems
as the poor in the towns.
• The nobles had grievances against the king, who had taken much
of their power over the years and was now trying to tax them

• Some of the middle classes had grown rich, but were resentful
because they had no rights compared with the two other Estates.
 Causes of the French Revolution

New ideas and economic factors were also causes

• In the 1700s the cost of living was rising fast, but wages remained
low.
• The French economy had been doing badly since the 1760s.
There had been several bad harvests which caused a steady rise in
prices and popular unrest
• The French government was getting heavily into debt, because of
the wars against the British, so it kept increasing taxes.
• New ideas were spreading in the 1700s. The American Revolution
and the Enlightenment taught that all people are born equal, that
people have rights and that the government should govern in the
interest of the people
 The French Revolution

• Louis XVI was forced to call the Estates General in 1788. It was an
assembly of representatives of the three Estates.

• The lack of agreement on the question of individual or collective

(by the Estates) vote led to the constitution of the National Assembly.

• Tennis Court Oath: the members of the National Assembly swore

that they would not disband before the approval of a Constitution.
• The National Assembly was controlled by the middle classes. On
July 9th it reformed as the National Constituent Assembly. On July
14th the Bastille was stormed and destroyed.
 The French Revolution
• There had been peasant revolts since May. Throughout the
summer of 1789 there were riots, rich houses were attacked and
feudalism was abolished in August.

• For this reason many rich people

escaped from France, becoming the
émigrés. Later they would conspire
against the revolution.

• On August 27th the Declaration

of the Rights of Man and of
Citizens was approved.
 Stages of the French Revolution
After 1789, France passed through several stages on its way towards
a liberal political system.
• 1789-1792. Constitutional monarchy, supported by the
conservative bourgeoisie which sought an agreement with the King
and the privileged to abolish the Ancien Regime.
• 1792-1794. Democratic republic, promoted by the lower ranks of
the people and the radical bourgeoisie. They expected to deepen the
reforms in an egalitarian and democratic fashion. This is the Terror
era, when thousands of supposed counter-revolutionaries were
executed by Robespierre and the Jacobins.
• 1794-1799. Bourgeoise republic. The conservative bourgeoisie
returned to power, and confirmed the predominance of the
landowners.
 The Napoleonic Empire
In 1799 Napoleon, a successful general, was appointed consul. His
policy aimed to strengthen the achievements of the Revolution,
avoiding both absolutism as well as the Jacobin revolutionary
radicalism.

In 1804, his prestige as

governor and military
commander allowed him
to crown himself
Emperor. He fought
against several coalitions
of the European kings,
taking the French Empire
to its peak in 1811.
 The Napoleonic Empire
In the annexed countries or those under French influence—with
kings imposed by Napoleon—revolutionary ideas were enforced.

• Suppression of feudal rights, tithes and noble privileges.

• Establishment of freedom and legal equality by means of the

Napoleonic Code, still in force in France.

• Establishment of economic freedom, property rights and religious

freedom
 The Napoleonic Empire
The Napoleonic Empire finally collapsed for several reasons:

• National feelings aroused by the French occupation throughout

Europe. French Armies were seen not as liberators but as tools for
French political, economic and in some cases religious oppression.
• The ideals of the French Revolution became the ideological basis
for anti-French resistance.

• Military campaigns in Spain (1808-1814) and Russia (1812-1814),

along with the British resistance, proved to be disastrous.
• In 1814 Napoleon was forced to leave power by the allied
coalition. His return in 1815 ended with the defeat of Waterloo and
his exile in the island of Saint Helena.
 Exercises

1. Explain the beginning of the French Revolution.

2. What were its main causes?
3. Describe the stages of the Revolution, pointing out the main
characteristics of each of them.
4. How revolutionary France dominated the European
countries between 1799 and 1815?
5. Explain the consequences of French influence and ideas in
the occupied countries.
 The Congress of Vienna
After the defeat of Napoleon, a meeting of kings was held in
Vienna to devise the restoration of absolutism in Europe.
• The four main powers, UK, Russia, Prussia and Austria, divided
Europe in their own interest. France returned to its 1792 borders.
• The Congress was based on the principles of:
­Restoration of the kings’ absolute powers.
­Legitimacy of the traditional dynasties to rule.
­Solidarity among the absolute kings to oppose liberalism and
nationalism.
• An alliance was set up to counter the threats that liberalism might
pose. This was called the Holy Alliance, established among
Prussia, Russia and Austria, and to which later absolutist France
adhered. Britain refused to join it.
 Europe in 1815
The map shows the territorial changes after the Congress of Vienna
• New States were
set up to prevent
French expansion
• The triumphant
powers were
strenghthened,
with Austria and
Prussia in control
of Central Europe,
Russia of Eastern
Europe and Britain
of the seas
• Restoration of a
Polish kingdom.
 The Europe of the Congresses
For almost fifty years, the European order established in Vienna
kept peace. But finally it couldn’t last, due to its contradictions

• The purpose of the Alliance was to keep the union between “the
altar and the throne”, that is, the political and social system of
Absolutism. This was led by the Austrian chancellor Metternich.
• To that end, periodical congresses were held among the powers,
which are a true precedent of present supranational organizations.

• However, the Holy Alliance fell prey to its own contradictions,

when their interests became entwined with those of revolutionary
movements. Even more, liberalism and nationalism were emergent
forces which could not be suppressed.
 Liberalism
Liberalism and Nationalism were two driving historical forces
spread by the French Revolution
• Liberalism holds that the State must guarantee the citizens’ rights
and freedoms. All the citizens (as different from subjects) make up
the nation, which in turn holds the sovereignty.
• Liberalism stands for a representative political system, where
decisions are taken by an elected Parliament, which makes the laws.
• The need for a constitution is also stated, which must establish a
division of the State powers to avoid tyranny.
• Property rights are a main tenet of Liberalism. Economy is based
on the market, and State intervention is avoided.
 Absolutism Liberalism
Before the Revolution After the Revolution

Divine Right Monarchy Executive Power

(governs)

GOD
choose

Judiciary
King Legislative Power Power
(makes laws)
(Judges
holds
accordingly to
choose the law)
Independent
Executive Legislative Judiciary from Legislative
Citizens and Executive
Power Power Power
powers
Subjects: obey Composed of

Sovereign nation
 Nationalism
Because of the consequences it brought about, it has been said
that nationalism is the most influential idea of the 19th century.
• Nationalism, as a political idea, states the right of peoples to
decide about themselves. Associative and dissociative nationalism.
• Nation would be the group of individuals that share a common
culture, history, language, traditions... Will and history.
• Nationalism was an enemy of absolutism because it was based on
the will and consent of the individuals rather than in the historical
legitimacy of the sovereigns to rule.
• The intention of nationalism was to make nation and State
coincide; to set up national communities within national borders.
• Independence movements were based on nationalist ideas in the
Ottoman Empire, in Austria-Hungary and in Russia.
 The Revolutions of 1820
A new liberal revolutionary wave developed in 1820. However,
most of these revolutions were crushed by the Holy Alliance.
• In Spain, general Riego rose against Fernando VII in 1820,
adopting the constitution of 1812 and starting the Liberal
Triennium. French intervention put an end to this period in 1823
(Congress of Verona).
• In the kingdom of Naples a popular uprising forced the adoption
of the Spanish constitution. Austrian intervention in 1821
(Congress of Laibach).
• In Greece liberal and nationalist forces came together to revolt
against the Ottoman Empire. In 1822 the independence of Greece
was declared, being effective since 1829, after a war.
• Liberalism was also the driving force behind the pro-
independence forces in Central and South America: 1808-1825.
 The Revolutions of 1830
Second wave of revolutions around 1830 in Central and Eastern
Europe, more extensive, with wider popular support and deeper
consequences.
The leading force was a conservative liberalism, which imposed
political regimes with wealth-based suffrage and limited freedoms.
In July 1830 Charles X of France was overthrown. The new
government, under Louis Philippe d’Orleans, established a
constitutional and conservative monarchy.
In the same year, Belgium seceded from the Nederlands after a
liberal revolution with British and French support.
Another liberal uprising took place in Poland, crushed by the
Russian Czar, while in Spain, in 1833, a liberal regime was
installed after the death of Fernando VII.
 The Revolution of 1848
The chain of revolutions that took place in 1848 were mainly
based on the idea of democracy. and its meaning: universal
suffrage, popular sovereignty, social equality, rise of workers as a
political force.
The first uprising occurred in France, ending with the liberal
conservative monarchy of Louis Philipp. A democratic Republic
was proclaimed in its place, but soon would be replaced by
Napoleon III´s 2nd Empire
Nationalist and liberal uprisings took place also in Eastern Europe
against the absolutist empires, especially in Austria-Hungary and
Prussia.
 The Revolution of 1848

Revolutions were
mostly suppressed, but
some of them, as in
France, endured.
Thus, nationalist and
democratic
movements remained
as a political force,
and would make
themselves present
later in the 19th and
20th centuries
 Unifications of Italy and Germany
The unifications of Italy and Germany are
two of the most outstanding consequences
of the spread of nationalism throughout
Europe in the 19th century.
Both countries were divided in different
states, and the unifying impulse was
conducted, in each case, by the militarily
strongest and most developed of them
(Piedmont and Prussia).
Also both processes triggered off two major wars. With them,
nationalism became an ideology more palatable to the conservative
upper classes which, specially in the case of Germany, were to rule
the new countries.
 Unification of Italy
Italy was divided in six
states before 1859, one
of them the Papal
States. Austrians were
present in the north,
while the kingdom of
Naples was an absolute
monarchy ruled by the
Bourbons.

The kingdom of Piedmont, in the northwest, was a liberal monarchy

ruled by the Saboya dinasty that took the lead in the unification of the
whole country.
 Unification of Italy
The unification process began
with a twofold drive: Cavour,
declared war on the Austrians and
annexed Lombardy with French
help in 1860, while Garibaldi, a
nationalist adventurer at the
service of the Piedmontese
kingdom, headed an invasion of Local uprisings in the kingdoms
the kingdom of Naples, helped the Piedmontese plans,
proceeding later to the north in overthrowing their sovereigns.
1861
As a result, Vittorio Emanuel of Piedmont was proclaimed king of
Italy in 1861, with the capital of the kingdom stablished in Rome. In
1866 the Veneto region, and in 1870 the Papal States were annexed.
 Unification of Germany
A loose German Confederation composed of thirty seven states was
set up in 1815. In the following years, a bitter rivalry was developed
between Prussia and Austria for hegemony.
Prussia promoted a
customs union of all
Germany except Austria
(Zollverein), so that
economic union would
smooth the path to
political unity.
In 1848 a liberal all-
German Parliament
offered the crown of Germany to the king of Prussia, who refused it.
That meant that German unification would be made resorting to war.
 Unification of Germany
If in Italy it was Cavour who led the unification process, in Germany
that role was to be performed by Prussian chancelor Birmarck.
Bismarck achieved the unification of
Germany in two steps:
• A war with Austria-Hungary in 1866 set
aside the Austrians in the unification
process
• A war with France in 1870 allowed to
remove the main obstacle for unification,
and to add French Alsace-Lorraine to
Germany
After the victory of Sedan in 1870 the Second German Empire (II
Reich) was proclaimed, with the king of Prussia as emperor.