Linear Grammars

Grammars with
at most one variable at the right side
of a production

Examples: S  aSb S  Ab
S  A  aAb
A

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 1

 A Non-Linear Grammar

Grammar G: S  SS
S 
S  aSb
S  bSa

L(G )  {w : na ( w)  nb ( w)}

Number of a in string w
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 2
 Another Linear Grammar

Grammar G : SA
A  aB | 
B  Ab

n n
L(G )  {a b : n  0}

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 3

 Right-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  xB
or
A x

Example: S  abS string of

S a terminals

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 4

 Left-Linear Grammars
All productions have form: A  Bx
or
A x

Example: S  Aab string of

A  Aab | B terminals

Ba
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 5
 Regular Grammars

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 6

 Regular Grammars
A regular grammar is any
right-linear or left-linear grammar

Examples:
G1 G2
S  abS S  Aab
S a A  Aab | B
Ba
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 7
 Observation
Regular grammars generate regular languages

Examples: G2
G1 S  Aab
S  abS A  Aab | B
S a Ba

L(G1 )  (ab) * a L(G2 )  aab(ab) *

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 8
 Regular Grammars
Generate
Regular Languages

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 9

 Theorem

Languages
Generated by
Regular Grammars
 Regular
Languages

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 10

 Theorem - Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular grammar generates

a regular language

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 11

 Theorem - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language is generated

by a regular grammar

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 12

 Proof – Part 1

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

The language L(G ) generated by

any regular grammar G is regular

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 13

 The case of Right-Linear Grammars

Let G be a right-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea: We will construct NFA M

with L( M )  L(G )
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 14
Grammar G is right-linear

Example: S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 15

Construct NFA M such that
every state is a grammar variable:

A
S special
VF
final state
B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
Bb B|a
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 16
Add edges for each production:

a A
S VF
B

S  aA

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 17

 a A
S VF

B

S  aA | B

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 18

 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
A  aa B
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 19
 A
a a

S a VF

B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 20
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B
S  aA | B
b
A  aa B
B  bB | a
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 21
 A
a a

S a VF
 a
B

S  aA  aaaB  aaabB  aaaba

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 22
 NFA M Grammar
A G
a S  aA | B
a
A  aa B
S a B  bB | a
 VF
a
B
L( M )  L(G ) 
b
aaab * a  b * a
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 23
 In General
A right-linear grammar G

has variables: V0 ,V1,V2 ,

and productions: Vi  a1a2 amV j

or

Vi  a1a2 am
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 24
We construct the NFA M such that:

each variable Vi corresponds to a node:

V1 V3
V0
VF
V2 special
V4
final state
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 25
For each production: Vi  a1a2 amV j

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am V
j

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 26

For each production: Vi  a1a2 am

we add transitions and intermediate nodes

Vi a1 a2 ………
am
VF

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 27

Resulting NFA M looks like this:
a9

a2 a4
a1 V1 V3
a3 a5
V0
a3 a4
VF
a8 a9
V2 a5
V4

It holds that: L(G )  L( M )

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 28
 The case of Left-Linear Grammars

Let G be a left-linear grammar

We will prove: L(G ) is regular

Proof idea:
We will construct a right-linear
 R
grammar G with L(G )  L(G)
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 29
 Since G is left-linear grammar
the productions look like:

A  Ba1a2 ak

A  a1a2  ak

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 30

Construct right-linear grammar G
Left A  Ba1a2  ak
G
linear
A → Bv

Right A  ak  a2a1B
G
linear
R
Av B
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 31
Construct right-linear grammar G
Left A  a1a2  ak
G
linear
Av

Right
G A  ak a2a1
linear
R
Av
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 32
 R
It is easy to see that: L(G )  L(G)

Since G is right-linear, we have:

R
L(G) L(G) L(G )
Regular Regular Regular
Language Language Language

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 33

 Proof - Part 2

Languages
Generated by  Regular
Languages
Regular Grammars

Any regular language L is generated

by some regular grammar G

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 34

Any regular language L is generated
by some regular grammar G

Proof idea:
Let M be the NFA with L  L(M ).

Construct from M a regular grammar G

such that L( M )  L(G )
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 35
Since L is regular
there is an NFA M such that L  L(M )
b
Example:
M a
a
q0 q1 q2

 b
L  ab * ab(b * ab) * q3
L  L(M )
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 36
Convert M to a right-linear grammar
b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2

q0  aq1  b
q3

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 37

 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
 b
q1  bq1 q3
q1  aq2

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 38

 b

M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q0  aq1
q1  bq1  b

q1  aq2 q3

q2  bq3

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 39

 L(G )  L( M )  L
G b

q0  aq1 M a
a
q0 q1 q2
q1  bq1
q1  aq2  b

q2  bq3 q3

q3  q1
q3  
Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 40
 In General
a
For any transition: q p

Add production: q  ap

variable terminal variable

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 41
 For any final state: qf

Add production: qf 

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 42

Since G is right-linear grammar

G is also a regular grammar

with L(G )  L( M )  L

Fall 2003 Costas Busch - RPI 43