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3 Asphalt
Asphalt is one of the two principal constituents of HMA. Asphalt functions as an inexpensive (typically, $0.05/lb.), Major Topics on this Page
waterproof, thermoplastic, viscoelastic adhesive. In other words, it acts as the glue that holds the road together
(Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). But just what is asphalt and how is it characterized? Like many 3.1 Background

engineering substances, a vernacular definition of "asphalt" is rather imprecise. For engineering purposes, the 3.2 Refining
definition needs to be more unequivocal. ASTM D 8 provides the following definitions:
3.3 Chemical Properties

3.4 Physical Properties


asphalt A dark brown to black cementitious material in which the predominating constituents are
bitumens, which occur in nature or are obtained in petroleum processing. 3.5 Grading Systems

3.6 Asphalt Binder Modifiers


asphalt A fluxed or unfluxed asphalt specially prepared as to quality and consistency for direct use in the
cement manufacture of bituminous pavements, and having a penetration at 25° C (77° F) of between 5 3.7 Other Forms of Asphalt Used in
and 300, under a load of 100 grams applied for 5 seconds. Paving

3.8 Summary
bitumen A class of black or dark-colored (solid, semi-solid or viscous) cementitious substances, natural or
manufactured, composed principally of high molecular weight hydrocarbons, of which asphalts,
tars, pitches, and asphaltenes are typical.

flux A bituminous material, generally liquid, used for softening other bituminous materials.

This section uses the generic term, "asphalt binder", to represent the principal binding agent in HMA. "Asphalt binder" includes asphalt cement as well as any
material added to modify the original asphalt cement properties. The term "asphalt cement" is used to represent unmodified asphalt cement only.

3.1 Background
The first recorded use of asphalt by humans was by the Sumerians around 3,000 B.C. Statues from that time period used asphalt as a binding substance for
inlaying various shells, precious stones or pearls. Other common ancient asphalt uses were preservation (for mummies), waterproofing (pitch on ship hulls), and
cementing (used to join together bricks in Babylonia). Around 1500 A.D., the Incas of Peru were using a composition similar to modern bituminous macadam to
pave parts of their highway system. In more modern times, asphalt paving use first began with foot paths in the 1830s and then progressed to actual asphalt
roadways in the 1850s. The first asphalt roadways in the U.S. appeared in the early 1870s (Abraham, 1929).

In the U.S., Trinidad (near the coast of Venezuela) was the earliest source of asphalt binder. Trinidad supplied about 90 percent of all asphalt (worldwide) from
1875 to 1900 (Baker, 1903). The asphalt was produced from a "lake" (see Figure 3.18) with a surface area of 465,000 m2 (46.5 hectares or 115 acres) and a
depth of about 24 meters (75 feet). In 1900, Tillson estimated that this "lake" contained about 8,000,000 tonnes of "asphalt" (compare this against 1990
consumption in Europe and the U.S. of approximately 40,000,000 tonnes (tons)). This asphalt, once free of water, was too "hard" to use in paving (Krchma and
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Gagle, 1974). In fact, Trinidad Lake asphalt, when loaded into a ship’s holds for transport, would fuse to the point that removal required chopping.

Figure 3.18: Trinidad Lake Asphalt

Typically, producers added flux, created from petroleum distillation, to Trinidad Lake asphalt to soften it for use in early pavements. It appears that the earliest
use of asphalt binder in the U.S. was about 1874 for a project built in Washington, D.C. This binder was a combination of Trinidad Lake asphalt and a flux
distilled from crude oil. Without question, these early asphalt binders were quite variable, making pavement mix and structural design somewhat challenging. By
the 1880s, asphalt binders were regularly produced from crude oil in California and by 1902 in Texas as well. In 1907, crude oil-based asphalt production
surpassed "natural" asphalt production (Krchma and Gagle, 1974). Today, asphalt binder for HMA pavements is produced almost entirely from petroleum
refining.

This section covers the following topics:

● Asphalt cement refining

● The chemical properties of asphalt binder

● The physical properties of asphalt binder

● Asphalt binder grading systems

● Asphalt binder modifiers

● Other types of asphalt used in paving

3.2 Refining
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In the simplest terms, asphalt binder is simply the residue left over from petroleum refining. Thus, asphalt binders are produced mainly by petroleum refiners
and, to a lesser extent, by formulators who purchase blending stock from refiners. The composition of base crude oil from which asphalt is refined can vary
widely and thus the asphalt yield from different crude oil sources can also vary widely.

The American Petroleum Institute (API) classifies crude oils by their API gravity. API gravity is an arbitrary expression of a material’s density at 15.5° C (60° F)
and is obtained in the following equation:

API gravity can be used as a rough estimate of asphalt yield with lower API gravity crude oils producing more asphalt (see Table 3.5). Figure 3.19 shows the
composition of three very different crude oils and their associated API gravities.

Table 3.5: API Gravities of Some Typical Substances

Substance Typical API Gravity


Water 10
Asphalts 5 – 10
Gasoline 55
Low API gravity crude oil < 25 (yields high percentages of asphalt)

High API gravity crude oil > 25 (yields low percentages of asphalt)

Figure 3.19: Make-up of Crude Oil


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(after Corbett, 1984)

3.2.1 Basic Refining Process

Crude oil is heated in a large furnace to about 340° C (650° F) and partially vaporized. It is then fed into a distillation tower where the lighter components
vaporize and are drawn off for further processing. The residue from this process (the asphalt) is usually fed into a vacuum distillation unit where heavier gas oils
are drawn off. Asphalt cement grade is controlled by the amount of heavy gas oil remaining. Other techniques can then extract additional oils from the asphalt.
Depending upon the exact process and the crude oil source, different asphalt cements of different properties can be produced. Additional desirable properties can
be obtained by blending crude oils before distillation or asphalt cements after distillation.

Asphalt binder specifications used to be relatively lenient, and gave refiners a high level of production flexibility. Therefore, refiners tended to view asphalt as a
simple, convenient way to use the residual material from the refinery operation. Partially as a result of Superpave specifications, asphalt binder specifications are
now more stringent and asphalt refiners increasingly perceive asphalt as a value-added product. Superpave specifications have also caused many refiners to
reevaluate their commitment to asphalt production; some have made a strategic decision to de-emphasize or cease asphalt production, though others have
renewed their efforts to produce high-quality binders (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000).

3.3 Chemical Properties


Asphalt binders can be characterized by their chemical composition although they rarely are for HMA pavements. However, it is an asphalt binder’s chemical
properties that determine its physical properties. Therefore, a basic understanding of asphalt chemistry can help one understand how and why asphalt behaves
the way it does. This subsection briefly describes the basic chemical composition of asphalts and why they behave as they do.

3.3.1 Basic Composition

Asphalt chemistry can be described on the molecular level as well as on the intermolecular (microstructure) level. On the molecular level, asphalt is a mixture of
complex organic molecules that range in molecular weight from several hundred to several thousand. Although these molecules exhibit certain behavioral
characteristics, the behavior of asphalt is generally ruled by behavioral characteristics at the intermolecular level – the asphalt’s microstructure (Robertson et al.,
1991).

The asphalt chemical microstructure model described here is based on SHRP findings on the microstructure of asphalt using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
and chromatography techniques. The SHRP findings describe asphalt microstructure as a dispersed polar fluid (DPF). The DPF model explains asphalt
microstructure as a continuous three-dimensional association of polar molecules (generally referred to as "asphaltenes") dispersed in a fluid of non-polar or
relatively low-polarity molecules (generally referred to as "maltenes") (Little et al., 1994). All these molecules are capable of forming dipolar intermolecular
bonds of varying strength. Since these intermolecular bonds are weaker than the bonds that hold the basic organic hydrocarbon constituents of asphalt together,
they will break first and control the behavioral characteristics of asphalt. Therefore, asphalt’s physical characteristics are a direct result of the forming, breaking
and reforming of these intermolecular bonds or other properties associated with molecular superstructures (Little et al., 1994).
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The result of the above chemistry is a material that behaves (1) elastically through the effects of the polar molecule networks, and (2) viscously because the
various parts of the polar molecule network can move relative to one another due to their dispersion in the fluid non-polar molecules.

3.3.2 Asphalt Behavior as a Function of its Chemical Constituents

Robertson et al. (1991) describe asphalt behavior in terms of its failure mechanisms. They describe each particular failure mechanism as a function of an
asphalt’s basic molecular or intermolecular chemistry. This section is a summary of Robertson et al. (1991).

● Aging. Some aging is reversible, some is not. Irreversible aging is generally associated with oxidation at the molecular level. This oxidation increases
an asphalt’s viscosity with age up until a point when the asphalt is able to quench (or halt) oxidation through immobilization of the most chemically
reactive elements. Reversible aging is generally associated with the effects of molecular organization. Over time, the molecules within asphalt will
slowly reorient themselves into a better packed, more bound system. This results in a stiffer, more rigid material. This thixotropic aging can be
reversed by heating and agitation.

● Rutting and permanent deformation. If the molecular network is relatively simple and not interconnected, asphalt will tend to deform inelastically under
load (e.g., not all the deformation is recoverable). Additionally, asphalts with higher percentages of non-polar dispersing molecules are better able to
flow and plastically deform because the various polar molecule network pieces can more easily move relative to one another due to the greater
percentage of fluid non-polar molecules.

● Fatigue cracking. If the molecular network becomes too organized and rigid, asphalt will fracture rather than deform elastically under stress. Therefore,
asphalts with higher percentages of polar, network-forming molecules may be more susceptible to fatigue cracking.

● Thermal cracking. At lower temperatures even the normally fluid non-polar molecules begin to organize into a structured form. Combined with the
already-structured polar molecules, this makes asphalt more rigid and likely to fracture rather than deform elastically under stress.

● Stripping. Asphalt adheres to aggregate because the polar molecules within the asphalt are attracted to the polar molecules on the aggregate surface.
Certain polar attractions are known to be disrupted by water (itself a polar molecule). Additionally, the polar molecules within asphalt will vary in their
ability to adhere to any one particular type of aggregate.

● Moisture damage. Since it is a polar molecule, water is readily accepted by the polar asphalt molecules. Water can cause stripping and/or can decrease
asphalt viscosity. It typically acts like a solvent in asphalt and results in reduced strength and increased rutting. When taken to the extreme, this same
property can be used to produce asphalt emulsions. Interestingly, from a chemical point-of-view water should have a greater effect on older asphalt.
Oxidation causes aged (or older) asphalts to contain more polar molecules. The more polar molecules an asphalt contains, the more readily it will
accept water. However, the oxidation aging effects probably counteract any moisture-related aging effects.

In summary, asphalt is a complex chemical substance. Although basic chemical composition is important, it is an asphalt’s chemical microstructure that is most
influential in its physical behavior. Although most basic asphalt binder failure mechanisms can be described chemically, currently there is not enough asphalt
chemical knowledge to adequately predict performance. Therefore, physical properties and tests are used.

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3.4 Physical Properties


Asphalt binders are most commonly characterized by their physical properties. An asphalt binder’s physical properties directly describe how it will perform as a
constituent in HMA pavement. The challenge in physical property characterization is to develop physical tests that can satisfactorily characterize key asphalt
binder parameters and how these parameters change throughout the life of an HMA pavement.

The earliest physical tests were empirically derived tests. Some of these tests (such as the penetration test) have been used for the better part of the 20th
century with good results. Later tests (such as the viscosity tests) were first attempts at using fundamental engineering parameters to describe asphalt binder
physical properties. Ties between tested parameters and field performance were still quite tenuous. Superpave binder tests, developed in the 1980s and 1990s,
were developed with the goal of measuring specific asphalt binder physical properties that are directly related to field performance by engineering principles.
These tests are generally a bit more complex but seem to accomplish a more thorough characterization of the tested asphalt binder.

This subsection, taken largely from Roberts et al. (1996), describes the more common U.S. asphalt binder physical tests. Asphalt binder tests specifically
developed or adopted by the Superpave research effort are noted by a " – Superpave" in their title. Sections that discuss Superpave tests also discuss relevant
field performance information as well as the engineering principles used to develop the relationship between test and field performance.

3.4.1 Durability

Durability is a measure of how asphalt binder physical properties change with age (sometimes called age hardening). In general, as an asphalt binder ages, its
viscosity increases and it becomes more stiff and brittle. Age hardening is a result of a number of factors, the principal ones being (Vallerga, Monismith and
Grahthem, 1957 and Finn, 1967 as referenced by Roberts et al., 1996):

● Oxidation. The reaction of oxygen with the asphalt binder.

● Volatilization. The evaporation of the lighter constituents of asphalt binder. It is primarily a function of temperature and occurs principally during HMA
production.

● Polymerization. The combining of like molecules to form larger molecules. These larger molecules are thought to cause a progressive hardening.

● Thixotropy. The property of asphalt binder whereby it "sets" when unagitated. Thixotropy is thought to result from hydrophilic suspended particles that
form a lattice structure throughout the asphalt binder. This causes an increase in viscosity and thus, hardening (Exxon, 1997). Thixotropic effects can
be somewhat reversed by heat and agitation. HMA pavements with little or no traffic are generally associated with thixotropic hardening.

● Syneresis. The separation of less viscous liquids from the more viscous asphalt binder molecular network. The liquid loss hardens the asphalt and is
caused by shrinkage or rearrangement of the asphalt binder structure due to either physical or chemical changes. Syneresis is a form of bleeding
(Exxon, 1997).

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● Separation. The removal of the oily constituents, resins or asphaltenes from the asphalt binder by selective absorption of some porous aggregates.

There is no direct measure for asphalt binder aging. Rather, aging effects are accounted for by subjecting asphalt binder samples to simulated aging then
conducting other standard physical tests (such as viscosity, dynamic shear rheometer (DSR), bending beam rheometer (BBR) and the direct tension test (DTT)).
Simulating the effects of aging is important because an asphalt binder that possesses a certain set of properties in its as-supplied state, may possess a different
set of properties after aging. Asphalt binder aging is usually split up into two categories:

● Short-term aging. This occurs when asphalt binder is mixed with hot aggregates in an HMA mixing facility.

● Long-term aging. This occurs after HMA pavement construction and is generally due to environmental exposure and loading.

Typical aging simulation tests are:

● Thin-film oven (TFO) test

● Rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test

● Pressure aging vessel (PAV)

3.4.1.1 Thin-Film Oven (TFO) Test

The thin-film oven (TFO) test simulates short-term aging by heating a film of asphalt binder in an oven for 5 hours at 163° C (325° F). The effects of heat and air
are determined from changes incurred in physical properties measured before and after the oven treatment by other test procedures.

The standard TFO test is:

● AASHTO T 179 and ASTM D 1754: Effects of Heat and Air on Asphalt Materials (Thin-Film Oven Test)

3.4.1.2 Rolling Thin-Film Oven (RTFO) Test - Superpave

The rolling thin-film oven (RTFO) test (see Figure 3.20) simulates short-term aging by heating a moving film of asphalt binder in an oven for 85 minutes at 163°
C (325° F). The effects of heat and air are determined from changes incurred in physical properties measured before and after the oven treatment by other test
procedures. The moving film is created by placing the asphalt binder sample in a small jar (see Figure 3.21) then placing the jar in a circular metal carriage that
rotates within the oven. The RTFO test is generally considered superior to the TFO because:

● It achieves the same degree of hardening (aging) in less time (85 minutes vs. 5 hours)

● It uses a rolling action that:


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❍ Allows continuous exposure of fresh asphalt binder to heat and air flow

❍ Allows asphalt binder modifiers, if used, to remain dispersed in the sample

❍ Prevents the formation of a surface skin on the sample, which may inhibit aging

Although it has been in common use by some western states for some time, Superpave adopted the RTFO test to simulate short-term asphalt binder aging.

Figure 3.21: RTFO Samples


Figure 3.20: Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test (left - after aging in the RTFO, center - before
aging in the RTFO, right - empty sample jar)

The standard RTFO test is:

● AASHTO T 240 and ASTM D 2872: Effects of Heat and Air on a Moving Film of Asphalt ( Rolling Thin-Film Oven Test)

3.4.1.3 Pressure Aging Vessel (PAV) – Superpave

The pressure aging vessel (PAV) (see Figure 3.22) was adopted by Superpave to simulate the effects of long-term asphalt binder aging that occurs as a result of
5 to 10 years HMA pavement service (Bahia and Anderson, 1994). Prior to Superpave, the general concept of the pressure aging vessel had been used for many
years in rubber product aging. The PAV is an oven-pressure vessel combination that takes RTFO aged samples (see Figure 3.23) and exposes them to high air
pressure (2070 kPa (300 psi)) and temperature (90° C (195° F), 100° C (212° F)° or 110° C (230° F) depending upon expected climatic conditions) for 20 hours.

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Aging the asphalt binder samples under pressure is advantageous because:

● There is a limited loss of volatiles

● The oxidation process can be accelerated without resorting to extremely high temperatures

The standard PAV test is:

● AASHTO PP1: Practice for Accelerated Aging of Asphalt Binder Using a Pressurized Aging Vessel

Figure 3.22 (left): Pressure Aging Vessel

Figure 3.23 (above): PAV Sample

3.4.2 Rheology

Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of matter. Deformation and flow of the asphalt binder in HMA is important in determining HMA pavement
performance. HMA pavements that deform and flow too much may be susceptible to rutting and bleeding, while those that are too stiff may be susceptible to
fatigue or thermal cracking. HMA pavement deformation is closely related to asphalt binder rheology. Since the rheological properties of asphalt binder vary with
temperature, rheological characterization involves two key considerations:

● To compare different asphalt binders, their rheological properties must be measured at some common reference temperature.
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● To fully characterize an asphalt binder, its rheological properties must be examined over the range of temperatures that it may encounter during its life.

3.4.2.1 Chewing

Originally, the degree of asphalt binder softening was determined by chewing (Halstead and Welborn, 1974). A sample of asphalt binder was literally chewed to
subjectively determine its softness. This method is no longer in use today for obvious reasons.

Figure 3.24: Penetration Test

3.4.2.2 Penetration Test

Aside from chewing, the penetration test is the oldest asphalt test. In 1888, H.C. Bowen of the Barber Asphalt Paving Company invented the forerunner to the
penetration test, the Bowen Penetration Machine (Halstead and Welborn, 1974). It’s basic principle, and the basic principle of the penetration test, was to
determine the depth to which a truncated No. 2 sewing needle penetrated an asphalt sample under specified conditions of load, time and temperature. In 1915,
ASTM even went as far as specifying the brand of needle (R.J. Roberts Parabola Sharps No. 2) (Halstead and Welborn, 1974).

The current penetration test (see Figure 3.24), first published in 1959, describes the following basic procedure:

● Melt and cool the asphalt binder sample under controlled conditions.

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● Measure the penetration of a standard needle into the asphalt binder sample under the following conditions:

❍ Load = 100 grams

❍ Temperature = 25° C (77° F)

❍ Time = 5 seconds

The depth of penetration is measured in units of 0.1 mm and reported in penetration units (e.g., if the needle penetrates 8 mm, the asphalt penetration number
is 80). Penetration grading is based on the penetration test.

The standard penetration test is:

● AASHTO T 49 and ASTM D 5: Penetration of Bituminous Materials

3.4.2.3 Softening Point

The softening point is defined as the temperature at which a bitumen sample can no longer support the weight of a 3.5-g
steel ball. Although it is commonly used in Europe, it is mostly used for roofing asphalts in the U.S. Basically, two
horizontal disks of bitumen, cast in shouldered brass rings (see Figure 3.25), are heated at a controlled rate in a liquid bath
while each supports a steel ball. The softening point is reported as the mean of the temperatures at which the two disks
soften enough to allow each ball, enveloped in bitumen, to fall a distance of 25 mm (1.0 inch) (AASHTO, 2000).

The standard softening point test is:

● AASHTO T 53 and ASTM D 36: Softening Point of Bitumen (Ring-and-Ball Apparatus)

3.4.2.4 Absolute (Dynamic) Viscosity at 60° C (140° F) Figure 3.25: Softening Point
Sample
Viscosity is simply a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow and is described by the following equation:

where: μ = viscosity (in cgs units of poise). poise = dyne-sec/cm2 = g/cm-sec


(the SI unit of viscosity is the Pa-sec = N-sec/m2 = 10 poise)

τ = shear stress

γ = shear rate

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Asphalt binder viscosity is typically measured at 60° C (140° F) because it approximates the maximum HMA pavement surface temperature during summer in the
U.S.

The basic absolute viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to be drawn up through a capillary tube by means of vacuum,
under closely controlled conditions of vacuum and temperature (ASTM, 2001). Although absolute viscosity is an improvement over the penetration test, it still
only measures viscosity at one temperature and thus does not fully characterize an asphalt binder’s consistency over the expected range of construction and
service conditions.

The standard absolute viscosity test is:

● AASHTO T 202 and ASTM D 2171: Viscosity of Asphalts by Vacuum Capillary Viscometer

3.4.2.5 Kinematic Viscosity at 135° C (275° F)

The kinematic viscosity of a liquid is the absolute (or dynamic) viscosity divided by the density of the liquid at the temperature of measurement. The 135° C
(275° F) measurement temperature was chosen to simulate the mixing and laydown temperatures typically encountered in HMA pavement construction.

The basic kinematic viscosity test measures the time it takes for a fixed volume of asphalt binder to flow through a capillary viscometer under closely controlled
conditions of head and temperature (ASTM, 2001).

The standard kinematic viscosity test is:

● AASHTO T 201 and ASTM D 2170: Kinematic Viscosity of Asphalts (Bitumens)

3.4.2.6 Ductility Test

The ductility test (see Figure 3.26) measures asphalt binder ductility by stretching a standard-sized briquette of asphalt binder (see Figure 3.27) to its breaking
point. The stretched distance in centimeters at breaking is then reported as ductility. Like the penetration test, this test has limited use since it is empirical and
conducted at only one temperature (25° C (77° F)).

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Figure 3.26: Ductility Test Figure 3.27: Ductility Samples

The standard ductility test is:

● AASHTO T 51 and ASTM D 113: Ductility of Bituminous Materials

3.4.2.7 Rotational (or Brookfield) Viscometer (RV) – Superpave

The rotational viscometer (RV) (see Figures 3.28 and 3.29) is used in the Superpave system to test high temperature viscosities (the test is conducted at 135° C
(275° F)). The basic RV test measures the torque required to maintain a constant rotational speed (20 RPM) of a cylindrical spindle while submerged in an
asphalt binder at a constant temperature (see Figure 3.30). This torque is then converted to a viscosity and displayed automatically by the RV.

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Figure 3.28: Rotational Viscometer


Figure 3.29: Rotational Viscometer (2) Figure 3.30: Rotational Viscometer Schematic
(1)

The RV high-temperature viscosity measurements are meant to simulate binder workability at mixing and laydown temperatures. Since the goal is to ensure the
asphalt binder is sufficiently fluid for pumping and mixing, Superpave specifies a maximum RV viscosity. The RV is more suitable than the capillary viscometer
(used for kinematic viscosity) for testing modified asphalt binders because some modified asphalt binders (such as those containing crumb rubber particles) can
clog the capillary viscometer and cause faulty readings.

The standard rotational (or Brookfield) viscometer test is:

● AASHTO TP 48 and ASTM D 4402: Viscosity Determination of Asphalt Binder Using Rotational Viscometer

3.4.2.8 Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) – Superpave

The dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) (see Figure 3.31) is used in the Superpave system for testing medium to high temperature viscosities (the test is conducted
between 46° C (115° F) and 82° C (180° F)). The actual temperatures anticipated in the area where the asphalt binder will be placed determine the test
temperatures used.

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Figure 3.31: Dynamic Shear


Figure 3.32: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Samples
Rheometer

Figure 3.33: Dynamic Shear Rheometer Schematic

The basic DSR test uses a thin asphalt binder sample (see Figure 3.32) sandwiched between two plates. The lower plate is fixed while the upper plate oscillates
back and forth across the sample at 1.59 Hz to create a shearing action (see Figure 3.33). These oscillations at 1.59 Hz (10 radians/sec) are meant to simulate
the shearing action corresponding to a traffic speed of about 90 km/hr (55 mph) (Roberts et al., 1996). The following equations are then used to determine a

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complex shearing modulus, G* and a phase angle, δ:

where: τ max = maximum applied shear stress

T = maximum applied torque

r = radius of binder specimen (either 12.5 or 4 mm)

γ max = maximum resulting shear strain

θ = deflection (rotation) angle

h = specimen height (either 1 or 2 mm)

G* = complex shear modulus

δ = phase angle. This is the time lag (expressed in radians) between the
maximum applied shear stress and the maximum resulting shear
strain. For a typical neat asphalt (no modifiers) the phase angle is
about 88 - 89°, while some modified binders can have phase angles
as low as 60°.

Asphalt binders in the medium to high temperature range behave partly like an elastic solid (deformation due to loading is recoverable – it is able to return to its
original shape after a load is removed) and a viscous liquid (deformation due to loading is non-recoverable – it cannot return to its original shape after a load is
removed). By measuring G* and δ , the DSR is able to determine the total complex shear modulus as well as its elastic and viscous components (see Figure
3.34).

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Figure 3.34: Complex Shear Modulus Components

G* and δ are used as predictors of the following two HMA parameters:

1. Rutting. In order to resist rutting, an asphalt binder should be stiff (not deform too much) and it should be elastic (it should be able to return to its
original shape after load deformation). Therefore, the complex shear modulus elastic portion, G*cosδ (see Figure 3.34), should be large. Therefore,
when rutting is of greatest concern (during an HMA pavement’s early and mid life), Superpave specifies a minimum value for the elastic component of
the complex shear modulus. Intuitively, the higher the G* value, the stiffer the asphalt binder is (able to resist deformation), and the lower the δ value,
the greater the elastic portion of G* is (able to recover its original shape after being deformed by a load).

2. Fatigue. In order to resist fatigue cracking, an asphalt binder should be elastic (able to dissipate energy by rebounding and not cracking) but not too
stiff (excessively stiff substances will crack rather than deform-then-rebound). Therefore, the complex shear modulus viscous portion, G*sinδ (see
Figure 3.34), should be small. Therefore, when fatigue cracking is of greatest concern (late in an HMA pavement’s life), Superpave specifies a maximum
value for the viscous component of the complex shear modulus. This relationship between G*sinδ and fatigue cracking is more tenuous than the rutting
relationship discussed in #1.

Note that although they appear similar, specifying a large G*cosδ and a small G*sinδ are not the same. They both involve small phase angles (δ ) but the key is
getting an asphalt binder whose complex shear modulus (G*) is neither too large nor too small.

The standard dynamic shear rheometer test is:

● AASHTO TP 5: Determining the Rheological Properties of Asphalt Binder Using a Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR)

3.4.2.9 Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) – Superpave

The bending beam rheometer (BBR, see Figure 3.35) is used in the Superpave system to test asphalt binders at low temperatures where the chief failure
mechanism is thermal cracking. The BBR basically subjects a simple asphalt beam to a small (100-g) load over 240 seconds (see Figure 3.36). Then, using basic

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beam theory, the BBR calculates beam stiffness (S(t)) and the rate of change of that stiffness (m-value) as the load was applied.

where: S(t) = creep stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds

P = applied constant load (980 ± 20 mN), obtained using


a 100 g load. Note that 100 g multiplied by the force
of gravity (9.8 m/s2) = 0.98 N, or 980 mN

L = distance between beam supports, 102 mm

b = beam width, 12.5 mm

h = beam thickness, 6.25 mm

δ (t) = deflection at time, t = 60 seconds

The m-value is simply the rate of change of the stiffness at time, t = 60 seconds and is used to describe how the asphalt binder relaxes under load.

Figure 3.35: Bending Beam Rheometer

Figure 3.36: Bending Beam Rheometer Schematic

The BBR test is meant to simulate asphalt binder stiffness after two hours of loading at the minimum HMA pavement design temperature. Creep stiffness (S(t)) is
related to thermal stresses in an HMA pavement due to shrinking while the m-value is related to the ability of an HMA pavement to relieve these stresses. Thus,
Superpave binder specifications require a maximum limit on creep stiffness (thermal stress not too great) and a minimum limit on m-value (must have some
minimum ability to relieve thermal stresses without cracking).

The standard bending beam rheometer test is:

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● AASHTO TP1: Method for Determining the Flexural Creep Stiffness of Asphalt Binder Using the Bending Beam Rheometer

3.4.2.10 Direct Tension Tester (DTT) – Superpave

The direct tension tester (DTT) (see Figure 3.37) is used in the Superpave system to compliment
the BBR in testing asphalt binders at low temperatures. The DTT is used because creep stiffness, S
(t), as measured by the BBR is not sufficient to predict thermal cracking in some asphalt binders
that exhibit high creep stiffness (> 300 MPa). Recall that a high creep stiffness BBR test value
implies that the asphalt binder will possess high thermal stresses in cold weather as a result of
shrinkage. The assumption is that the asphalt binder will crack because of these high thermal
stresses. However, some asphalt binders (especially modified asphalt binders) may be able to
stretch far enough before breaking that they can absorb these high thermal stresses without
cracking. The DTT identifies these asphalt binders. The DTT is only used for testing asphalt
binders with a high BBR creep stiffness (300 – 600 MPa); asphalt binders with BBR creep stiffness
values below 300 MPa are assumed satisfactory and the DTT is not needed.

The DTT basically loads a small sample of asphalt binder in tension until it breaks (see Figure
3.38). The failure strain is then calculated from the following equation: Figure 3.37: Direct Tension Tester Apparatus

where: ε f = failure strain

∆L = change in length corresponding to the specimen’s maximum loading

Le = effective length

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Figure 3.38: Direct Tension Tester Schematic

If a particular asphalt binder has a high BBR creep stiffness (indicating high thermal stress), it must have a minimum failure strain (indicating it will stretch rather
than crack) to meet Superpave binder specifications.

The standard direct tension tester procedure is:

● AASHTO TP 3: Method for Determining the Fracture Properties of Asphalt Binder in Direct Tension (DT)

3.4.3 Safety Tests

Asphalt cement like most other materials, volatilizes (gives off vapor) when heated. At extremely high temperatures (well above those experienced in the
manufacture and construction of HMA) asphalt cement can release enough vapor to increase the volatile concentration immediately above the asphalt cement to
a point where it will ignite (flash) when exposed to a spark or open flame. This is called the flash point. For safety reasons, the flash point of asphalt cement is
tested and controlled. The fire point, which occurs after the flash point, is the temperature at which the material (not just the vapors) will sustain combustion.

A typical flash point test involves heating a small sample of asphalt binder in a test cup. The temperature of the sample is increased and at specified intervals a
test flame is passed across the cup. The flash point is the lowest liquid temperature at which application of the test flame causes the vapors of the sample to
ignite. The test can be continued up to the fire point – the point at which the test flame causes the sample to ignite and remain burning for at least 5 seconds.

Standard flash point tests are:

● AASHTO T 48 and ASTM D 92: Flash and Fire Points by Cleveland Open Cup (more common for asphalt cement used in HMA)

● AASHTO T 73 and ASTM D 93: Flash-Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Cup Tester

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3.4.4 Purity

Asphalt cement, as used for HMA paving, should consist of almost pure bitumen. Impurities are not active cementing constituents and may be detrimental to
asphalt cement performance. Mineral impurities can be quantified by dissolving a sample of asphalt cement in trichloroethylene or 1,1,1 trichloroethane through
a filter mat. Anything remaining on the mat is considered an impurity. Water impurities are quantified through distillation.

Standard purity tests are:

● AASHTO T 44 and ASTM D 2042: Solubility of Bituminous Materials

● AASHTO T 55 and ASTM D 95: Water in Petroleum Products and Bituminous Materials by Distillation

● AASHTO T 110 and ASTM D 1461: Moisture or Volatile Distillates in Bituminous Paving Mixtures

3.4.5 Specific Gravity Test

Because the specific gravity of asphalt binders change with temperature, specific gravity tests are useful in making volume corrections based on temperature.
The specific gravity at 15.6° C (60° F) is commonly used when buying/selling asphalt cements. A typical specific gravity for asphalt is around 1.03.

The standard specific gravity test is:

● AASHTO T 228 and ASTM D 70: Specific Gravity and Density of Semi-Solid Bituminous Materials

3.4.6 Spot Test

The spot test is used to determine whether or not an asphalt cement has been damaged during processing due to overheating. This damage, called "cracking",
occurs because the actual molecules are thermally broken apart. Cracked asphalt cements tend to be less ductile and more susceptible to aging effects. Since
modern refining practices rarely cause cracking, the spot test is not often specified.

Basically, the spot test is a form of paper chromatography (a method for analyzing complex mixtures by separating them into the chemicals from which they are
made). A small drop of prepared asphalt cement is dropped onto a filter paper. If the spot formed is uniformly brown then the test is negative. If the spot
formed is brown with a black center then the test is positive. Today, the spot test is rarely used.

The standard spot test is:

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● AASHTO T 102: Spot Test of Asphaltic Materials

3.5 Grading Systems


Rather than refer to an extensive list of its physical properties, asphalt binders are typically categorized by one or more shorthand grading systems. These
systems range from simple (penetration grading) to complex (Superpave performance grading) and represent an evolution in the ability to characterize asphalt
binder. This subsection briefly describes the major grading systems and discusses what they use to grade asphalt and how prevalent they are in the U.S. today.

WSDOT Asphalt Binder Specifications

WSDOT uses the Superpave asphalt binder performance grading system and specifications. Therefore, asphalt binder must
meet the requirements of AASHTO MP 1. WSDOT uses three baseline asphalt binder performance grades based on geography.
These baseline grades are typically used and then adjusted as necessary.

Previously, WSDOT had used the aged residue (AR) viscosity grading. The commonly used grade in this old system was AR-
4000W.

3.5.1 Penetration Grading

The penetration grading system was developed in the early 1900s to characterize the consistency of semi-solid asphalts. Penetration grading quantifies the
following asphalt concrete characteristics:

● Penetration depth of a 100 g needle 25° C (77° F)

● Flash point temperature

● Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

● Solubility in trichloroethylene

● Thin-film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging)

❍ Retained penetration

❍ Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

Penetration grading’s basic assumption is that the less viscous the asphalt, the deeper the needle will penetrate. This penetration depth is empirically (albeit only
roughly) correlated with asphalt binder performance. Therefore, asphalt binders with high penetration numbers (called "soft") are used for cold climates while
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asphalt binders with low penetration numbers (called "hard") are used for warm climates. Penetration grading key advantages and disadvantages are listed in
Table 3.6.

Table 3.6: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Penetration Grading


(from Roberts et al., 1996)

Advantages Disadvantages

The test is empirical and does not measure


The test is done at 25° C (77° F), which is
any fundamental engineering parameter such
reasonably close to a typical pavement
as viscosity.
average temperature.

May also provide a better correlation with low- Shear rate is variable and high during the
temperature asphalt binder properties than test. Since asphalt binders typically behave as
the viscosity test, which is performed at 60° C a non-Newtonian fluid at 25° C (77° F), this
(140° F). will affect test results.

Temperature susceptibility (the change in Temperature susceptibility (the change in


asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can asphalt binder rheology with temperature)
be determined by conducting the test at cannot be determined by a single test at 25°
temperatures other than 25° C (77° F). C (77° F).

The test does not provide information with


The test is quick and inexpensive. Therefore,
which to establish mixing and compaction
it can easily be used in the field.
temperatures.

Penetration grades are listed as a range of penetration units (one penetration unit = 0.1 mm) such as 120 – 150. Penetration grades specified in AASHTO M 20
and ASTM D 946 are listed in Table 3.7.

Table 3.7: AASHTO M 20 and ASTM D 946 Penetration Grades

Penetration Grade Comments

40 – 50 Hardest grade.

60 - 70
Typical grades used in the U.S.
85 - 100

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120 – 150

Softest grade. Used for cold climates such as


200 – 300
northern Canada (Roberts et al., 1996)

A few states still have provisions for the penetration grading system. These will most likely disappear as the Superpave PG system becomes more prevalent.

3.5.2 Viscosity Grading

In the early 1960s an improved asphalt grading system was developed that incorporated a rational scientific viscosity test. This scientific test replaced the
empirical penetration test as the key asphalt binder characterization. Viscosity grading quantifies the following asphalt binder characteristics:

● Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)

● Viscosity at 135° C (275° F)

● Penetration depth of a 100 g needle applied for 5 seconds at 25° C (77° F)

● Flash point temperature

● Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

● Solubility in trichloroethylene

● Thin film oven test (accounts for the effects of short-term aging):

❍ Viscosity at 60° C (140° F)

❍ Ductility at 25° C (77° F)

Viscosity grading can be done on original (as-supplied) asphalt binder samples (called AC grading) or aged residue samples (called AR grading). The AR viscosity
test is based on the viscosity of aged residue from the rolling thin film oven test. With AC grading, the asphalt binder is characterized by the properties it
possesses before it undergoes the HMA manufacturing process. The AR grading system is an attempt to simulate asphalt binder properties after it undergoes a
typical HMA manufacturing process and thus, it should be more representative of how asphalt binder behaves in HMA pavements. Table 3.8 lists key advantages
and disadvantages of the viscosity grading system.

Table 3.8: Advantages and Disadvantages of Viscosity Grading


(from Roberts et al., 1996)

Advantages Disadvantages

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The principal grading (done at 25° C (77° F))


Unlike penetration depth, viscosity is a
may not accurately reflect low-temperature
fundamental engineering parameter.
asphalt binder rheology.

Test temperatures correlate well with:

When using the AC grading system, thin film


● 25° C (77° F) – average pavement
temp. oven test residue viscosities can vary greatly
with the same AC grade. Therefore, although
● 60° C (140° F) – high pavement
temp. asphalt binders are of the same AC grade they
may behave differently after construction.
● 135° C (275° F) – HMA mixing temp.

Temperature susceptibility (the change in


asphalt binder rheology with temperature) can
be somewhat determined because viscosity is The testing is more expensive and takes
measured at three different temperatures longer than the penetration test.
(penetration only is measured at 25° C (77°
F)).

Testing equipment and standards are widely


available.

Viscosity is measured in poise (cm-g-s = dyne-second/cm2, named after Jean Louis Marie Poiseuille). The lower the number of poises, the lower the viscosity and
thus the more easily a substance flows. Thus, AC-5 (viscosity is 500 ± 100 poise at 60° C (140° F)) is less viscous than AC-40 (viscosity is 4000 ± 800 poise at
60° C (140° F)). Table 3.9 shows standard viscosity grades for the AC and AR grading systems from AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381. Typical grades used for
HMA paving in the U.S. are AC-10, AC-20, AC-30, AR-4000 and AR 8000.

Table 3.9: AASHTO M 226 and ASTM D 3381 Viscosity Grades

Grading based on Aged Residue


Standard Grading based on Original Asphalt (AC)
(AR)
AASHTO
AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-10 AR-20 AR-40 AR-80 AR-160
M 226
ASTM
AC-2.5 AC-5 AC-10 AC-20 AC-30 AC-40 AR-1000 AR-2000 AR-4000 AR-8000 AR-16000
D 3381

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3.5.3 Superpave Performance Grade (PG)

Although in common use throughout the U.S., the previous grading systems are somewhat limited in their ability to fully characterize asphalt binder for use in
HMA pavement. Therefore, as part of the Superpave research effort new binder tests and specifications were developed to more accurately and fully characterize
asphalt binders for use in HMA pavements. These tests and specifications are specifically designed to address HMA pavement performance parameters such as
rutting, fatigue cracking and thermal cracking.

Superpave performance grading (PG) is based on the idea that an HMA asphalt binder’s properties should be related to the conditions under which it is used. For
asphalt binders, this involves expected climatic conditions as well as aging considerations. Therefore, the PG system uses a common battery of tests (as the
older penetration and viscosity grading systems do) but specifies that a particular asphalt binder must pass these tests at specific temperatures that are
dependant upon the specific climatic conditions in the area of use. Therefore, a binder used in the Sonoran Desert of California/Arizona/Mexico would have
different properties than one used in the Alaskan tundra. This concept is not new – selection of penetration or viscosity graded asphalt binders follows the same
logic – but the relationships between asphalt binder properties and conditions of use are more complete and more precise with the Superpave PG system.
Information on how to select a PG asphalt binder for a specific condition is contained in Module 5, Section 5, Superpave Method. Table 3.10 shows how the
Superpave PG system addresses specific penetration, AC and AR grading system general limitations.

Table 3.10: Prior Limitations vs. Superpave Testing and Specification Features
(after Roberts et al., 1996)

Superpave Binder Testing and


Limitations of Penetration, AC and AR
Specification Features that Address
Grading Systems
Prior Limitations

Penetration and ductility tests are empirical The physical properties measured are
and not directly related to HMA pavement directly related to field performance by
performance. engineering principles.

Test criteria remain constant, however, the


Tests are conducted at one standard temperature at which the criteria must be
temperature without regard to the climate in met changes in consideration of the binder
which the asphalt binder will be used. grade selected for the prevalent climatic
conditions.

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The range of pavement temperatures at any


one site is not adequately covered. For
The entire range of pavement temperatures
example, there is no test method for asphalt
experienced at a particular site is covered.
binder stiffness at low temperatures to
control thermal cracking.

Three critical binder ages are simulated and


Test methods only consider short-term tested:
asphalt binder aging (thin film oven test) 1. Original asphalt binder prior to mixing
although long-term aging is a significant with aggregate.
factor in fatigue cracking and low 2. Aged asphalt binder after HMA
temperature cracking. production and construction.
3. Long-term aged binder.

Asphalt binders can have significantly


Grading is more precise and there is less
different characteristics within the same
overlap between grades.
grading category.

Tests and specifications are intended for


Modified asphalt binders are not suited for
asphalt "binders" to include both modified
these grading systems.
and unmodified asphalt cements.

Superpave performance grading uses the following asphalt binder tests:

● Rolling thin film oven (RTFO)

● Pressure aging vessel (PAV)

● Rotational viscometer (RV)

● Dynamic shear rheometer (DSR)

● Bending beam rheometer (BBR)

● Direct tension tester (DTT)

Superpave performance grading is reported using two numbers – the first being the average seven-day maximum pavement temperature (°C) and the second
being the minimum pavement design temperature likely to be experienced (°C). Thus, a PG 58-22 is intended for use where the average seven-day maximum
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pavement temperature is 58°C and the expected minimum pavement temperature is -22°C. Notice that these numbers are pavement temperatures and not air
temperatures (these pavement temperatures are estimated from air temperatures using an algorithm contained in the LTPP Bind program). As a general rule-of-
thumb, PG binders that differ in the high and low temperature specification by 90°C or more generally require some sort of modification (see Table 3.11).

Table 3.11: Prediction of PG Grades for Different Crude Oil Blends

WSDOT Asphalt Binder Specifications

WSDOT uses the Superpave asphalt binder performance grading system and specifications. Therefore, asphalt binder must
meet the requirements of AASHTO MP 1. WSDOT uses three baseline asphalt binder performance grades based on geography.
These baseline grades are typically used and then adjusted as necessary.

Previously, WSDOT had used the aged residue (AR) viscosity grading. The commonly used grade in this old system was AR-
4000W.

The standard method for PG asphalt binder grading is:

● AASHTO PP6: Practice for Grading or Verifying the Performance Grade of an Asphalt Binder

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3.6 Asphalt Binder Modifiers


Some asphalt cements require modification in order to meet specifications. Asphalt cement modification has been practiced for over 50 years but has received
added attention in the past decade or so. The added attention can be attributed to the following factors (Roberts et al., 1996):

● Increased demand on HMA pavements. Traffic volume, loads and tire pressures have increased substantially in recent years, which can cause increased
rutting and cracking. Many modifiers can improve the asphalt binder's stiffness at normal service temperatures to increase rut resistance, while
decreasing its stiffness at low temperatures to improve its resistance to thermal cracking.

● Superpave asphalt binder specifications. Superpave asphalt binder specifications developed in the 1990s require asphalt binders to meet stiffness
requirements at both high and low temperatures. In regions with extreme climatic conditions this is not possible without asphalt binder modification.

● Environmental and economic issues. It is both environmentally and economically sound to recycle waste and industrial byproducts (such as tires,
roofing shingles, glass and ash) in order to gain added benefit. Thus, when they can benefit the final product without creating an environmental liability
they are often used as additives in HMA.

● Public agency willingness to fund higher-cost asphalt additives. Modified asphalt cement is usually higher in initial cost than unmodified asphalt cement,
but it should provide a longer service life with less maintenance.

There are numerous binder additives available on the market today. The benefits of modified asphalt cement can only be realized by a judicious selection of the
modifier(s); not all modifiers are appropriate for all applications. In general, asphalt cement should be modified to achieve the following types of improvements
(Roberts et al., 1996):

● Lower stiffness (or viscosity) at the high temperatures associated with construction. This facilitates pumping of the liquid asphalt binder as well as
mixing and compaction of HMA.

● Higher stiffness at high service temperatures. This will reduce rutting and shoving.

● Lower stiffness and faster relaxation properties at low service temperatures. This will reduce thermal cracking.

● Increased adhesion between the asphalt binder and the aggregate in the presence of moisture. This will reduce the likelihood of stripping. Figure 3.39
shows two aggregate samples from the same source after they have been coated with asphalt binder. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the
left contain no anti-stripping modifier, which resulted in almost no aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion. The asphalt binder used with the sample on the
right contains 0.5% (by weight of asphalt binder) of an anti-stripping modifier, which results in good aggregate-asphalt binder adhesion.

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Figure 3.39: Anti-stripping Modifier Example.

3.7 Other Forms of Asphalt Used in Paving


Although asphalt cement is probably the most well known type of asphalt, three other forms of asphalt that are used prominently in the paving industry are
emulsified asphalt, cutback asphalt, and foamed asphalt. These types of asphalt are not used in HMA pavements but are used extensively in pavement repairs,
supporting layer or subgrade stabilization, bituminous surface treatments (BSTs), slurry seals, tack coats, fog seals, hot in-place recycling (HIPR), cold in-place
recycling (CIR) and full depth recycling (FDR).

3.7.1 Emulsified Asphalts

Emulsified asphalt is simply a suspension of small asphalt cement globules in water, which is assisted by an emulsifying agent (such as soap). The emulsifying
agent assists by imparting an electrical charge to the surface of the asphalt cement globules so that they do not coalesce (Roberts et al., 1996). Emulsions are
used because they effectively reduce asphalt viscosity for lower temperature uses (tack coats, fog seals, slurry seals, bituminous surface treatments (BST),
stabilization material). Emulsions are typically either anionic (asphalt droplets are negatively charged) or cationic (asphalt particles are positively charged).

Generally, emulsions appear as a thick brown liquid when initially applied (see Figure 3.40). When the asphalt cement starts to adhere to the surrounding
material (aggregate, existing surface, subgrade, etc.) the color changes from brown to black (see Figure 3.41) and the emulsion is said to have "broken" (see
Figure 3.42). As water begins to evaporate, the emulsion begins to behave more and more like pure asphalt cement. Once all the water has evaporated, the
emulsion is said to have "set". The time required to break and set depends upon the type of emulsion, the application rate, the temperature of the surface onto
which it is applied and environmental conditions (TRB, 2000). Under most circumstances, an emulsion will set in about 1 to 2 hours (TRB, 2000). ASTM D 3628
contains guidance on selection and use of emulsified asphalt.
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Figure 3.40 (upper left): Freshly Placed


Emulsion Tack Coat. The brown color indicates
that it has not yet broken.

Figure 3.41 (upper right): The Same Tack Coat


After 23 Minutes. The brown color now
appears in splotches indicating it is beginning
to break.

Figure 3.42 (left): Tack Coat Using an Asphalt


Emulsion. The black color indicates it has
broken.

3.7.2 Cutback Asphalts

A cutback asphalt is simply a combination of asphalt cement and petroleum solvent. Like emulsions, cutbacks are used because they reduce asphalt viscosity for
lower temperature uses (tack coats, fog seals, slurry seals, stabilization material). Similar to emulsified asphalts, after a cutback asphalt is applied the petroleum
solvent evaporates leaving behind asphalt cement residue on the surface to which it was applied. A cutback asphalt is said to "cure" as the petroleum solvent
evaporates away. The use of cutback asphalts is decreasing because of (Roberts et al., 1996):

● Environmental regulations. Cutback asphalts contain volatile chemicals that evaporate into the atmosphere. Emulsified asphalts evaporate water into

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the atmosphere.

● Loss of high energy products. The petroleum solvents used require higher amounts of energy to manufacture and are expensive compared to the water
and emulsifying agents used in emulsified asphalts.

In many places, cutback asphalt use is restricted to patching materials for use in cold weather.

WSDOT Cutback Asphalt Use

WSDOT does not specify cutback asphalts because of their


potential effect on the environment.

3.7.3 Foamed (Expanded) Asphalt

Foamed asphalt is formed by combining hot asphalt binder with small amounts of cold water. When the cold water comes in contact with the hot asphalt binder it
turns to steam, which becomes trapped in tiny asphalt binder bubbles (World Highways, 2001). The result is a thin-film, high volume asphalt foam with
approximately 10 times more coating potential than the asphalt binder in its normal liquid state (World Highways, 2001). This high volume foam state only lasts
for a few minutes, after which the asphalt binder resumes its original properties. Foamed asphalt can be used as a binder in soil or base course stabilization, and
is often used as the stabilizing agent in full-depth asphalt reclamation.

3.8 Summary
Humans have used asphalt for thousands of years. In the HMA paving industry, asphalt functions as an adhesive that holds aggregate together. Currently, HMA
use exceeds 500,000,000 tonnes (tons) per year at a cost of almost $3 billion per year (Anderson, Youtcheff and Zupanick, 2000). Although natural sources still
exist, today’s asphalt is almost entirely produced from petroleum refining. Asphalt cement can also be modified using certain chemical and organic products to
alter its behavior. Modern asphalt binder produced using the PG system is often modified.

Asphalt binders can be characterized by chemical and physical properties. Chemically, asphalt is a mixture of polar and non-polar complex organic molecules.
The microstructure of these molecules tends to govern asphalt’s physical behavior. Since chemical knowledge and testing is limited, asphalt is most commonly
described by its physical attributes. Over the years many tests have been developed to fully characterize asphalt’s physical attributes. To date, these tests have
reached an apogee with the Superpave binder tests. Superpave tests measure specific asphalt binder physical properties that are directly related to field
performance by engineering principles. Thus, theoretically they offer the best and most complete asphalt binder characterization. They are also the most
complex and the most expensive.

Using the tests discussed in this section, asphalt binders are classified for use (graded) based on their physical properties as measured through testing. The most
common asphalt binder classifications are: penetration grade, viscosity grade and performance grade (from Superpave). These asphalt grades are what is

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generally specified in HMA mix design.

Although this section has concentrated on asphalt binder characterizations and tests associated with HMA, asphalt binder is also used in other road-related
products: emulsions, cutbacks and foamed asphalt. These products are often used in an HMA pavement's supporting layers as well as by themselves for low-
volume roads.

Of all the HMA pavement constituents, we have the most control over the asphalt binder. Generally, roads will be built where they can or need to be regardless
of the subgrade, and aggregate is usually taken from the closest source as long as it meets minimum standards. However, we generally specify asphalt binder
characteristics for each and every HMA pavement. This is reflected in the substantial level of effort put forth to accurately characterize asphalt binder.

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