CONTENTS

SUBJECT PAGE

INTRODUCTION ABOUT 1–6

THE PLANE TABLE

HISTORY AND THE EXPENSION OF 7 – 16

THE PLANE TABLE AND ALIDADE

OBSERVATION USING THE PLANE 17 – 26

TABLE

METHOD OF SURVEY : USING THE

PLANE TABLE AND ALIDADE 27 – 34
SURVEY

STEPS TO AVOID ERROR WHILE

USING 35 – 36
THE PLANE TABLE

CONCLUSION 37

APPENDIX 38 – 45

REFERNCES 46

1
THE HISTORY OF PLANE TABLE

The first known instrument for directly producing a drawing of a site was developed by Johann
Richter. He is also known as Johannes Praetorius, a Nuremberg mathematician, born in 1610.
This circular table, called a tabula praetoriana, mensula praetoriana or Pretorian table, used
with a simple alidade and allowed a piece of paper to be slipped under the alidade for
drawing.Later the devices adopted a rectangular table and enhanced the type and features of the
alidade.

THE ORIGIN OF ALIDADE

1. An indicator or a sighting apparatus on a plane table, used in angular measurement.

2. A topographic surveying and mapping instrument used for determining directions, consisting
of a telescope and attached parts.

There are a number of common usage's, the main subject of this web page is the map making
surveying instrument used on a table that has been leveled.  On ships an Alidade is used to
measure the angle from the ship's longitudinal axis to some target or targets, typically to help

2
determine the ships position relative to the target(s).  Large telescopes have an alidade system
that's used to point in azimuth.

These were used on a wooden table that had a drawing attached.  The idea was to make a map
while in the field using stadia for distance to the rod.

Development

 The very early Alidades were just a ruler with sighting wires held in a frame at
each end.  That was what wasused on the Sketch Boards.  See the 1800s Brass and
Army units below.
 A compass can be used as an Alidade when a scale is aligned with the North
position.  The Dietzgen Compass with square scale is in this catagory and you can
get a scale base for some models of the Brunton Com-Pro pocket transits.
 The K&E Early 1800s Alidade appears to be a transit instrument with a verticle
angle measuring vernier capability and probably with stadia hairs in the scope so
that distance can be manually computed for inclined shots.  No compass as part of
the Alidade.

The Berger T-778, Gurley, K&E 5187A, K&E 53491, Lutz, Ottway Ealing No
92, San appear to be this type.

 The Dietzgen 6220 & 6230 added a stadia computation scale "Beaman Stadia
Arc" to the vernier making it much easier to compute the distance to the target.

The early Dietzgen seems to also have this capability.  TM 5-6675-211-15P for
the Dietzgen 6220 & 6230 has change 2 dated 23 May 1973.

3
 A number of the newer K&E Alidades use an optical scale like in a theodolite. 
Optical scales increase the accuracy of measured angles as compared to reading a
vernier.  The Watts and Wild Alidades may use optical scales.

 The

K&E 76 0000 adds what they call "self indexing". 

 This is an auto level function where the optical path is leveled by a pendulum
when the bubble is within the outer ring of the level vial.  The reason for this is to
save a huge amount of time when compared to older systems that need to have the
table leveled for each shot.  This means that the table does not need to be
accurately leveled.  This can be a problem if the Alidade is moved after the sight
and before a reading.
 Alidades were probably replaced by total stations since they can determine
azimuth, elevation and distance all automatically, the latest versions work without
retro reflection prisims on most targets.

4
 In this close up photo of the K&E 5093A Scale you can see that when the alidade is level
the Lower center vernier will read 30 degrees, not zero.  This is to avoid blunders which
probably were common if level was 0 and there were + and -  numbers on both sides of 0 where
a sign error would be a blunder.  Vertical angles from -30 deg to +30 deg can be read as 0 to 60
deg.  That is the limit of vertical angle measurements, since the rest of the scale is used for the
horizontal and vertical distance factors.

On the left is the "HOR" vernier and on the right the "VERT" vernier.  These are used to
convert the slant distance measured using the stadia method into horizontal and vertical
distances.  When the alidade is level the HOR correction reads 100% and the vertical correction
reads 50% (note you need to subtract 50 from the VERT reading to get the correction factor
that's multiplied times the slant distance.

Notice that when the alidade is level all three readings are very much different.  Again,
I'm sure this is to aviod blunders.

5
THE EXPENSION OF THE PLANE TABLE

Plane table mapping is a subject that has received minimum attention over the years, but it
played a very important role in the history of surveying. The plane table dates to approximately
the beginning of the 17th century. Some of the first references to the plane table are found in
early survey textbooks. The early plane table was a mapping tool, as opposed to the compass and
chain that was a boundary tool. The early plane table dealt mainly with planimetric features and
not with vertical elevation. The use and development of the plane table has gone through four
distinct changes since about 1600. I will address each one of these plane tables and its use.

THE FIRST PHASE-THE "PLAIN" TABLE

Figure 1. The first alidade was a ruler or scale of brass with fold-down sights.

The first plane table consisted of wooden boards placed together to form a table about 14 x 11"
mounted on a tripod. A paper or cardboard sheet was placed on top of this board. The
planimetric map or traverse was drawn on the paper. The alidade is the item that has gone

6
through the most changes. The first alidade was a ruler or scale of brass with fold-down sights,
about the same configuration as compass sights (see Figure 1). Note also the chain carriers. I do
not know why they are such whimsical figures.

The following is a description of the first plain table from The Compleat Surveyor written in
1722 by William Leybourn. In the early text it was called a plain table, not a plane table. I have
transcribed this just as it appears in the original text. For some reason, the letter "S" was written
as an "F" before 1800:

A Defcription of the Plain Table, how it hath been formerly made, and how it if now altered, it
being the moft abfolute Inftrument, of any other, for a Surveyor to ufe, in that it performeth
whatfoever may be done either by Theodolite, Circumferentor, Peractor, Perambulator, or any
other graduated Inftrument, with the fame eafe and Exactneff.

During its first phase, the early plain table was a tool that used intersection of lines to locate
points that were plotted on the paper on the table. The early table did not have a level bubble but
used the compass needle to level the table. If the needle was level to the table, this was close
enough. The first operation was to orientate the table to north using the compass. The next step
was to sight a point that needed to be located with the alidade and draw a line on the board. If the
object was close enough to the table, then the distance could be chained. If chaining was not
practical, then the point could be sighted from another location. This would give an intersection
of lines, resulting in the location. Some of the early chains used with the plain table were only
one pole in length-16.5'. The early plain table was used for mapping or cartography. The plain
table was used for horizontal location; elevation was not a consideration in most cases. This item
remained unchanged until about the middle of the 19th century.

7
 THE SECOND PHASE

Figure 2. A 19th century plane table

The second phase brought about a name change from plain table to plane table. By the middle to
the end of the 19th century, the instrument became in shape and size the plane table most
surveyors would recognize (see Figure 2). The alidade now had a telescope. The table was about
2' square and was mounted on a tripod with an adjustable mount for leveling and rotating the
table to orientate to north. The alidade had a vertical circle to turn a vertical angle and calculate
the difference in elevation between points.

This is a description from 1935 by Harry Bouchard, an associate professor of geodesy and
surveying at the University of Michigan, on why the plane table is a good choice for topographic
mapping: "The plane table is one of the best instruments for topographic surveying, as with it the
map is actually drawn in the field where the features can be seen and where the amount of detail
to be mapped and the accuracy required can be judged to the best advantage. The topographer,
while in the locality, can compare his finished work with the topographic features as they
actually appear and thus ascertain if his map represents them properly."

8
Another good description of the plane table appears in the writings of Charles Davies from 1876:
"The plane table is an instrument in which the manufacturer has combined the telescope of the
transit with the straight edge and drafting board of the draftsman. When some form of stadia
reduction arc is added to the vertical circle, the topographic engineer has an excellent field
mapping instrument at his disposal."

During this second phase of the plane table, many different methods were developed to simplify
the calculations to convert the slope distance to horizontal distance and the slope vertical angle to
a vertical elevation. During the last half of the 19th century, the United States Geological Survey
(USGS) put the plane table to use mapping vast areas of the western United States. Many
national parks were mapped using a plane table.

Surveyors spent their entire careers bent over a plane table board. During this period, many
improvements were made based on suggestions from field surveyors. One of these improvements
was the Beaman Arc. The Beaman Arc was a system designed by William Beaman of the USGS.
The Beaman Arc is a stadia reduction device, which is attached to the vertical circle of the
alidade. Its design was based on the principle that for certain vertical angles the difference in
elevation is a whole number multiple of the rod intercept, and the correction to be subtracted
from the stadia (slant) distance to obtain the horizontal component is related to the vertical angle.
This calculation was a simple multiplication for the horizontal distance using the Beaman "H"
index. The vertical difference was a very similar operation using the "V" index on the Beaman
Arc. The USGS set up simple standard forms to be used in the field to make these calculations
without the use of sine and cosine tables. These improvements were all incorporated into the
standard design of the alidades being sold by equipment companies. This alidade design
remained unchanged for over 100 years (see Figure 3).

An article on the plane table would not be complete without mention of the stadia board. This
was a level rod, about 10' or 12' long and 6" wide with very large letters. Many different styles of
letters were tried on the face in search of a blunder-free combination. Many of the later stadia
rods built by the survey equipment companies had handles on the back to hold the board and a
built-in level bubble in order to plumb the rod. Most folded in half with a hinge in the middle for
easy transportation. The faces of many of these rods have an art deco quality and are considered

9
very collectable. One last thing about the stadia board; on a very windy day, the rodman could
almost be lifted off the ground by a gust of wind while trying to plumb up the board. Surveyors
earned their pay when wrestling a stadia board for eight hours a day.

PHASES 3 AND 4: THE MODERN ERA

Figure 4. Plane table mapping in the field.

Plane table mapping in the field.in the plane table setup and the point being read. Unfortunately-
or fortunately-the total station with data collection made the plane table and alidade into museum
pieces.

No article would be complete without a mention of the surveyors who utilized plane table boards
(see Figure 4). There were only a few days each year suited for plane table mapping. The
weather needed to be warm but not hot; sweat dripping from your face and hands could make a
mess of the paper drawing. The USGS used an umbrella over the board when mapping.

Surveyors also needed a day with very little wind. And the reflection of the sun off the board
would quickly turn your face into old shoe leather. In the winter, your fingers would get stiff

10
from the cold, making it very difficult to draw the map. Bending over the board for eight hours
each day without being able to lean on the table took a physical toll on the back. Despite these
difficulties, some surveyors worked in ink in the field and produced maps that were nothing short
of masterpieces.

Now you have the story of the plane table-gone but not forgotten. Technology is great, and we
do need to move forward, but I can't help thinking we may have lost a little of what made a
surveyor a surveyor when we lost the plane table.

11
INTRODUCTION OF THE PLANE TABLE

ABOUT THE PLANE TABLE

Figure 11-29.-Plane table.

When combined with the stadia board or Philadelphia rod, the plane table are used in or what is
generally known as plane table surveys. With these instruments, the direction, the distance, and
the difference in elevation can be measured and plotted directly in the field. The plane table
operation produces a completed sketch or map manuscript without the need for further plotting
or computing.

A plane table (fig. 11-29) consists of a drawing board mounted on a tripod with a leveling device
designed as part of the board and tripod. The commonly used in leveling head is the ball-and-
socket type. The cross section of a plane table with the tripod head is shown in figure 11-
30(refer to the next. The board (G) usually is either 18 by 24 in. or 24 by 31 in. and has an
attached recessed fitting that screws onto the top of the spindle (A). A wingnut (B) controls the
grip of parts C and D on cup E. By releasing the wingnut (B), you can tilt the drawing board in
any direction to level it. Another wingnut (F) acts only on the spindle and, when released,
permits the leveled board to be rotated on azimuth for orientation. The tripod is shorter than the
transit or level tripods and, when set up, brings the plane table about waist high for easy plotting.
One precaution must be observed in attaching the plane table to the tripod head.

12
 Figure 11-30.-Cross section of a plane table tripod bead.

A paper gasket should be placed between the fittings to prevent sticking or "freezing" of
the threads. The plane table is setup over a point on the ground whose position has been
previously plotted, or will be plotted, on the plane table sheet during the operation. The board is
oriented either by using a magnetic compass for north-south orientation or by sighting on another
visible point whose position is plotted. The board is clamped and the alidade is pointed toward
any new, desired point using the plotted position of the setup ground station as a pivot. A line
drawn along the straightedge that is parallel to the line of sight will give the plotted direction
from the setup point to the desired point. Once the distance between the points is determined, it
is plotted along the line to the specified scale. The plotted position represents the new point at the
correct distance and direction from the original point. By holding the plane table orientation and
pivoting the alidade around the setup point, you can quickly draw the direction to any number of
visible points. The distance to these points is determined by any conventional method that meets
the requirements for the desired accuracy and can be plotted along their respective rays from the
setup point. Thus, from one setup, the positions of a whole series of points can be established
quickly. For mapping, the difference in elevation is also determined and plotted for each point.
The map is completed by subdividing the distances between points with the correct number of
contours spaced to represent the slope of the ground.

13
The alidade (fig. 11-31) is a straightedge with a sighting device parallel to the edge. The
more precise types have telescopes for sighting, special retitles for measuring distance, and
graduated arcs for measuring vertical angles. A new version also includes a self-leveling,
optical-reading system with enclosed graduated arcs.

1.The open-sight alidade (fig. 11-31, view A), which is very useful in sketching small areas, has
a collapsible open sight attached to a straightedge. A level bubble is mounted on the straightedge
for keeping the alidade level. A trough compass is also furnished for attaching to the sketch
board. By sighting through the peep sight, the operator can determine a level line and the slope
from the sighting point. No magnification is provided, so the sight lines are kept comparatively
short. The distances can be estimated by pacing or can be measured with a tape if more accuracy
is required. A 10-mil graduation that is numbered every fifth tick mark from 0 to 40 runs up on
the right edge and down on the left edge of the front sight for determining slopes.

2. The telescopic alidades (fig. 11-31, views B and C) consist of straightedges with rigidly
mounted telescopes that can be rotated through a vertical angle of ±30 0 . One type has a
telescope set on a high standard or post to raise it above the table. This permits direct viewing
through the telescope, which is at a comfortable height. The other type has the telescope
mounted close to the straightedge. A right-angle prism is attached to the eyepiece and permits
viewing through the telescope by looking down into the eyepiece prism.

3. The telescope for the high standard is 16 power; for the low standard, 12 power. Both are the
inverting type with internal focusing. The prismatic eyepiece inverts the image top to bottom, so
that it appears erect but reversed side to side. The line of sight through the telescopes in a level
position is parallel to the straightedge on the base. The telescope reticle has horizontal and
vertical cross hairs and a set of stadia hairs. As you already knew, the stadia hairs are used to
measure distances. The vertical distance between the upper and lower stadia hairs is carefully
read and multiplied by the stadia interval factor. This value is the straight-line distance between
the instrument and the rod.

4. A circular bubble and a magnetic compass needle are attached to the base. These are used to
level the plane table and orient it to its proper position. Since the ball-and-socket head does not

14
permit as fine a movement as the leveling screw, the bubble is centered as accurately as possible.
Then, the wingnut (fig. 11-30, view B) is set firmly but not tightly. When the plane table is
tapped lightly on the proper corner, the operator can refine the leveling and then properly tighten
the wingnut. To orient the plane table, loosen wingnut F and rotate the table. It is a good practice
to draw a magnetic north line on the cover sheet or on two pieces of tape attached near the edges
of the board. The straightedge is set on this line during orientation. When the plane table is
rotated to face north, the magnetic needle is released and will have room to swing in its case
without hitting the sides

5. The telescopic alidades have two other important features used for plane table surveying.
These are the detachable striding level and the

Figure 11-31.-Types of alidades.

stadia arc. The striding level contains a long bubble, and when attached, permits accurate
leveling of the line of sight. The bubble is mounted on a metal tube with V-fittings on each end.
The fittings are placed astride the telescope and bear on built-in polished brass rings on each side
of the center post. A spring clip on the level grips a center pin on top of the telescope and keeps
the level from falling or being knocked off during operation. A button on the side of the level
releases the clip for removing the level. For checking and adjusting, the level is reversible. The
striding level normally is used to establish a horizontal line of sight and to use the alidade as a
level. The stadia arc assembly consists of a vertical arc mounted on the end of the left trunnion
and a vernier attached to the left bearing by an arm. A level vial is attached to the upper end of

15
the arm; a tangent screw controls the movement of the vial. Once adjusted, this vial establishes a
reference from which vertical angles can be measured even if the plane table is not exactly level.
The stadia arc is a vertical scale attached to the alidade. With the stadia arc, it is possible to
determine horizontal distances and differences in elevation by the stadia method.

6. A new model telescopic alidade is the self-leveling, optical-reading instrument. Instead of the
exterior arc and level bubble, a prism system with a suspended element and enclosed arcs is
used. As long as the alidade base is leveled to within one-half degree of horizontal, the
suspending element (or pendulum) will swing into position. Then the vertical arc index that is
attached to it will assume a leveled position. The scales are read directly through an optical train.
This combination permits faster operation. In addition, there is no chance of forgetting to index
the arc bubble and introducing errors into the readings.

7.Some of the auxiliary equipment used with a plane table consists of a coated plastic or a paper
plane table sheet on which the map or sketch is drawn, drawing materials (scribing tools for
coated plastic or pencils for the paper), scales for plotting distances, triangles, waterproof table
covers, umbrella, and notebook. The plane table sheet is attached to the board by flatheaded,
threaded studs that fit into recesses in the table and do not obstruct the alidade’s movement.

16
 MORE ABOUT THE PLANE TABLE

A plane table is a device used in surveying and related disciplines to provide a solid and level
surface on which to make field drawings, charts and maps.

This shows a plane table with part of the surface of the table cut away to show the mounting on
the tripod. The mount allows the table to be levelled. On the table, the alidade with telescopic
sight is seen.

A plane table consists of a smooth table surface mounted on a sturdy base. The connection
between the table top and the base permits one to level precisely the table, using bubble levels, in
a horizontal plane. The base, often a tripod, is designed to support the table over a specific point
on land. By adjusting the length of the legs, one can bring the table to being approximately level
regardless of the roughness of the terrain.

THE USE OF A PLANE TABLE IN REAL WORLD

The plane table is set over a point and brought it to precise horizontal level. A drawing sheet is
attached to the surface and an alidade is used to sight objects of interest. The alidade, in modern
examples of the instrument a rule with a telescopic sight, can then be used to construct a line on
the drawing that is in the direction of the object of interest .By using the alidade as a surveying
level, information on the topography of the site can be directly recorded on the drawing as
elevations. Distances to the objects can be measured directly or by the use of stadia marks in the
telescope of the alidade. Modern versions of the plane table are still used today for filling in or
updating detail on street plans.

17
 METHODS OF SURVEY: USING PLANE TABLE AND ALIDADE
SURVEY

1. This is a method of survey that allows a surveyor to plot and create an accurate scale
drawing on site. The idea is to scale down the site to a size that fits onto the drawing
board.

2. A plane table is a drawing board which is fixed to a tripod, levelled, and orientated. An
alidade is a sighting device used to observe the salient points of the site.

3. Have a good look at the site before you start the survey, time should be taken to walk
round and have a good look at the site or building that you are going to record. On a
building, the obvious features that you would want to record are the corners, door and
window openings, fireplaces. More subtle features that you would look out for are
changes in wall direction, straight joints, blocked doors or windows, cruck slots, changes
in the stonework, changes in floor covering, byre drains.

SELECT A SURVEY STATION

 Once you have had a good look at the site, you will select a position for your survey
station from which you have a line of site to as many of the main points as possible. It is
particularly important to be able to see all the corners and places where a feature has a
change in direction. Set up the tripod legs over your selected survey station. Prepare the
drawing board , a piece of polyester drafting film is taped onto the drawing board with

18
 masking tape. The corners are taped first, with the film pulled tight, and then the edges
are taped. The board is fixed onto the tripod.

Orient the drawing board

 When drawing a building you would orientate the long side of the board so that it is
parallel to the long axis of the building. If possible, for a site plan, you would oriented the
board so that north is up the page. For all plans it is important to check that the whole site
is going to fit on the board at your chosen scale. A pin is positioned into the board to give
a fixed point from which observations and measurements can betaken. The pin marks the
position of your survey station on the board. Once the survey has commenced the plane
table should not be moved.

Carry out the survey

 The alidade is placed against the pin and used to observe in turn, selected points. Rays are
drawn on the film and measurements between the pin and the points taken with the 30m
tape. The measurement is written onto the drawn ray as a record. Subsequently, each
point is plotted along the ray at the selected scale, ' with a scale rule. Observations and
measurements are taken to as many points as required to allow the shape to be recorded.
These plotted points create an accurate framework around which the rest of the plan can
be constructed. This method is most useful for plans of single buildings or small sites
within a radius of 30m from the plane table.

Larger sites

 For larger sites multiple stations will be required. The second station must be plotted
accurately onto the plan from the first station and marked on the ground. It must lie
within 30m of the first station.

19
 EQUIPMENT REQUIRED FOR A PLANE TABLE AND
ALIDADE SURVEY

Plane table, tripod legs, alidade, spirit level, 30m tape, polyester drafting film, hi-polymer 6H
pencil, masking tape, pin, scale ruler, compass, ranging rod for sighting, plumb bob.

EXAMPLE OF PLANE TABLE IS SET UP

20
EXAMPLE OF A DRAWING PAPER IS DRAWN AFTER THE
ALIDADE SURVEY

21
22
 MAPPING WITH A PLANE TABLE AND ALIDADE

Firs
t position of the plane table

 attach a blank sheet of paper to the plane table

 choose an appropriate scale according to the relative sizes of the mapping sheet and the study area
 mark two base points (A' and B') on the paper corresponding to two ground positions (A and B)
of known separation and relative location
 position the plane table at A, placing the alidade along the line A'B' and turning the table with
attached map until the A'B' line-of-sight coincides exactly with its corresponding AB line
 without moving the plane table (even a slight shift in map orientation will cause errors), move the
alidade so another field position, say C, can be sighted from A
 a penciled line along the edge of the alidade will form a ray from A' toward a position that will
become C'
 in a similar manner, rays can be drawn toward other visible field objects

23
 Secon
d position of the plane table

 position the plane table at B

 place the alidade along line B'A' and turn the table and map sheet so the B'A' line matches the BA
line-of-sight
 if the B'A' line coincides exactly with the BA sighting line, then the map is oriented the same as it
was at position A
 now, rays drawn from B' toward C and D will intersect those drawn from A'
 the intersections determine points C' and D' in the manner that a side and two adjacent angles
always geometrically determine a triangle, i.e., by triangulation.

24
 Subsequent positions of the plane table

 the researcher can move the plane table to position C because its corresponding map location is
known, and therefore can repeat thc triangulations and extend the map data
 moving to a third field position, whether or not it is necessary to view all targets, enables the
mapper to verify the accuracy of the previous work
 if the rays from three positions do not intersect at a single point, then the triangle of intersections
represents the degree of inaccuracy of the map
 three rays may not intersect at a common point if two, or all three, are almost parallel; thus rays
that intersect at a very small angle generally should be avoided

25
 OBSERVATION USING THE PLANE TABLE

Surveying and map making have always been two of the most interesting things a civil
engineer has had to do. Surveying takes one out of doors, and is apt to lead him into the
unknown and unexplored byways of the earth.

Though modern surveyors often use precise and expensive instruments, creditable
surveys can be made with simple and inexpensive apparatus. Of such apparatus, two of the
simplest are the plane table and the camera. Since one must know the principles of plane-table
surveying before he can do camera surveying, this paper will describe the plane table alone,
leaving the camera for another chapter.

26
 A plane table is simply a drawing board mounted on a tripod so that it can be set up and
worked upon in the field. One kind of plane table, which is used in the army for reconnaissance,
does not even have a tripod; it is simply strapped to the arm of the man who is using it.

Plane-table maps vary greatly in scale and the area they represent. Landscape artists'
plans may show only single city lots, while some topographic maps cover hundreds of square
miles on a single sheet. For maps of a small farm, a park, or a residence block in the city, a plane
table is almost ideal, since plane-table maps are made with rather simple apparatus and do not
require much actual measuring on the ground. Most objects ,are located without ever going to.
them, or even sending a rod-man to them.

Besides the plane table itself and a sheet of paper, only a small carpenter's level, a tape to
measure a few distances with, and some spikes for markers, a hard lead pencil, a ruler, and a few
needles are absolutely necessary for this sort of a map.

To start a plane-table map, a station must first be selected from which as many as
possible o f the objects to be located on the finished map can be seen. Ordinarily, the objects one
would locate are corners of buildings, fence corners, intersections of roads, corners of lots, banks
of streams, possibly trees, and section and quarter section corners in the country. A railroad, a
lake, a mountain, or anything which forms a noticeable landmark in / any particular locality,
ought to be on the map. In mapping a territory which has never been surveyed before, toe first
surveyor may name the hills and streams. After the first station has been selected, it is marked by
a pile of stones, a stake, or, if precise work is to be done, a tack in the top of a stake. The table is

27
then set up over this station point and leveled so that the surface of the paper will be truly
horizontal. Generally, too, the board is "oriented," that is, placed so that two of its edges point
north and south and two east and west. It is then clamped so that it will not move while working
on it.

To begin the map, a point on the table is chosen to represent the station on the ground over which
the table is set. This point is marked by sticking a fine needle into the paper, vertically. A small
triangle should be drawn around the needle hole in the paper and labeled

"Sta. A," so that it will not be lost in the maze of points which will soon cover the sheet.

By sighting past his needle toward some object which is wanted on the map, like the corner of a
house, its direction can be marked by setting another needle on the far side of the table, in line
with the first and the given object. Then, if a ruler or straightedge be placed against these two
needles and a fine line drawn connecting them, this line will show the exact direction of the

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object from other objects which are wanted on the finished map and can be seen from Sta. A are
located by direction in the same way.

Station. A.

The first points to have their direction thus marked ought to be the next stations to be
occupied. If all the objects to be located can be seen from three stations, or even two of three
stations, three stations will be sufficient. The distance to one of them from Sta. A should be
carefully measured and laid off to scale along its direction line on the map. Its place on the map
should be marked exactly as the first station was, substituting B for A. It is wise, after every few
sights at other objects, to take a sight along the line AB to make sure that the board has not
turned. A good map is impossible if the board twists.

To measure the distance between stations, a 50 or 100-ft. tape, or some accurate

substitute, is necessary. An ordinary piece of iron telegraph wire, 105 ft. long, is a good
substitute. A No3 point, about 2 1/2 ft. from one end, is marked with a little lump of solder. A
chisel dent in this solder will mark one end of the 100-ft. section. Then, with a borrowed tape or
a good rule, measure off and mark every 10 ft., just as the first point was marked, until the entire
100 ft. have been laid off. The last 10 ft. should be divided into feet. In all this measuring and
marking, the wire must be stretched out taut and straight. The extra 2 1/2ft. at each end are used
for making handles. By estimating the tenths of a foot, measurements can be made with such a

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tape, or "chain," as an old-time surveyor might call it, just as accurately as they can be laid off on
the map.

Ill: An Alidade, Consisting of Two Sights And a Straightedge, Takes the Place of the Two
Needles

Two men are required for measuring, or "chaining," a head and a rear chainman. The rear
chainman holds the 100-ft. end of the tape on the station point, while the head chainman takes
his end forward toward the station to which they are measuring. When he has gone nearly the
length of the tape, the rear chainman calls "halt." The head chainman stops and draws the tape up
tight, while the rear chainman holds his division end on the starting point. Then the head chain-
man sticks a spike into the ground to mark the place where his division end comes, calls out
"stuck," and starts on toward the object point.

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 Large spikes make good marking pins, especially if they have little red or white strips of
cloth tied to them. Surveyors use 11 markers. One is stuck into the ground at the starting point
and is carried forward by the rear chainman, who also picks up the markers at each 100-ft. point
as soon as the head chainman calls "stuck." In this way, the number of markers which the rear
chainman has in his hand is always the same as the number of hundreds of feet which the last set
marker is from the starting point.

In measuring between two points, care must be taken to draw the tape out taut and
straight, its two ends must be level with each other, and it must be exactly in line with the two
points between which the measurement is being made. In measuring downhill, one end may have
to be held up high, and the point on the ground where the end division would come, found by
dropping a stone from the place where it is in the air and watching for the spot where the rock
strikes the ground. A surer way to do this is to hold a plumb-bob string on the last division and
carefully let the bob down until it touches the ground. A rod with a red or white flag on it ought
to be placed at or just beyond the point to which the measurement is to be made so that the rear
chainman can easily line in the head chainman. The latter, before he places his marker, looks
back to the rear chainman to be told whether or not he is "on line" with the object point. If he is
not, and ought to go to the rear chainman's right to get "on," the latter holds out his right arm and
the head chainman moves accordingly. When he reaches the right point, the rear chainman
signals "all right" by holding out both of his arms and then dropping them to his side; the marker
is stuck, and both move up a hundred feet and repeat the process.

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 After all the points possible have been located from Sta. A, and the direction lines
labeled lightly in pencil so that they can be distinguished when the board has been removed from
the station, the plane table is picked up and carried to Sta. B. Here it is again set up, leveled, and
oriented by making the direction of the line AB on the paper exactly the same as that of the line
from Sta. A to Sta. B on the ground. This is done by placing needles at points A and B on the
table and then turning the board until the two needles and Sta. A are in line. Sights are taken
on the same objects which were "shot" at Sta. A, and to objects which were not visible from
Sta. A. The intersection of the lines of sight toward a given object from A and from B marks
the location on the paper of that object. If the two ends of a straight fence have been located in
this way, a straight line joining the points will show the location of the fence on the map. By
exactly similar methods, every other object is located on the paper.

In order to avoid errors, it is an excellent scheme to locate three stations near the
outside edges of the area to be mapped, and locate all objects possible by sights from each of
the three stations. If, instead of all three crossing each other at a point, the lines of sight from the
three stations form a triangle, something is wrong. If the triangle is very small, it may be safe
to use its center as the correct point; if not, the work must be repeated and checked. Locating
even a few points by this method may prevent some bad blunders. The three stations ought to
form as nearly as possible, an equilateral triangle; and the distances between all of them should
be measured and laid out accurately on the plane table.

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 There are two ways in which the map may be finished, inked, or traced. By drawing in
the "culture," that is, the things built by man, like the houses, the fences, the roads, and the
railroads, in black ink ; the topography, that is, the hills and valleys, in brown; the water, in blue,
and then erasing all the construction lines, a very neat map can be made. Another way is to get
some "onion-skin" paper, or some tracing cloth, tack it over the penciled map, and trace the lines
right through, using black India ink. This tracing can be blueprinted, just as a photographic film.
A plain, neat title, describing location of map; who made it and when; the scale used; why It was
made, if it was made for a special purpose, and the direction of the north point, ought to be on
every map. The topographic sheets published by the United States Geological Survey are good
samples to follow. They have been published for a great many places all over the country.

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Ill: From an Original Drawing of a Survey of Mount Vernon, Made by George Washington
at the Age of 14

Plane tables are almost as easily made as they are bought. If there is no old drawing board
around the house, a new bread board from the ten-cent store will serve. For ordinary work, a
table which is 15 or 20 in. square will do very well. The board must be mounted on a tripod so
that it will be rigid while it is being worked upon and yet can be unclamped and oriented. A brass
plate, with a hole in it and a nut soldered over the hole, screwed to the bottom of the board will
permit the board and tripod to be bolted together in good shape. Another method, which is not
nearly as good, is to drill a hole clear through the board, countersink it on top for a bolt head, and
bolt the board and tripod head directly together. With the brass plate and nut, the camera tripod
can be pressed into service if a nut of the proper size has been used. The camera tripod is,
however, apt to be wabbly with a drawing board on top; a much more satisfactory tripod can be
built as shown in the accompanying drawings. Each leg is made of two strips of wood, 3/4 by %
in. and 3 ft. long. These strips are screwed together at their lower ends, gripping a spike between
them which will prevent the legs from slipping on the ground. The tops of the strips are spread
apart and screwed to the opposite ends of an oak or maple cleat. This cleat is, in turn, screwed to
the under side of the circular tripod head.

In place of the two needles and the ruler described for marking the line of sight, most
plane-table men use an alidade, which is a combination of two sights and a straightedge. A very

34
simple alidade may be made by mounting two needles on a ruler. The straight edge of the ruler is
placed against the needle which marks the station at which the plane table is set up. Then, by
swinging the ruler around this needle until its two sighting needles come in line with some
object, the line of sight can be drawn directly on the paper along the edge of the ruler. A
surveyor in India once made an alidade out of a piece of straightedge and two sights made of
native coins hammered out by a native blacksmith. Two pieces of cigar box, one with a fine
vertical saw slit in it, and the other with a vertical slot and a piece of fine wire or silk thread
stretched down the center, glued to a well planed, straight, flat piece of wood, make a fine
alidade. A careful worker may be able to put his sights on hinges so that they will fold down
when not in use.

More than anything else, map making rewards care and accuracy, and shows up slipshod
workmanship. If the pencils are sharp, the lines fine, and if the work is checked often, beautiful
maps can be made with very simple apparatus.

White marks on waxed surfaces may be removed by rubbing lightly with a soft rag
moistened in alcohol, after which rub with raw linseed oil.

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STEPS TO AVOID ERROR DURING THE OBESERVATION USING
THE PLANE TABLE

THE PROCESS

1. Establish a baseline (the baseline needs to be scaled to the project and features that are to
be mapped need to be visible from the baseline.

2. Multiple baselines can be used as necessary but the second baseline must be correctly tied
to the initial baseline.

3. The baseline can be extended to points plotted off the initial baseline. Extremely large
areas can be mapped with a fair degree of accuracy using this method.

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 STEPS TO AVOID ERROR

1. The plane table is set up over the initial point on the baseline.

2. Layout your paper so that it will easily contain the boundaries of the objects you are
trying to map.

3. You will need to calculate the scale… 1” = 1 meter. The scale will determine how much
shows up on your completed map. The scale needs to be appropriate (depends on the
situation)

4. Use the Alidade (in our case triangular scale) to sight to the opposite end of the baseline.

5. Draw in the baseline.

6. If you can see it , then you can map it.

7. Sight across the plane table at features that will be located on your map. One end of the
Alidade , will be on the initial point of the baseline, the other end will be exactly on the
correct point, because light rays travel in straight line and your eyes are highly accurate.

8. Make sure you are using the same edge of the ruler (Alidade) each time.

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 CONCLUSION

As all we know that the use of total station have made the plane table and alidade into
museum pieces because of the technology changes during 19th century .The aim of using the
plane table is to show how the traditional way to use the alidade without the help of the
theodolite and the total station while drawing and plotting the points on the drawing
paper .We should be thankful because of the scientist that has made a lot of experiment
during inverting the alidade and the theodolite to use with the plate table. Now, modern
surveyor can use the total station as their main instrument but they will never forget what is
plane table is about.

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APPENDIX

This plane table was made by Benjamin Cole. Plane tabling is a method of survey which allows
observations to be plotted directly on a map by a surveyor in the field. Modern versions are still
used today for filling in or updating detail on street plans; in the 18th century it gave a rapid map
without requiring the transfer of notes and measurements from a notebook.

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Rudimentary plane table methods had been used in Europe since the early 17th century, but more
advanced techniques and equipment for plane table mapping were first introduced to the United
States by Ferdinand Hassler. Here, a plane table is used to map an area in Alaska.

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Photo of a plane table and alidade , taken from Dewitt-Wallace Museum, U.S

41
Plane table alidade (1894). Image courtesy of National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Department of Commerce.

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Instruments (plane table & alidade) owned by the US. Royal Engineers (Yorktown 225th)

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Surveyor use the plane table during plotting the points on the drawing paper.

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 Image taken by the Coquetdale Community Archaeology.

Plane table surveying during excavation at the Ovenstones site.

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 Surveying at the North Pole

Debenham surveying with plane table on British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-1913.

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