Fall 2010 | Brown A Production of The Triple Helix

THE SCIENCE IN SOCIETY REVIEW The International Journal of Science, Society and Law

A Beewildering Disappearance:
The Implications of Colony Collapse
Disorder and its Potential Cure

Mental Health Relief Efforts in Haiti:

Are We Learning From the Past?

A “Flexible” iPhone:
Directions and Applications
of Organic Light-Emitting Diodes

Caffeinated Youth
Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question

ASU • Berkeley • Brown • Cambridge • CMU • Cornell • Dartmouth • Georgetown • Harvard • JHU • LSE •
Northwestern • NUS • Oxford • Penn • UChicago • UCL • UNC Chapel Hill • University of Melbourne • UCSD • Yale
 THE TRIPLE HELIX
EXECUTIVE MANAGEMENT TEAM BOARD OF DIRECTORS

Chief Executive Officer Chairman

Bharat Kilaru Kevin Hwang

Executive Editor-in-Chief
Dayan Li
Erwin Wang
Kalil Abdullah
A global forum for science in society
Melissa Matarese
Chief Production Officer Joel Gabre
Chikaodili Okaneme Manisha Bhattacharya
Julia Piper
Executive Director of The Triple Helix, Inc. is the world’s largest completely student-run organization
E-Publishing TRIPLE HELIX CHAPTERS
Zain Pasha
dedicated to taking an interdisciplinary approach toward evaluating the true
North America Chapters impact of historical and modern advances in science.
Executive Director of Science Arizona State University
Policy Brown University
Karen Hong Carnegie Mellon University Work with tomorrow’s leaders
Cornell University
Chief Operations Officer, North Dartmouth College Our international operations unite talented
America Georgetown University
Jennifer Ong Georgia Institute of
undergraduates with a drive for excellence at
Technology over 25 top universities around the world.
Chief Operations Officer, Europe Harvard University
Francesca Day Johns Hopkins University
Massachusetts Institute of Imagine your readership
Chief Operations Officer, Asia Technology
Felix Chew Northwestern University Bring fresh perspectives and your own analysis
Ohio State University
Chief Financial Officer University of California,
to our academic journal, The Science in Society
Jim Snyder Berkeley Review, which publishes International Features
University of California,
Chief Marketing Officer San Diego across all of our chapters.
Mounica Yanamandala University of Chicago
University of North Carolina,
GLOBAL Chapel Hill Reach our global audience
LITERARY AND PRODUCTION University of Pennsylvania
Yale University
The E-publishing division showcases the
Senior Literary Editors latest in scientific breakthroughs and policy
Dhruba Banerjee Europe Chapters
Victoria Phan Cambridge University developments through editorials and multimedia
Robert Qi London School of Economics presentations.
Linda Xia Oxford University
Angela Yu University College London

Senior Production Editors Asia Chapters

Catalyze change and shape the future
Darwin Chan National University of Our new Science Policy Division will engage
Annie Chen Singapore
Frankey Chung Peking University students, academic institutions, public leaders,
Jenny Crowhurst Hong Kong University and the community in discussion and debate
Indra Ekmanis
Mabel Seah Australia Chapters about the most pressing and complex issues
Robert Tinkle University of Melbourne
Jovian Yu University of Sydney
that face our world today.
Monash University

All of the students involved in The Triple Helix understand that the fast pace of
scientific innovation only further underscores the importance of examining the
ethical, economic, social, and legal implications of new ideas and technologies
— only then can we completely understand how they will change our everyday
lives, and perhaps even the norms of our society.

Come join us!

Brown.indb 2 10/28/2010 11:29:31 AM

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
A Beewildering Haiti Mental The Artist’s Brain:
Disappearance: Health Relief: A neurological

10
perspective

12 15
Effects and solutions Learning from the
to the bee collapse past

Cover Article
4 Caffeinated Youth: Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question Margaret Kim, CMU

Local Articles
6 Love Actually: The Chemical, Biological, and Social Reasons for Jessica Gandy
Falling in Love

8 Sweet Addiction: The Controlling Power of Sugar Emily Gould

10 A Beewildering Disappearance: The Implications of Colony Collapse Doug Jacobs

Disorder and its Potential Cure

12 Mental Health Relief Efforts in Haiti: Are We Learning From the Past? Theresa Lii

15 The Artist’s Brain Mangaladevi Patil

BROWN
17 A “Flexible” iPhone: Directions and Applications for Organic Mary Yang
Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)

International Features
19 Medicine: Lost in translation? Benjamin Dauber, UChicago

ROW
23 Whatever Happened to…One Laptop Per Child? Robert Qi, Harvard

25 Modernization: Russia from the 18th Century to Today Anton Tarasenko, Melbourne

29 Language and Intelligence: The Great Disjoint Koh Wanzi, NUS

31 The Reprogramming of Cell Fate Chris Yates, Cambridge

BR
Cover design courtesy of Chikaodili Okaneme, Cornell University

Brown.indb 1 10/28/2010 11:29:33 AM

 INSIDE TTH

Message from the Chapter President

Dear Reader,

Welcome to the latest issue of The Science in Society Review. A new year brings many new
advancements, policy changes, and developments in knowledge across disciplines. The Triple Helix
organization strives to investigate these changes as we focus on the impacts such advancements may
have on members of our society.

Since its student led foundation in October 2004 at Cornell University, The Triple Helix has burgeoned
into a flourishing community of students who seek to examine the connections between science, society,
and law. With chapters existing at more than fifteen universities worldwide, our members have an
international initiative to further the community’s understanding and appreciation of the intersections of
knowledge.

One of our missions is to foster communication and inquisitive investigation. It is our hope that the
following articles will stimulate and challenge our readers to join our dialogue.
STAFF AT BROWN

President It takes much commitment and perseverance in order to produce such journals. Many thanks to all
MariaLisa Itzoe
students, faculty and mentors, without whom The Triple Helix would not exist. Thank you, also, to our
Editor-in-Chief readers: without you, we would have no reason to exist.
Catherine McCarthy

Managing Editor Please enjoy!

Marissa Palmor

Treasurer
Aaron Foo
Sincerely,
MariaLisa S.M. Itzoe
Directors of Layout Design
Laura Tiedemann President 2010-2011, The Triple Helix at Brown University
Jovian Yu

Message from the Editor-in-Chief

Director of Science Policy
Cathy Li

Directors of Marketing
Clare Kim
The Triple Helix’s Science in Society Review is an extremely unique publication: we are
Rebecca Kaufman an international journal of science, society, and law—and we are entirely student-run.
Website Manager Our literary staff work throughout the semester, engaging in in-depth research and
Jovian Yu careful reviewing, to create what you hold in your hands now. The Brown chapter
Faculty Review Board journal includes all the articles written at Brown during the cycle and a selection of
Andrea Megela Simmons
Daniel Weinreich
articles from other chapters around the world.
Gary Wessel

Associate Editors All of the articles in this journal have one element in common: they address issues
Eliza Adams that resonate for the writers and that lie at some intersection of science, society, and
Emily Davis
Cynthia Eleanya law. And that’s where the similarities end. We have published pieces written in the
Clare Kim
Marissa Palmor
style of traditional scientific articles and pieces in the style of personal essays; our
William Schweitzer authors have written about neuroimaging of sociopathy and implications in the legal
Contributing Writers system and about sustainable agriculture; our authors have performed extensive research ranging from using
Jessica Gandy the library and online journal articles to traveling to Thailand to investigate advances in HIV prevention.
Emily Gould
Doug Jacobs
Theresa Lii
Mangaladevi Patil
What you hold in your hands represents a semester’s worth of writing, editing, rewriting, and re-editing
Mary Yang by students like you who were inspired by developments in the worlds of science, society, and law to go
beyond the classroom and explore those developments independently. I hope that this issue of The Science
in Society Review will likewise inspire you. Enjoy!

Catherine McCarthy
Editor-in-Chief 2010-2011, The Triple Helix at Brown University

2 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 2 10/28/2010 11:29:37 AM

 INSIDE TTH

Message from the CEO

Dear Reader,

The Triple Helix is a completely unique organization, created and run entirely by undergraduates
devoted to creating a global forum for science in society. What at first appears a focused interest
is actually an eclectic vision that ventures to present ideas from students studying medicine, law,
math, politics, and so much more. With more than 20 chapters across the world and more than 1,000
students from a wide range of disciplines, The Triple Helix offers a truly unique presentation of
academic passion.

Before you look through The Science in Society Review issue awaiting you, I hope to share with
you my insight into the level of work behind every word. The articles in the following pages are
derived from an outstanding level of editorial and literary commitment. Each piece represents not
only the work of the writer, but also the work of one-on-one associate editors, a highly effective
editorial board, astute international senior literary editors, an impressive faculty review board, and
an imaginative production staff that reinvents the journal every issue. As you read the following pieces, we hope you will come to
appreciate the truly professional level of work that goes into every paragraph. And it is with that same dedication to improvement
that every division of The Triple Helix creates progress everyday.

As we enter the next cycle, I hope to witness the next surge of interest and passion from every member as we strive to achieve
the dreams we have always had for the organization. We invite you as readers and supporters to come forward and develop new
visions that will push us to the next level.

Sincerely,
Bharat Kilaru
CEO, The Triple Helix, Inc.

Message from the EEiC and CPO

Scientific discoveries and technological innovations emerge everyday from humanity’s impulse
to decipher nature and improve the human condition. Amidst this rush of advancement, it is
easy to marvel at new gadgets, swoon over groundbreaking ideas, and overlook underlying
complexities. However, science is not limited to just findings or inventions. As it seeps through
the social framework, it is continually influenced by the ethics, economics, politics, laws, and
culture of our societies. Therefore, to appropriately understand science’s true potential, we
must analyze the assumptions, realities, motives, and implications of our scientific knowledge
and endeavors.

With this spirit of critical exposure and examination, The Science in Society Review strives to spark and contribute to an ongoing
discussion about the most important social issues in science today. This journal does not provide answers. Instead, it raises
questions – questions that our student writers attempt to address in their investigations of both locally and globally relevant
topics. Given the diverse backgrounds our international body of writers, the greatest value in this publication is the variety of
perspectives that they put to paper and share with you.

While you read the pieces on which our writers and editors have spent so much time and thought, we ask that you be excited,
startled, incensed, and actively engaged. We view this journal not as a repository of passive information, but as a platform
for an active conversation about the complicated relationship between science and society. In hopes of encouraging social
consciousness and positive social change, we at The Triple Helix collectively aim to keep this conversation going, and your
participation is paramount. After all, even the greatest changes in society have started out as simple conversations.

Sincerely,

Dayan Li and Chikaodili Okaneme

Executive Editor-in-Chief and Chief Production Officer

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 3

Brown.indb 3 10/28/2010 11:29:38 AM

 CMU
Caffeinated Youth:
Regulation of Energy Drinks in Question
Margaret Kim
E
nergy drinks are the star of the beverage industry; no
such products existed 15 years ago, but today, they
have conquered the drink market. Since the debut of
Red Bull in 1997, more than 500 new energy drinks have been
rushed into the beverage market, establishing the 5.7 billion
dollar drink industry by 2006 with an annual growth of 55%
in the United States alone [1,2]. Despite the recession, the
sales of a new form of concentrated energy beverage – the so
called “energy shots” – have been undefeatable, with sales
expected to double each year to about $700
millions [3]. With the rise of the caffein-
ated beverage industry, it became common
to see supermarket and convenient stores
dedicating an entire aisle of the beverage
section to these energy drinks.
What makes energy drinks so popular?
As the name implies, the consumption of
energy drinks are intended to give a quick
“energy” to people. Energy drinks can be
described as part soft drink and part nutri-
tional supplement. Like many soft drinks,
the main source of this energy comes from
both caffeine and sugar. In addition, energy
drink companies claim that other components are added to
“enhance” the nutritional value and boost the energy power
in the body. These components include ephedrine, taurine,
ginseng, B-vitamins, guarana seed, carnitine, inositol, and
ginkgo biloba – ingredients known to be stimulants of the
nervous system or a type of amino acids that helps boost
metabolism [4].
However, the rise of energy drinks came with concerns.
Energy drinks are especially popular among young adults,
the prime advertising targets of drink companies. Research
has reflected that youth are more susceptible to misuse and
the commercial message lacks the potential negative health
effect of energy drinks. As a result, scientists claim the need
for regulation of these energy drinks.
The Growing Presence on College Campus
The popularity of energy drinks has especially penetrated into
college campuses, where students are in particular demand
for quick energy. Through usage of energy drinks, students
seek assistance for lack of sleep, physical activities, late night
partying, and studying for exams and projects. It is common
to see a line of students holding some type of energy drink at
the convenient store during final exam season. But to many
students, drinking an energy drink is not a seasonal use, but a
regular habit. An engineering student from Carnegie Mellon
University stated “I habitually grab an energy drink at the
4 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 4
convenient store to be alert in my morning class.” A survey of
496 college students conducted by the Department of Nutrition
and Dietetics of East Carolina University reported that 51%
of students drink greater than one energy drink each month.
Out of the energy drink users, the most common reasons for
use were to overcome insufficient sleep (67%), to increase
energy (64%), to drink with alcohol while partying (54%), to
study for finals or projects (50%), to drive for a long period
of time (45%), and to treat a hangover (17%) [1].
The Marketing Energy Drink
Energy drink companies understand the busy
lifestyle of the college student; they know the
competitive nature of classes and common
motto of college students “to study hard and
play hard.” As a result, companies spend
millions of dollars to cater to young adults and
college students. These products are advertised
as a “natural performance enhancer” for
studying and additional activities enjoyed
by many young adults. Red Bull claims to
Reproduced from [8]
be a “functional beverage” that “improves
performance, increases concentration and
reaction speed, increases endurance, stimulates metabolism,”
appropriate for sports, driving, and leisure activities [1,5].
Many products appeal to the young adult culture. For example,
Rockstar derived its name from a popular music called “party
like a rock star,” while Monster’s slogan it to “unleash the beast,”
targeting the youth’s desire for glorification and wildness.
Energy drink companies sponsor athletes, sporting events,
nightclub, and music bands. In addition, many advertisements
push their consumers toward sex appeal. In extreme cases, the
products are promoted with an image of drug usage; cocaine
energy drink has been marketed as a “legal alternative” to the
class A drug, while Blow is a white powdered energy drink
mix that comes in a package that portrays the image of using
cocaine [1]. These rigorous marketing techniques establish a
distinct image of energy drinking among students. One study
shows that energy drink consumptions have been associated
with a “toxic jock” identity and masculinity among college
undergraduates [6]. Such identity is associated with risk-taking
behavior such as “drinking, sexual risk-taking, delinquency,
and interpersonal violence” [6]. Surprisingly, a survey of 795
undergraduate students indicates that the measure of masculinity
and risk taking behaviors has a positive relationship with the
frequency of energy drink consumption [7].
The Potential Health Effect and Call for Regulation
This image of energy drinks among youth is even more
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:29:46 AM

problematic because of the potential health-effect that the
consumption may cause. Although the energy drink companies
are rigorously boasting about the amount of energy the product
will provide, scientists claim that they ignore the potential
effects of their product. Dr. Roland Griffiths, a professor of
psychiatry and neuroscience at Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine, voiced his concern about energy drinks’
inadequate labeling and the advertisements as a natural
performance enhancer. Such messages are targeted toward
young adults, who are less tolerant to caffeine, and may result
in consumption with negative consequences. Griffiths stated
“many of these drinks do not label the caffeine content,” while
some energy drinks contain as much caffeine as found in 14
cans of soda [8]. Commonly reported cases of consequences of
consumption were caffeine intoxication and overdose which
include symptoms such as nervousness, anxiety, restlessness,
insomnia, gastrointestinal upset, tremore, tachycardia, and
psychomotor agitation [9]. In the long term, overconsumption
may result in caffeine dependence and withdrawal [9]. What
is also concerning is the fact that mixing caffeine with different
stimulant has not been proven to be completely safe [9].
Shockingly, in a few cases, consumption of energy drinks
has been linked to death. In these cases, the individual was
either performing a rigorous physical activity or consuming
alcohol while drinking the energy drink. According to The
Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse
and Violence Prevention, three people died in Sweden after
drinking RedBull: two had mixed Red Bull with alcohol, and the
third drank it after an exercise session [10]. In 2008 in Florida,
a sixteen-year old student died after consuming alcohol and
energy drinks at a party [10]. Despite such a dangerous link
between alcohol and energy drinks, an increasing number of
college students are consuming energy drinks with alcohol.
In the East Carolina survey, out of 496 college students, of
those that 27% of students reported mixing energy drinks and
alcohol, 49% of students consumed more than three energy
drinks per occasion [1]. Griffiths claims that when energy
drinks and alcohols are consumed together, the symptoms of
alcohol intoxication are not as evident, increasing the potential
for alcohol-related accident and abuse. A different survey of
college students indicated that compared to those who con-
sumed alcohol alone, students who consumed alcohol mixed
with energy drinks had a significantly higher frequency of
alcohol-related consequences including becoming the offender
or victim of sexual assault, getting involved in drunk driving,
or being injured [9]. Such high concern for the potential health
and safety issues related with energy drink and alcohol lead
References
1. Malinauskas, Brenda M., A survey of energy drink consumption patterns among
college students. Nutritional Journal page 6.Oct 2007
2. Boyle M, Castillo VD: Monster on the loose. Fortune 2006,154: 116-122.
3. Neuman, William. “Energy Shots Stimulate Power Sales,” New York Times. 10
July 2009.
4. Watson, Stephanie, “How does Energy Drink Works?” TLC Cooking. 10 April
2010. http://recipes.howstuffworks.com/energy-drink.htm.
5. Benefits of Red Bull. Red Bull USA. 10 April 2010. http://www.redbullusa.com/cs/
Satellite/en_US/Red-Bull-Home/Products/011242746208542.
6. Miller Kathleen PhD. Energy Drinks, Race, and Problems behaviors among
college students. J Adolesc Health. 2008 November; 43(5): 490-497.
7. Miller Katheleen PhD. Wired: Energy Drinks, Jock Identity, Masculine Norms,
and Risk Taking. J Am Coll Health. 2008; 56(5): 481-489.
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 5
CMU
the Food and Drug Administration to doubt the safety and
legality of nearly 30 manufactures of caffeinated alcoholic
beverages in 2009 [11].
The Challenge of Regulation
Because of this ongoing problem with energy drink consumption,
several countries have begun regulating the sales of energy
drinks. Energy drinks in the European Union require a “high
caffeine content” label, while those in Canada need to indicate
the danger of consumption with alcohol to be indicated on the
energy drink [9]. Norway and France have restricted the sale
of energy drinks, while Denmark has prohibited the sale [9].
The regulation of energy drinks in United States has
been difficult for numerous reasons. First, energy drinks
are generally marketed as dietary supplements rather than
food [8]. Although the FDA regulates the caffeine contents
of soft-drinks, which is considered food, to 71 mg per 12 fluid
ounces, there is no limit prescribed for energy drinks, because
they are considered as dietary supplements [8]. Second, caf-
feine is a natural compound widely consumed for years in
coffee and tea [9]. The spokespersons of American Beverage
Association pointed out that most energy drinks contain the
same or less amount of caffeine than a cup of brewed coffee
[8]. They argue that if labels are required on energy drinks,
brewed coffee should be subjected to labeling as well [8].
They stated, “Energy drinks can be part of a balanced lifestyle
when consumed sensibly.”
Regulating consumer products has always been a com-
plicated subject. Not surprisingly, the questions posed on
energy drinks resemble those of cigarette and alcohol. Abuse
of cigarettes and alcohol has been identified with negative
health consequences. As a result, they have been involved
in a never-ending debate on the regulation of areas such as
advertising, labeling, and sales to minors. The questions related
to energy drinks are comparable: is it acceptable for energy
drink companies to capitalize based on youth culture that may
result in dangerous consequences? Or is it a matter of consumer
choice? Like other cases, it is difficult to answer in black and
white and the dangers and regulation of energy drinks are still
in heated controversy. However, the popularity and misuse
of energy drinks indicate that minors and young adults are
more potentially subjected to dangerous consumption. Our
society is in need of education about daily consumption and
encouragement of responsible drinking behavior.
Margaret is a senior studying Chemistry/Biological Science and
Business at Carnegie Mellon University,
8. http://teens.drugabuse.gov/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/03/energy-molecule.gif
9. Doheny, Kathleen. “Energy Drinks: Hazardous to Your Health?” WebMD Health
News. 24 Sept 2008. http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/news/20080924/energy-
drinks-hazardous-to-your-health
10. Griffiths, Roland R. Caffeinated Energy Drinks—A Growing Problem. Drug
Alcohol Depend. 2009 January 1; 99(1-3):1-10.
11. Kapner, Daniel Ari. Ephedra and energy Drinks on College Campus. Infofacts
Resources. The Higher Education Center for Alcohol and Other Drug Abuse and
Violence Prevention. July 2003. http://www.higheredcenter.org.
12. Herndon, Michael. FDA to Look Into Safety of Caffeinated Alcoholic Beverages
Agency Sends Letters to Nearlt 30 Manufacturers. FDA News Release. Nov 13, 2009.
http://www.fda.gov/NewsEvents/Newsroom/PressAnnouncements/ucm190427.htm
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 5
10/28/2010 11:29:46 AM
 BROWN

Love Actually:
The Chemical, Biological, and Social Reasons for
Falling in Love
Jessica Gandy

T
wenty years from now, you pull out your college year- [1]. Romantic love is an infatuation in which the two parties
book and flip through pictures of former classmates. You are entirely devoted to each other and is characterized by an
vaguely recognize faces of one-night stands or casual intense state of attachment. Some studies have related this
hookups—all products of lustful, drunken states brought on stage to obsessive-compulsive disorder, exemplified by “at-
by weekend partying. Suddenly, you come across the pictures tempting to evoke reciprocal responses in one’s loved one,”
of those one or two people who, at one point during your which is characterized by decreased serotonin levels in the
college years, you considered to be your “significant other.” brain [1]. The final stage is long-term attachment, which is
These were the exceptions, the informal relationships turned the most stable of the three and is distinguished by feelings
boyfriends or girlfriends. For some reason—maybe it was of calmness, security, and emotional union [1].
their attractiveness, intelligence, or athletic ability—you found
yourself attending the parties he or she would be attending, Prairie Voles as Model for Human Attraction
hoping to serendipitously run into him or her. However, in A lot of what we know about human monogamy and long-
retrospect, you recognize that the experience was transient. term attachment comes from
Not until years later did you truly meet the man or woman the study of prairie voles.
of your dreams. Now, sitting in your living room, yearbook Prairie voles are social crea-
in your lap, cuddling with the true love of your life, it seemstures that form monogamous
inconceivable to have experienced so many different feelings relationships—mating between
and emotions in such a short amount of time. You wonder, voles is a 24-hour event that
what does it mean to fall in love? What separates a one-night links them for life [2]. During
stand from a boyfriend or girlfriend, or a husband or wife? Is mating, voles spend a great deal
Reproduced from (8)
there any chemical significance to being in love? of time grooming and nesting.
When pups are born, partnered
Love is Like Addiction voles are affectionate and attentive parents [2]. Moreover, par-
Being “in love” with someone can be thought of as being simply ent voles continue their attentive behavior, such as grooming
physically addicted to him or her. The ventral tegmental area and feeding, well after their pups are considered adults and
(VTA) of the brain, also known as the “reward center,” deals are ready to find mates of their own. This is vastly different
directly with addiction, which is caused by increased levels from the behavior exhibited by montane voles, which are
of extracellular dopamine. Importantly, certain stimulations, non-monogamous.
such as sex, are directly linked to increased dopamine levels, As it turns out, the hormone oxytocin is behind the un-
which feed the VTA, increasing the sense of “reward” and derlying difference in the mating behaviors of monogamy and
reinforcing the need to be physical [1]. non-monogamy. When prairie voles mate, their brains release
However, a physical rela- oxytocin, which, in combination
tionship, though often a part, is with certain social cues, induces
not the sole component of love. a lifelong connection between
Love is a process that includes Thus, it seems the brains of the voles. The oxytocin recep-
various stages of emotion, in- tors are located in the reward
cluding lust, romantic love, and people experiencing love are center (VTA) of the brain; thus,
long-term attachment. Lust, char- startlingly similar to the brains mating and monogamy are
acterized by a craving for sexual reinforced in this species. In
activity, often drives one-night of people ingesting cocaine. contrast, montane voles do not
stands. These evenings are fulfill- have oxytocin release with sex
ing merely in the sense of being and therefore are not given any
transient, no-strings-attached chemical feedback to reinforce
hookups in which individuals are able to relieve their sexual monogamy. However, if these same montane voles are injected
needs. Studies have shown that brain activation after lust- with oxytocin, they exhibit monogamous behavior and mate
ful sex is comparable to brain activation after taking opiates for life with their sexual partner [2]. It is hypothesized that

6 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 6 10/28/2010 11:29:47 AM


prairie voles’ monogamy can be used as a
model for human relationships. Still, it is
important to acknowledge that there are
many other variables that motivate human
monogamy, such as social cues, physical
attraction, and culture.
Oxytocin: The Love Hormone
In humans, oxytocin is a hypothalamic hor-
mone released by the posterior pituitary
gland to stimulate milk ejection during
lactation, uterine contraction during child-
birth, and sexual orgasm in both women
and men. Oxytocin can also be associated with the ability to
maintain healthy interpersonal and psychological relation-
ships. One particular study of 26 non-lactating young adult
women tested the idea that oxytocin is released in response
to intense emotional states as well as physical cues, such as
a massage [3]. The results of this experiment suggested that
relaxing massages caused oxytocin levels to increase while
recollection of negative emotions caused oxytocin levels to
decrease [3]. Interestingly, the women whose oxytocin lev-
els rose the most in response to the massage and positive
emotional recollections reported that they found being alone
more difficult. Furthermore, women whose oxytocin levels fell
the most in response to negative emotions reported greater
problems with anxiety in close relationships; “thus, having
oxytocin available during positive experiences and not being
depleted of it during negative experiences is associated with
well-being in relationships” [3].
Oxytocin is also released in men and women during sexual
orgasm and plays a significant role in adult pair bonding.
FMRIs of individuals who claim to be madly in love display
increased levels of oxytocin and dopamine in the ventral
tegmental area of the brain [3]. Thus, it seems the brains of
people experiencing love are startlingly similar to the brains of
people ingesting cocaine [3]. However, unlike certain animals,
humans do not mate for life. It is feasible to believe that after
a one-night hookup, two people will never see each other
again. Yet, many humans eventually experience the desire
for long-term attachment. This could be related to increased
oxytocin levels as well as cultural and social factors [4]. Un-
fortunately human mating patterns are not as predictable as
those of prairie voles, and while there are many connections
between the vole model and the human model, ultimately
there are more factors that affect human mating, making the
overall process more complex. Thus arousal comes naturally
for humans, but long-term success in mating requires an inert
References
1. Hormone involved in reproduction may have role in the maintenance of
relationships (Online). 1999 Jul 14 (cited 2010 Mar 20). Available from: URL: <http://
www.oxytocin.org/oxytoc/index.html>.
2. I get a kick out of you (Online). Economist. 2004 Feb 12. Available from: URL:
<http://www.oxytocin.org/oxytoc/love-science.html>.
3. Turner RA, Altemus M, Enos T, Cooper B, McGuinness T. Preliminary research on
plasma oxytocin in normal cycling women: investigating emotion and interpersonal
distress. Psychiatry. 1999 Summer;62(2):97-113.
4. Komisaruk BR, Whipple B. Love as sensory stimulation: physiological
consequences of its deprivation and expression. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1998
Nov;23(8):927-44.
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 7
BROWN
awareness of the precise factors that lead
from arousal to the rewards of sex, love,
and long-term attachment.
Pheromones
Physical attraction could also be affected
by the pheromones that people emit [5].
Pheromones are volatile, odorous substances
released by one animal and detected by an-
other. Animals with compatible pheromones
are more likely to mate with one another,
Reproduced from [9] mark their young, and signal aggressive
intent [5]. Pheromones are also present,
although to a lesser extent, in humans [5]. The main odor-
producing organ in humans is the skin, particularly the skin’s
apocrine sebaceous glands, which develop during puberty
and are associated with sweat glands and tufts of hair [5].
These glands are concentrated in six main areas, including the
underarms, nipples, genitalia, lips, eyelids, and outer ears [5].
The substances produced by these glands cannot be perceived
by the human olfactory system; rather, humans sense the
bacterial breakdown products of the glandular secretions.
There are also variations in odor perception between males
and females, which plays a major role in mating—women
are especially sensitive to the musky odor secreted by men,
while men are indifferent to the same odors [5]. One study
demonstrated that women engage in sexual intercourse about
six times more frequently when they are ovulating, which is
when their sensitivity to males’ musky smell is highest [5].
This suggests that there is a significant pheromonal trigger
for sexual behavior.
Conclusions
You turn to your significant other after your short trip down
memory lane and softly whisper “I love you” in his or her ear.
Taking in his or her pheromones and becoming inundated with
oxytocin, you are confident that your passionate feelings are
reciprocated. Twenty years earlier, these days of monogamy
may have seemed inconceivable. But eventually your one-
night stands grew less and less fulfilling, and, with a new
understanding of augmented oxcytocin levels and pheromonal
triggers, you realize why the desire for a consistent relationship
increased. Finding that special someone and truly falling in
love takes time. Love is not only a social phenomenon; it is
also driven by hormonal and genetic factors that are out of
your immediate control.
Jessica Gandy is a junior studying Neuroscience at Brown University.
5. Wolfgang-Kimball D. Pheromones in humans: Myth or reality. Melissa Kaplan’s
Herp Care Collection. 2009 Dec 18. Available from: URL: <http://www.anapsid.org/
pheromones.html>.
6. Barker SE. Cuddle hormone: Research links oxytocin and socio-sexual behaviors.
Available from: URL: <http://www.oxytocin.org/cuddle-hormone/>.
7. Gimpl G, Fahrenholz F. The oxytocin receptor system: structure, function, and
regulation. Physiol Rev. 2001 Apr;81(2):629-83.
8. Prairie vole [image online]. In: Oil & Natural Gas Projects. 2010 Oct 4 [cited 2010
Oct 10]; Available from: http://www.netl.doe.gov/technologies/oil-gas/Petroleum/
projects/Environmental/Reg_Streamlining/FEAC321.htm
9. VTA [image online]. In: Adolescents at Risk for Substance Use Disorders. 2008
Jan 30 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/
arh312/168-176.htm
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 BROWN

Sweet Addiction:
The Controlling Power of Sugar
Emily Gould

W
hen the media bemoans the prevalence of sugar in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders (DSM)
American food, the focus is usually on the negative has combined psychological and physiological viewpoints,
health consequences of obesity. In 2006, the Centers defining “substance dependence” as exhibiting any three of
for Disease Control and Prevention reported that 67 percent the following symptoms: “tolerance, withdrawal, ingestion
of adults and 17 percent of children and adolescents were of substances in larger amounts or for longer duration than
overweight, and 37 percent of those adults were obese [1]. In intended, attempts to cut back, excessive time spent recovering
2009, the CDC compared the eight-percent rate of diabetes in from substance use, reduction of important activities because
adults from 1988-1994 to the 10-percent rate from 2003-2006 of use, or continued use despite adverse consequences” [4]. On
[2]. These statistics depict America as an increasingly fast-food- the other end of the spectrum, Hoebel et al. have suggested a
loving, sedentary, and cardiac-disease-ridden nation. However, more involuntary condition, defining addiction as a “disease
emphasizing these visible consequences of overindulging in caused by drug-induced chronic adaptations in brain func-
sugar might be encouraging us to overlook the true root of the tion that change a voluntary behavior into an uncontrollable
problem. Recent research on rats and humans suggests that trait” [1]. Together these different definitions suggest that at
many Americans don’t just love sugar—we are addicted to it. the very least, sugar addiction is a “process addiction” like
In March 2009, the Journal of Addictive Medicine pub- gambling or sex addiction— hard to diagnose by DSM criteria,
lished a study in which researchers from Princeton University but life-altering nonetheless [5]. At worst, sugar addiction can
arrive at a striking conclusion: addiction to sugar “can involve become an uncontrollable disorder.
the same neural adaptations and One piece of evidence that
behavioral alterations as addiction would support the notion of
to drugs” [3]. In the study, lab physiological sugar addiction
rats were subjected to a cycle of Recent research on rats and is the phenomenon of tolerance.
12 hours of food deprivation fol- humans suggests that many In a recent study published in
lowed by presentation of a 10-per- Medical Hypotheses, a group
cent sucrose solution—about the Americans don’t just love of self-identified food addicts
equivalent concentration of sugar sugar—we are addicted to it. vividly described needing larger
in a typical soft drink—along with quantities of their trigger foods
their rodent chow [3]. Not only over time to produce the same
did the rats increase their total degree of satisfaction. One par-
daily sugar intake over the course of three weeks, but when ticipant remarked, “‘If I tell myself I will eat only one cookie
they were finally deprived of the sucrose, they also exhibited then that leads to another and another until I make myself
clear symptoms of withdrawal, such as enhanced rates of lever stop at five or six. I used to be able to eat only one or two’” [6].
pressing and responses to sugar-associated cues [3]. Like a drug-dependent patient, her hook on sugar escalated
The researchers offer a neurological explanation for their uncontrollably over time.
findings. Bingeing on sucrose stimulates the opioid system in
the ventral midbrain, and these opioids, including enkephalin A Phenomenon with Historical Context
and beta-endorphin, stimulate dopamine release [3]. The brain If we accept sugar addiction as a reality, we must address the
compensates for the resulting increase in neurotransmitters question of why it is raging so powerfully now. According
by expressing fewer of the opioid peptides that it naturally to historian Wendy Woloson, desserts used to be expensive
produces [3]. Since it now relies on sugar as the external trigger luxuries that signified male economic power and privilege [7].
of opioid production, the body undergoes withdrawal if it is However, as sugar, ice, and chocolate became less expensive,
cut off from the sugar supply in the diet. These physiological and food production became mechanized with the advent of
effects promote a cycle of craving, bingeing, and withdrawal [3]. the granulating machine, vacuum pan, and centrifuge, sweets
were democratized and feminized [7]. As a result, by the early
Defining Addiction 1870s, the average American’s consumption of sugar was 41
The problem with defining sugar addiction lies in the histori- pounds per year—six times greater than it had been in the
cally ill-defined and ambiguous nature of the term “addiction.” 1790s [7].
In previous centuries, addiction was largely regarded as a To apply this historical trend to the scientific findings,
result of moral deficiency—a condition resulting from a lack researchers at Rush University describe a hypothesis called
of willpower to stop a repeated behavior [3]. Recently, the the refined food addiction model. According to their theory,

8 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 8 10/28/2010 11:29:48 AM


high concentrations of sugar, refined carbohydrates, fat, salt,
and caffeine become addictive only after being extracted and
concentrated by industrial processes [8]. Combinations of these
substances—for instance, the combination of sugar and caf-
feine in a can of Coca Cola—may increase their addictiveness
[8]. Also, researchers at the University of Bordeaux in France
posited that for most mammals, sweet receptors evolved in
ancestral environments in which sugar was not readily avail-
able [9]. Since evolution moves much more slowly than did the
Industrial Revolution, it is likely that we are not evolutionarily
adapted to ingesting high concentrations of sweets [9].
Researchers suggest a number of additional contemporary
factors that have hooked us on sugar, which indicate that
sugar addiction may have significant social consequences.
One study analyzed adults’, “tweens’,” and children’s TV
shows and found that foods with added sugars—along with
a lack of negative consequences for eating these foods—were
prevalent in children’s shows [1]. There was also a stronger
association of these foods with adults,
which could cause children to associate
the foods with their older role models
[1]. A second study identified economic
factors; for instance, college students are
inclined to buy sugary drinks because
such beverages are cheap [10]. A third
study even went so far as to suggest that
personality could predispose us to becom-
ing hooked on sugar—researchers at the
University of Sheffield and University of
Ulster found a correlation between type
A personalities and an increase in “con-
venience” dietary patterns. For women, this translates into
an increased sugar and alcohol intake [11]. Via these sorts
of factors, our culture and media could be ingraining sugar
into our lives. One study found that children who excessively
consumed confectionary sugar on a daily basis at age 10 were
more likely to have been convicted for violence by age 34 [12].
Other studies have suggested an “alcohol gateway effect” that
results from sugar addiction; a sugar addict might become
dependent on alcohol, much as a marijuana addict might be
tempted to use harder drugs like heroin or cocaine [3].
Sugar Substitutes: Not a Miracle Remedy
Although many people are tempted to turn to artificial sugars
References
1. Greenberg BS, Rosaen SF, Worrell TR, Salmon CT, Volkman JE. A portrait of food
and drink in commercial TV series. Health Communication 2009 Jun;24(4):295-303.
2. National Center for Health Statistics (Online). 2010 (cited 2010 Mar 13); Available
from: URL:
http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/hus09.pdf#068.
3. Bartley H, Avena NM, Bocarsly ME, Rada P. Natural Addiction: A Behavioral and
Circuit Model Based on Sugar Addiction in Rats. Journal of Addictive Medicine, 2009
Mar;3(1)33-41.
4. Benton D. The plausibility of sugar addiction and its role in obesity and eating
disorders. Clinical Nutrition 2010;30(1)1-16.
5. Gold, MS, Graham, NA, Cocores, JA, Nixon, SJ. Food Addiction? Journal of
Addiction Medicine 2009 Mar;3(1)42-45.
6. Ifland JR, Preuss HG, Marcus MT, Rourke KM, Taylor WC, Burau K, Jacobs WS,
Kadish W, Manso G. Refined food addiction: A classic substance use disorder.
Medical Hypotheses 2009 May;72(5):518-526.
7. Woloson WA. Refined Tastes: Sugar, Confectionary, and Consumerism in
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 9
BROWN
as an alternative, these substances may come with their own
side effects. Sucralose (Splenda), one of the newest such sub-
stances on the market, is a sugar molecule with three additional
chlorines that passes through the body undigested. However,
it can upset the stomach or cause nausea [13]. Aspartame,
which was discovered in 1965 (sold as NutraSweet, Equal,
and Canderel, and in over 6000 products), is composed of two
amino acids plus a methanol group. Because the body converts
it to formaldehyde, it was originally thought to cause brain
damage or cancer— however, nutritionists have deemed the
amounts in our foods too small to amount to any significant
formaldehyde concentrations, so it has returned to the market
[13]. Similarly, the 1977 ban on saccharin (Sweet’N Low) for
its suspected carcinogenic effects was lifted in 2000 [13]. But
it is hard to imagine that these synthesized substances could
really be good for us.
Moreover, fake sugars have proven to be just as addic-
tive as real sugar. The aforementioned Princeton study on
addiction in rats also incorporated trials
using saccharin: addicted rats that were
deprived of saccharin developed chattering
teeth, headshakes, and forepaw tremors
[1]. These withdrawal symptoms were
counteracted with more saccharine or
morphine [1]. In another study, when rats
were given a choice between intravenous
cocaine and saccharin-sweetened water,
94 percent chose the saccharin [9]. Sub-
stituting an imitation substance for real
Reproduced from [14] sugar may just amount to substituting
one addiction for another.
Conclusion
Clearly, we need to become more cognizant of the possibility
that sugar is controlling our eating habits and psychological
states. Covering up the profound global influence of sugar is
nothing new; in the nineteenth century, advertisers of sugar
tried to erase the indications that it was produced by slave
labor [7]. Now, things have taken a physiological turn, and it
is time to raise awareness and to realize that this is not just a
problem of obesity—it is a matter of physical dependence.
Emily Gould is a sophomore studying Biology at Brown University.
Nineteenth-Century America. Baltimore: John’s Hopkins University Press, 2002.
8. Corsica JA and Pelchat ML. Food addiction: true or false? Current Opinion in
Gastroenterology 2010 Mar;26(2):165-169.
9. Lenoir M, Serre F, Cantin L, Ahmed H. Intense Sweetness Surpasses Cocaine
Reward. PLoS One, August 2007 Aug 1;2(8):e698.
10. Chao-Chin Y, Wen-Bin C. Substitution of healthy for unhealthy beverages among
college students: A health-concerns and behavioral-economics perspective. Appetite
2010 Feb 13;30(1):1-5.
11. Barker ME, Thompson KA. McClean SI. Do Type As Eat Differently? A
Comparison of Men and Women. Appetite 1996 Jun:26(3):277-286.
12. Moore SC, Carter LM, Van Goozen SHM. Confectionary consumption in
childhood and adult violence. British Journal of Psychiatry 2009 Oct;195(4):36-37.
13. Tobias L. What’s the Latest on Sugar Substitutes? Vegetarian Times. 2007
Feb;12(2):23.
14. Sugar [image online]. In: Variables. 2000 Aug 7 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from:
http://www.schools.utah.gov/curr/science/sciber00/8th/matter/sciber/variable.htm
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 9
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 BROWN

A Beewildering Disappearance:
The Implications of Colony Collapse Disorder
and its Potential Cure
Doug Jacobs

D
avid Nomobe donned his protective suit and exited market prices of many crops [1]. Sources agree that further
the back porch to administer the daily helping of corn increases in honeybee rental costs will reverberate through the
syrup to his honeybee colonies. David opened the entire U.S. economy— we can expect to see higher prices of
hatch to the first hive and readied the bottle of corn syrup, but
nuts, fruits, and vegetables and consequently reduced exports
something was peculiar. The perpetual buzzing that dominated and increased imports of these commodities [1]. Increased
his daily chores was absent. He opened the hatch further honeybee rental costs will also force some farmers to import
and discovered something startling: all of the worker bees honeybees from countries where CCD is not a problem, which
were gone. can be cheaper, although this procedure is associated with
the introduction of foreign pests. It is odd to think that one
Colony Collapse Disorder and its Implications simple bug, the honeybee, can single-handedly so severely
David’s experience is not unique. Beekeepers worldwide are worsen the record U.S. trade deficit.
lamenting the loss of as many as half of their hives to a syn- This frightening realization of the world’s dependence
drome known as Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD). CCD is a on bees has fueled a growing hysteria surrounding CCD. A
phenomenon defined by the absence of worker bees from a 2010 article published by The Observer, the world’s oldest
hive and the subsequent disap- Sunday newspaper, went as far
pearance of the entire colony. as listing the “death of bees” as
In 2008, a survey conducted by It is odd to think that one one of the signs of the apocalypse:
the U.S. Department of Agri- “It sounds crazy that bees could
culture showed that 36 percent simple bug, the honeybee, can bring the world to an end, but
of America’s 2.4 million hives single-handedly so severely if we do not help our buzzing
were lost to CCD [1]. This is a friends, there will be mass food
major contributor to the larger worsen the record U.S. trade shortages in the future,” the ar-
inexplicable decline in honey- deficit. ticle explains [2]. A similar article
bees: since 1947, American colony in National Geographic listed bee
numbers have declined by over death as an end-of-earth scenario
40 percent, from 5.9 million to [3]. The danger is simple: if hu-
2.4 million [1]. If honeybee numbers continue to decline at the mans run out of food, we will die—and bees provide us with
documented rates, domestic honeybees will cease to exist by food by pollinating crops. This frenzy has even caused the U.S.
2035 [1]. Unfortunately, there is no system in place to monitor legislature to create an entire committee, “The CCD Steering
wild honeybee numbers, but there is some preliminary evi- Committee,” whose sole purpose is to address CCD.
dence to suggest that their numbers are declining as well [1]. As such, scientists are scrambling to find the culprit behind
This enigmatic disappearance is particularly troubling bee death, and multiple possibilities have been postulated.
considering humans’ extensive dependence on bees. Fruit, Genetically modified crops have been thought to suppress
vegetable, and nut crops are all dependent on bees for fertil- honeybee immune systems when the bee ingests part of the
ization and constitute the bulk of vitamins and minerals in plant [4]. Others blame pesticides for poisoning bee colonies
our diets. The earliest European colonists did not succeed in [5]. Even cell phone radiation has been suggested as a po-
growing apple trees until honeybees were brought over to tential perpetrator; it is thought that cell phone waves could
pollinate them, and almost all current farms rely heavily on interfere with bee communication, preventing their capacity
honeybee rental from beekeepers [1]. For a price, beekeepers to relocate to their hive [6]. More convincingly, a growing
place their hives near farms in order to increase crop pro- body of evidence points towards the mite Varroa destructor
duction; U.S. agriculture could not produce anywhere near as the primary cause of CCD.
its current levels with native pollinators alone. Thus on an
economic level the honeybee conundrum is disconcerting. Varroa Destructor
Furthermore, even before the advent of CCD, frequent hon- Varroa destructor is a honeybee parasite the size of a pinhead
eybee shortages were estimated to have increased honeybee that appears as miniature, dark brown spots hidden amongst
colony rental fees by $30 million annually, enough to raise the the bee’s fur. The mites weaken bees by siphoning away bee

10 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 10 10/28/2010 11:29:49 AM


hemolymph (a combination of blood and fluid) and by leaving
open wounds that are susceptible to infection. Interestingly,
Varroa mites have recently been shown to weaken the honey-
bee immune system as well. Penn State researchers Yang and
Cox-Foster injected dead E. coli into two populations of bees:
healthy bees and bees infested with mites (injection of dead
E. coli offers a straightforward way to measure an immune
response). Researchers checked the two groups for expression
of protective immunological biochemicals, and their results
were surprising. The healthy bees produced a strong immune
response to the E. coli, similar to how humans respond to a
vaccine [7]. The bees infected with mites, however, showed
significantly reduced production of an important protective
enzyme, Glucose Oxidase (GOX).
GOX is a crucial enzyme for honeybee disease preven-
tion. Worker bees secrete this enzyme into the honey and
all of their food, and it then acts as a disinfectant, sterilizing
both the honey and other food sources. So, as mites build up,
the bees’ production of GOX decreases, and both viruses and
bacteria become more prevalent in the honey [8]. The entire
hive then becomes susceptible to assault from honey-dwelling
viruses and bacteria, leading to the collapse of the hive. It is
likely the combination of increased mite infestation, decreased
GOX production, and increased viral and bacterial infection
that is causing CCD. This sequence of events may explain
why beekeeper David discovered his hive missing.
This scientific revelation also makes intuitive sense.
Scientists estimate that the mite probably originated in the
Eastern or Chinese honeybee population and was introduced
to the United States in 1987. The mite quickly infected the
European honeybee that inhabits the western hemisphere.
Since then, we have seen the rapid decline in bee colonies that
are most likely inextricably tied to the flourishing of Varroa
destructor. The native Chinese honeybees, by contrast, do not
experience the same problems because they are more hygienic;
they possess a grooming behavior that actively removes the
mites from fellow bees.
A Potential Cure
Consequently, scientists have turned to the honeybee genome
for a solution to Varroa infestation and CCD. Agricultural
Research Service (ARS) scientists have located the genetic trait
that allows bees to “fight back” against Varroa mites: Varroa-
Sensitive Hygiene, or VSH. ARS Scientists were able to develop
honeybees with high expression of the VSH trait in the Honey Bee
Breeding Group of the Genetics and Physiology Research Unit
References
1. Berenbaum MR. Colony collapse disorder and pollinator decline (Online). 2007
Mar 29. Available from: URL: <http://www7.nationalacademies.org/ocga/testimony/
Colony_Collapse_Disorder_and_Pollinator_Decline.asp>.
2. Saks M. Signs of the apocalypse are too numerous to ignore (Online). 2010 Mar 22.
Available from: URL: <http://www.thechurchillobserver.com/features/2010/03/22/
signs-of-the-apocalypse-are-too-numerous-to-ignore>.
3. Tencati V. How earth could end (Online). Available from: URL: <http://channel.
nationalgeographic.com/channel/ends-of-the-earth-theories>.
4. Donovan P. Genetically modified crops implicated in honeybee colony collapse
disorder (Online). 2009 Jan 11. Available from: URL: <http://www.naturalnews.
com/025287_bees_honey_crops.html>.
5. Pesticide issues in the works: Honeybee colony collapse disorder (Online). 2010
Jun. Available from: URL: <http://www.epa.gov/opp00001/about/intheworks/
honeybee.htm>.
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 11
BROWN
in Baton Rouge [9].
Bees are naturally
hygienic—they
remove diseased
brood from their
nests. However,
mites are often
difficult to locate
because they at-
tack developing Reproduced from [10]
bees sealed inside
capped cells, hexagonal hive structures sealed by a layer of
wax. High expression of VSH, however, makes bees particularly
aggressive at locating and removing Varroa-infected pupae.
The bees with high VSH expression are obsessive-compulsive
cleaners; they team up to cut through the wax layer, lift the
infected brood and mites out of the nest, and finally dispose
of the mites. Remarkably, VSH bees were shown to remove
significantly more mites from their nests than their control
counterparts—55 percent compared to 13 percent [9]. This is
not only interesting in a greater behavioral context, but for
solving CCD as well. High expression of VSH would allow
GOX production to return to normal levels, presumably kill-
ing the viruses and bacteria responsible for CCD. So in an
indirect way, VSH bees are probably resistant to CCD, much
like Chinese bees are in the Eastern hemisphere. As such, the
replacement of our commercial honeybees with new, CCD-
resistant VSH honeybees could stem the spread of CCD.
As it turns out, honeybee death is a sign not of the apoca-
lypse or cell phone radiation but of a destructive Varroa mite,
and it appears that the treatment of our CCD catastrophe is
attainable. The breeding and widespread distribution of a
new line of VSH honeybees would have numerous positive
ramifications, because it could potentially save the 36 percent
of our hives affected by CCD. We could see our honeybee
rental prices decline, the prices of our fruits and vegetables
decline, and overall maybe even a small pick-me-up for the
U.S. trade deficit. And, finally, we may even begin to see a
decline in the hysteria surrounding this honeybee conundrum.
Finally, these little domestic murderers look like they will be
contained after two decades of decimating our bee popula-
tions, thanks to new genetic research. And as for our friend,
beekeeper David Nomobe, it appears that he could begin to
have, well, more bees.
Doug Jacobs is a senior studying Human Biology at Brown University.
6. Lean G, Shawcross H. Are mobile phones wiping out our bees? (Online) 2007 Apr
15. Available from: URL: <http://www.independent.co.uk/environment/nature/are-
mobile-phones-wiping-out-our-bees-444768.html>.
7. Shen M, Yang X, Cox-Foster D, Cui L. The role of varroa mites in infections of
Kashmir bee virus (KBV) and deformed wing virus (DWV) in honey bees. Virology.
2005 Nov 10;342(1):141-9. Epub 2005 Aug 18.
8. Bee mites suppress bee immunity, open door for viruses and bacteria
(Online). 2005 May 18. Available from: URL: <http://www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2005/05/050517110843.htm>.
9. Bees fight back against colony collapse disorder: Some honey bees toss out Varroa
mites (Online). 2009 Oct 5. Available from: URL: <http://www.sciencedaily.com/
releases/2009/10/091002103210.htm>.
10. Bee [image online]. In: Carl Hayden Bee Research Center. 2009 Sep 23
[cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://www.ars.usda.gov/main/site_main.
htm?modecode=53-42-03-00
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 11
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 BROWN
Mental Health Relief Efforts in Haiti:
Are We Learning From the Past?
Theresa Lii
P
sychological first aid may not always be helpful. In Crazy
Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche, Ethan
Watters argues that in the wake of the 2004 Indian Ocean
tsunami, the influx of Western mental health specialists did
more harm than good [1]. Western psychiatric definitions of
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) displaced indigenous
beliefs about psychological trauma, which may have undermined
the traditional resilience, coping, and survival strategies of
these coastal communities. Since then, a number of medical
anthropologists and mental health providers have second-
guessed Western psychiatry’s attempt at providing mental
health relief efforts in countries affected by the tsunami [1].
Fast forward to January 12th, 2010, when a magnitude-7.0
earthquake hit Port-au-Prince, Haiti.
Humanitarian relief efforts came
swiftly, providing search-and-rescue
teams, food and water supplies,
security forces, and emergency
medical care. According to Richard
Mollica, a Harvard professor who
researches mental health responses
to disasters, in the coming months
there will be “hundreds of organiza-
tions—big, little and small—doing
mental health work in Haiti” [2].
However, he warns, “they will all
have their own agenda, and their
own donors, and their own goals”
[2]. Good intentions abound, to be
sure, but are relief efforts paying
attention to cultural differences sur-
rounding mental health in Haiti?
So far, the answer appears to be a
tentative “yes.”
Psychological Aftershocks: What
to Expect
In the aftermath of the earthquake, mental health provid-
ers have tended to two groups of survivors. The first group
includes Haitians with pre-existing psychiatric conditions
who are vulnerable to losing access to care, medication, and
familial support. The second group includes people from the
general population who have developed psychological issues
as a result of acute trauma and prolonged stress. Although
this article will focus on mental health interventions for the
latter group, it is important to keep in mind how the plight
of the former group is affected by the attitudes underlying
these interventions.
For Haitians who develop trauma-related mental illnesses,
12 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 12
symptoms may not completely match those set forth by West-
ern psychiatric diagnostic manuals. Research conducted by
Dr. Mathieu Bermingham, a Haitian-American psychiatrist,
suggests that for Haitians, “mental health problems such as
depression or anxiety might manifest as vague aches and
pains that have no apparent physical cause” [3]. This form of
psychological distress—termed dépression mentale in Haitian
Creole—is the closest analogue to depression as understood
in Western psychiatry [4]. Although mental health providers
are likely to encounter patients with symptoms that match
those of PTSD, they should avoid overlooking culture-bound
expressions of mental distress.
Pushing for Cultural Sensitivity
Not wanting to repeat the cultural
clumsiness exhibited in the 2004 In-
dian Ocean Tsunami relief efforts,
many organizations swiftly issued
cultural guidelines for providing
mental health services in Haiti. The
New Paltz Institute for Disaster Men-
tal Health distributed a “Tip Sheet
on Haitian Culture” for all foreign
mental health specialists working in
Haiti [5]. In a similar measure, the In-
ternational Medical Corps published
“Brief Mental Health Guidelines for
First Responders in Haiti” [6]. The
World Health Organization (WHO)
commissioned a 20-page literature
review on mental health in Haiti,
which addresses topics such as fam-
ily and gender relations, traditional
forms of healing, and traditional ex-
Reproduced from [13] planatory models of mental illness
[4]. The Mental Health and Psycho-
social Support Network published
the paper on its website and, in a description that bluntly
underscores its purpose, recommended that all non-Haitians
providing mental health support should read the paper “to
avoid faux pas, harm or simply ineffective programming” [7].
The number of such publications demonstrates that mental
health providers are being strongly advised to respect cultural
contexts in order to provide the most effective care.
Not only are mental health workers encouraged to famil-
iarize themselves with Haitian culture, they are also expected
to exercise caution and humility. This is because Western
psychiatric treatment strategies may not necessarily be effective
in all situations. For instance, the International Medical Corps’
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:29:50 AM
 BROWN

guidelines remind mental health workers that “not wanting expected to tackle the social determinants of mental health,
to talk does not equal denial” and “debriefing may not be such as food security, housing, and employment. “Haitian
therapeutic or appropriate” for patients may expect a concrete
children [6]. In addition, Haitians plan of action at the end of any
may not accept psychotherapy encounter,” suggests the WHO-
because solving personal prob- Not only are mental health commissioned literature review
lems is viewed as a family or [4]”. “Neutrality and lack of feed-
religious matter, so they may not workers encouraged to back may be seen as a waste of
be willing to disclose intimate or familiarize themselves with their time. Concrete action could
domestic problems to strangers include assisting with practical
or professionals [4]. Haitian culture, they are also needs for food and clothing” [4].
In addition to respecting expected to exercise caution In essence, mental health work-
social boundaries, Haitian cul- ers in Haiti may need to double
ture experts are also encouraging and humility. This is because as social workers in order to
the incorporation of traditional Western psychiatric treatment have the greatest impact on the
healing methods and spiritual population’s mental health. In
explanations. Many Haitian Vo- strategies may not necessarily particular, creating employment
dou healing rituals, for example, be effective in all situations. opportunities and re-integrating
involve feeding and caring for individuals back into society may
the spirits of ancestors that live be a potent mental health inter-
within the sick and injured who, vention in itself.
in turn, benefit from these rituals by receiving nourishing Dr. Raphaël suggested that an “alternative solution to
food and extra attention [4]. According to Dr. Frantz Raphaël, transcultural Haitian psychiatry is occupational therapy,”
“those intervening (in Haiti) must be brought to rethink prac- where individuals can “engage in a productive life that helps
tices in psychiatry and mental health according to a vision of them in their recovery” [8]. Helping earthquake survivors
integration, notably cohabitation between Creole and West- feel reconnected with their communities through meaningful
ern medicine in clinical interventions” [8]. In the concluding work can reduce the likelihood of mental health problems
paragraphs of the WHO-commissioned review, the authors farther down the road. “One of the things that you see in an
suggest that mental health specialists should avoid an “either/ environment like (Haiti) is the loss of the sense of the future,
or” stance that “forces patients to choose between biomedicine and that is one of the most traumatic aspects,” argues Dr.
and traditional healing” [4]. Instead, they should work col- Thomas Insel of the National Institute of Mental Health [10].
laboratively with families and community leaders to achieve Addressing social needs such as housing and employment
psychological healing. can help restore that sense of the future.

A Practical Approach
In contrast to the situation
after the 2004 tsunami, many
mental health interventions in
Haiti are addressing mental
health in a broader scope. For
instance, Leah James describes
the psychosocial support that
she and her team provide in
a group setting: “we outline
basic coping strategies for both
kids and adults,” she writes
[9]. “We talk about prayer and
about social support and about
talking to children about the
earthquake, about setting rules
and routines, and about hold-
ing children to help them feel
safe” [9].
In addition to provid-
ing broader, more practical
forms of support, mental
health interventions are also Reproduced from [14]

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 13

Brown.indb 13 10/28/2010 11:29:53 AM

 BROWN

support system that will remain

Finding Strength in Numbers strong enough to meet the men-
The earthquake effectively wiped tal health needs of Haitians until
out Haiti’s institutional support In contrast to the situation after institutional support systems can
system for mental health. What the 2004 tsunami, many mental be rebuilt. In addition, these com-
little remains of this system can munity gatherings provide an
be found in two psychiatric triage health interventions in Haiti environment that fosters social
tents outside the collapsed Mars are addressing mental health in exchange between isolated sur-
and Kline Psychiatric Center, the vivors. If held consistently and
country’s only hospital for acute a broader scope. regularly, these meetings can
mental illness [11]. In the absence reestablish a sense of community
of any institutional or govern- for Haitians who have lost their
mental framework, it would be familial ties in the earthquake.
wise to invest in informal social networks that, according to
Dr. Raphaël, “are already very strong” in Haitian culture [8]. Have We Learned From the Past?
Addressing mental health issues in a community-like Mental health providers trained in the United States and West-
setting is already proving ern European nations have
to be an effective strategy. been encouraged from all
Leah James illustrates the sides to exercise cultural
Haitians’ positive response sensitivity and caution in
to a group counseling ses- diagnosing PTSD in Haiti
sion. “From the back (of earthquake victims. This is
the crowd),” she writes, a great departure from the
“a tall man announces that mindset of many mental
even with clean water there health teams who rushed
will still be psychological into Indian Ocean coastal
and emotional problems... communities in 2004 and
and groups like this can administered treatment for
help. Others agree, and PTSD without considering
the focus of the yelling cultural factors in mental
shifts. Now there is ardent illness. Understanding a
agreement about need for culture’s unique reactions
more groups” [9]. This to devastating events and
Reproduced from [15]
enthusiasm for group trauma allows Western in-
counseling is supported terventionists to provide
by the observations of Marie Pierre-Victor, a social worker better aid, more effectively for trauma victims. By combining
who oversees the mental health portion of a Boston clinic that the desire to reach out to fellow humans with a respect for
provides assistance to Haitian immigrants. She found that their societal influences and cultural traditions, we take a step
“most survivors don’t like to talk one on one, but are eager towards providing the best humanitarian effort possible.
to talk in a group” [12]. Mental health interventions in Haiti
should harness this cohesive energy, and use it to build a social Theresa Lii is a junior studying Neuroscience at Brown University.

References
1. Watters E. Crazy Like Us: The Globalization of the American Psyche. Free Press;
2010.
2. Spiegel A. Mental Health Disaster Relief Not Always Clear Cut. NPR: National
Public Radio. Available at: URL:http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.
php?storyId=122981850. Accessed Mar 1, 2010.
3. Johnson C. Realizing Haitians’ Other Needs. The Boston Globe. Available at:
URL:http://www.boston.com/news/health/articles/2010/03/01/boston_providers_try_
to_meet_haitian_victims_psychological_needs/.
4. Kirmayer L. Mental Health in Haiti: A Literature Review. Commissioned by the
World Health Organization. Available at: URL:www.iawg.net/Mental%20Health%20
in%20Haiti%20-%20A%20Literature%20Review%20_WHO_.pdf. Feb 1, 2010.
5. State University of New York, New Paltz Institute for Disaster Mental Health. Tip
Sheet on Haitian Culture. Available at: URL:www.rhin.org/UPLOAD/Hatian%20
Culture%20tip%20sheet-IDMH.pdf.
6. International Medical Corps. Brief Mental Health Guidelines. Available at:
URL:http://www.imcworldwide.org/Page.aspx?pid=1064.
7. Culture and Mental Health in Haiti: A Literature Review. Mental Health and
Psychosocial Support Network. Available at: URL:http://www.psychosocialnetwork.
net/groups/153/upload/mental_health_in_haiti_a_literature_review/view_resource/.
8. Jaimes A, Lecomte Y, Raphaël F. Haiti-Quebec-Canada: Towards a Partnership in
Mental Health. Mental Health and Haitian Communities. Available at: URL:http://
www.haitisantementale.ca/article.php3?id_article=12&lang=en.
9. James L. Not Too Soon for Mental Health Care in Port-au-Prince. The Huffington
Post. Available at: URL:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/leah-james/not-too-soon-for-
mental-h_b_513863.html.
10. National Institute of Health. Health Concerns in Haiti: Infectious Disease and
Mental Health Perspective. NIH Radio. Available at> URL:http://www.nih.gov/news/
radio/feb2010/20100204Haiti.htm.
11. Sontag D. In Haiti, Mental Health System Is in Collapse. The New York Times.
Available at: URL:http://www.nytimes.com/2010/03/20/world/americas/20haiti.html.
12. Walker A. Tending to the shaken. The Boston Globe. Available at: URL:http://
boston.com/news/local/massachusetts/articles/2010/03/15/tending_to_the_shaken/.
13. Talia Frenkel/American Red Cross [image online]. In: UPhoto Gallery: 2010 Haiti
Earthquake. 2010 Jan 16 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://www.state.gov/r/
pa/ei/pix/wha/haitiquake/index.htm
14. Nurse comforting [image online]. In: UPhoto Gallery: 2010 Haiti Earthquake. 2010
Jan 21 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/pix/wha/
haitiquake/index.htm
15. Children pray [image online]. In: First Primary School at Epicenter of Haiti
Earthquake Officially Opens for New School Year. 2010 August 25 [cited 2010 Oct 10];
Available from: http://geneva.usmission.gov/2010/08/27/haiti-school-digicel/

14 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 14 10/28/2010 11:29:56 AM

 BROWN

The Artist’s Brain

Mangaladevi Patil

“Artists are in some sense neurologists, studying the
brain with techniques that are unique to them, but
studying unknowingly the brain and its organiza-
tion nevertheless” [1].
-Semir Zeki
Controversy of Abstraction
Abstraction is the process through which “the particular is
subordinated to the general, so that what is represented is
applicable to many particulars” [3]. The significance of abstrac-
tion has been heavily debated in relevance to the neurological
affinity for art. Individuals with an enhanced ability to process
the “unvarying and essential” features of the environment

A
rt has long been regarded as an avenue for inner are believed to possess artistic talent [3]. Some argue that an
expression, offering an alternative medium for per- increased level of abstraction in artwork reflects superior art
sonal communication. ability and an enhanced artistic
Artwork has been central to the skill set [3]. However, others see
cultural practices and longevity abstraction as a signal of reduced
of civilization and continues to New artistic talent has also cognitive and visual-spatial brain
impact the ongoing development been shown to emerge functioning [3].
of individuals. In addition, it has
been used as a kind of psycho- when social, cognitive, and Neurodegenerative Illness
analysis in efforts to understand functional properties of The impact of neurodegenerative
the deep turmoils and mysteries diseases on the enhancement of
of afflicted individuals. Today, the brain have been most artistic ability has been a source
art is increasingly employed damaged, suggesting that of great interest for researchers.
in conjunction with traditional Some studies have shown that
drug therapy as a source of heal- neurodegenerative disease certain types of neurodegenera-
ing and treatment. As a result, further promotes creativity. tive diseases correlate with the
understanding the mechanisms emergence of new artistic skills;
by which art is understood and fronto-temporal dementia (FTD),
created by the brain is crucial to for example, has been identified
advancing knowledge of that which makes humans uniquely as a neurological disorder that may contribute to newfound
human: our brain. artistic ability [3]. FTD usually results from restricted degen-
eration of the frontal and/or anterior temporal brain regions;
Physiology therefore, the visual-constructive regions of the brain, the non-
The human body is a complex being. In one moment, many dominant posterior temporal and parietal lobes, are at least
functions are being performed and coordinated. Art activates initially preserved in these patients. Consequently, patients
this complicated system by stimulating higher cognitive areas. often have intact and clear representations of events from their
The brain interprets art through the activation of sen- past [3]. Preservation of theses memories may facilitate the
sory channels and motor areas. The primary visual processing creative process by encouraging repeated revisions to produce
area is located in the occipital lobe and contains cells that perfected work. New artistic talent has also been shown to
are specialized to detect orientation, color, shape, and mo- emerge when social, cognitive, and functional properties of
tion [2]. Somatosensory information travels to the primary the brain have been most damaged, suggesting that neurode-
somatosensory cortex via the dorsal column of the spinal cord generative disease further promotes creativity—possibly by
[2]. Information is transferred between the two hemispheres reducing social inhibition that might otherwise have restricted
of the brain through differentiated channels in the corpus artistic expression [4].
callosum [2]. It is important to note that neurological disorders can
Other areas of the brain, such as the limbic system, are negatively affect artistic skill as well. Patients with Parkinson’s
also involved in the processing of art. The limbic system is disease, for example, suffer from differing levels of uncontrolled
thought to play a role in the formation of our emotions and muscle spasms known as chorea, and the inability to effectively
feelings, and the frontal cortex is known to be the principal area control and coordinate muscle movement makes it increasingly
of higher processing in humans [2]. Ultimately, many areas difficult for these patients to produce artwork at all. Alzheimer’s
of the brain will work together to sense and appreciate art. disease (AD) causes a global cognitive decline in its later stages,
after a profound initial insult to the temporal and parietal

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 15

Brown.indb 15 10/28/2010 11:29:56 AM

 BROWN

lobes; degeneration in these regions contributes to a decreased visual areas in the brain similarly contribute to the processing
ability to process perceptual and spatial information. Case of visual stimulation. For example, areas V1, V4, and V3 are ar-
studies of artists eas in the brain that
diagnosed with AD are activated dur-
have illustrated this ing visual-motor
decline in a corre- stimulation. These
sponding decrease areas, however, un-
in artistic abil- like area V5, are not
ity—for example, limited to optimal
the self-portraits activation during
of one unnamed motion-dominated
British artist with visual stimulation
AD became in- [6].
creasingly simple To try and
and lost composi- understand the con-
tional balance [5]. In nections between
such a case artistic the various visual-
talent was not en- motor areas in the
hanced by neural brain, researches
degeneration but used diagnostic
was increasingly instruments such
abstracted or less as positron emis-
sophisticated. sion tomography
(PET). PET mea-
Art as A Source of Reproduced from [7] sures changes in
Healing regional cerebral
As hospitals face drastic budget cuts, art therapists may be blood flow and can aid in localization of brain activity [6].
the first to lose funding. While the hospital overall benefits Kinetic art and the efforts to scientifically study its physi-
from a reduced financial burden, proponents argue that art ological relevance show that art can provide a significant win-
therapy is a necessary and valuable means of holistic patient dow into the inner workings of the brain. It can be used as
care. Some even claim that art therapy aids in the diagnosis a mainstream method to gain further knowledge about the
and treatment planning for patients—for example, expres- relatively unknown mechanisms of the brain [6].
sion through symbols and visual media allows non-verbal or
minimally verbal patients to communicate with the outside Conclusions
world [5]. Art therefore enables the physician to get a glimpse Understanding the neurological basis of artistic ability may have
of the patient’s previously unobservable mental state. important implications for the future diagnosis and treatment
of brain disorders. The relationship offers a novel perspective
Kinetic Art & Understanding the Brain on the complex functions and wirings of the brain. Artistic
Kinetic art is an approach that emphasizes motion rather than ability was especially advanced after remarkable decline of
color and shape. It is a technique that artists use to create so- social and cognitive function, reiterating the importance of
phisticated aesthetic effects in their pieces. Often these effects art as a medium for alternative communication. Furthermore,
are designed to manipulate and activate specific visual-motor as therapeutic art healing becomes increasingly employed in
areas in the brain. Consequently, kinetic art presents the unique the holistic treatment of patients, an increased knowledge of
opportunity to study the physiology of the brain’s response the connection between the brain and art can have practical
to visual-motor stimulation [6]. and direct applications. As technology is improved and brain
There is a specialized area of cells in the brain known as function can be more accurately studied, a clearer perspective
V5, located in the occipital lobe. These cells are optimally active may be achieved.
in humans during visual stimulation in which motion predomi-
nates. The cells are directionally selective, meaning that certain Mangaladevi Patil s a sophomore studying Neuroscience at Brown
specific orientations will activate certain cells. In this manner, the University.
brain is able to discern variations in motion. Other areas of the
References 4. Mendez MF. Dementia as a window to the neurology of art. Medical Hypotheses
1. Zeki S. Inner vision: An exploration of art and the brain. Oxford: Oxford 2004;63:1-7.
University Press; 1999. 5. Mell JC, Howard SM, Miller BL. Art and the brain: The influence of frontotemporal
2. Lusebrink VB. Art therapy and the brain: An attempt to understand the underlying dementia on an accomplished artist. Neurology 2003;60:1707-1710.
processes of art expression in therapy. Art Therapy: Journal of the American Art 6. Zeki S, Lamb M. The Neurology of Kinetic Art. Brain 1994;117:607-636.
Therapy Association 2004;21(3):125-135. 7. Mapping Brain Differences [image online]. In: NIGMS Image Gallery. 2010 Jan 16
3. Kleiner-Fisman G, Lang AE. Insights into brain function through the examination [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://images.nigms.nih.gov/index.cfm?event=vie
of art: the influence of neurodegenerative diseases. NeuroReport 2003;15(6):933-937. wDetail&imageID=2419

16 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 16 10/28/2010 11:29:58 AM


A “Flexible” iPhone:
Directions and Applications for
Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (OLEDs)
Mary Yang
T
echnological advances since the advent of the Cathode
Ray Tube television have significantly shrunk the size
and thickness of light displays without sacrificing clar-
ity and resolution. Since then, LEDs (inorganic light-emitting
diodes), LCDs (liquid crystal displays), and plasma screens
have each been touted as the light display device of the future.
However, the most recent advance in light display technol-
ogy is the relatively unknown organic light-emitting diode
(OLED), an innovative nanotechnology product with highly
promising applications.
The OLED: Cost-Effective and Thin as a Nickel
Early prototype OLEDs have been produced since the early
1950s, but only recently has enough attention turned towards
nanotechnology to make extensive
OLED research possible. OLEDs have
advantages over LCDs and LEDs, in-
cluding low cost and power consump-
tion, self-luminosity (no backlight
required), physical flexibility (see
Figure 1), and compactness—they
have the potential to be only several
millimeters thin [2,3].
According to Dr. Raquel Ovalle
Robles, an OLED researcher at the
University of Texas at Dallas, “OLEDs
(also) have a fast time response (less
than one ms) and they allow a ‘true
black’ to be displayed because they glow as an electric field is
applied to the device. OLEDs are…capable of emitting uniform
light up to several square centimeters, unlike LEDs that are
point sources of light” [2]. To reduce manufacturing costs,
sheets of OLEDs can be “printed” in bulk through similar
methods to those used by inkjet printers.
OLED Applications
When the OLED’s efficiency is further enhanced, companies
who depend on electronic displays will have an OLED screen
alternative for their products. Recently, Sony has launched
Table 1:
OLED applications Biological Applications (3)
Electronic displays (mp3, TVs, monitors, Oxygen and glucose sensors, Antibody- Thermal imaging, Near-eye micro dis-
smart phones, billboards, etc.), Self-lu- antigen immunoassays- Bioterrorism plays- Combat equipment lighting- Mili-
minescent general white lighting (more sensors (ex. anthrax)- Food safety tests tary simulation and training
aesthetic designs)
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 17
BROWN
the XEL-1 OLED TV, which is three millimeters thick and
weighs only two kilograms [2]. Other companies such as Hi-
tachi and Motorola have launched small commercial OLED
devices in their MP3 players, PDAs, digital cameras, and car
audio systems. OLEDs are also a promising alternative to
general white lighting because they are cost-effective, space-
conserving, and can be shaped and cut into innovative aesthetic
designs [2]. For example, the well-known Snellen Eye Chart is
lit from behind during optometrist visits so that there is more
contrast between the letters and the white background; in the
future, the chart itself could be an OLED display that requires
no backlight or bulbs. Lastly, because it is possible to create
flexible OLEDs (see Figure 1), other interesting applications
have been considered, ranging from flexible smart phones
to flexible glowing OLED pictures
that can be attached to clothing [2,3].
The OPV, or organic photovol-
taic, is a novel organic solar cell device
made of polymers that has nearly the
same structure and same layers as
the OLED. Klaus Petritsch, an OPV
researcher who completed his PhD
dissertation at The University of Cam-
bridge, emphasizes that “advantage
of polymeric photovoltaic cells when
compared to electro-chemical cells
Reproduced from [8] is … the prospect of even cheaper
production using large area devices
and the use of flexible substrates” [5]. Unlike OLEDs, OPVs
do not produce light, but instead harvest solar power and
convert it into electrical current by pulling or “dissociating”
an electron-hole pair to opposite ends of the solar cell [5,6].
Also, because of their flexibility, they can be molded to the
shapes of roofs, the tops of cars, or the curvature of planes.
How Does an OLED work?
The standard OLED is composed of a main glass or plastic
substrate followed by a set of seven to ten organic and inorganic
layers in a specific order [2,3]. Dr. Robles explains that “the use
Military Applications (4)
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 17
10/28/2010 11:30:02 AM
 BROWN

of the multilayer structure allows electron injection and hole injec-

several materials to be used with tion layers were purified to be
specific properties such as high extremely conductive so that
carrier mobility, appropriate band Organic light-emitting diodes energy is not lost along the way
structure, and fluorescence rate, have impressive capability and as electrons and holes approach
rather than relying on a single the organic layers. With respect to
material which may show good potential for revolutionizing lifetime, organic molecules can be
mobility but poor fluorescence, the light display industry, with burned when current constantly
or visa versa (sic)” [2]. flows through the layers. Mixing
OLEDs emit light by a pro- applications in electronics, the organic molecule material
cess called electroluminescence. the military, medicine, public with another polymer provides
Following the diagram, electrons a “shield” from the flowing cur-
enter through the aluminum cath- health, and various other fields rent, but this may increase the
ode layer and make their way into and industries. amount of voltage necessary for
the upper organic layer, known as the device to work [2,3]. Finally,
the ETL (electron transfer layer). because each type of organic
“Holes,” the theoretical particles molecule only emits one specific
that are left behind when an electron moves to a different color of light, OLEDs have difficulty with color variety. There
location, can be thought of as doing the exact opposite: they is a research focus on “matrix OLEDs” or “stacked OLEDs”
enter through the ITO anode layer and pass into the organic that would place different organic layers on top of each other,
layers from the bottom. In the organic layers, the hole and creating a larger variety of colors by turning on and off certain
electron meet each other and recombine into what is known layers at a given time [2,3]. Engineering difficulties account
as an “exciton.” This exciton state then decays and the extra for most of the drawbacks of current OLED technology, but as
energy is released as photons, or light [2,3]. the need for environmentally-friendly technology increases,
the interest in OLEDs will grow as well.
How is an OLED Made?
Indium tin oxide (ITO) is one of the most basic OLED materials Conclusion: OLEDs as Displays for the Future
and is often used in the anode layer above the plastic or glass Organic light-emitting diodes have impressive capability and
substrate [3]. Researchers will etch a “pattern” into the ITO potential for revolutionizing the light display industry, with
with hydrochloric acid so that individual pixels can be tested. applications in electronics, the military, medicine, public health,
Substrates are then cleaned and placed into a “sonicator,” and various other fields and industries. While there is still
where any remaining contaminants are shaken off with the much to be done in bringing OLEDs to the forefront of light
help of high-frequency sound waves. Researches will then don technology, the OLED’s advantages have merited the invest-
a flattering head-to-toe “clean room” suit in order to carefully ment of many electronics companies and are set to appear
transfer the OLEDs into a sterile vacuum deposition machine in American and Japanese markets within the next 5 years.
to add the remaining layers [2]. Once the final metallic layer is On May 26, 2010, a buzz was on the web as a new mile-
added, the researcher may add a protective polymer coating stone in OLED research was reached. Martyn Williams from
to guard against oxygen degradation [2]. PCWorld wrote: “Sony has developed a flexible color display
that’s sturdy enough to be wrapped around a pencil while still
Problems and Directions for Future Development showing video images” [7]. The OLED screen, with a resolution
Sony, Samsung, and several other electronic firms have begun high enough to match most conventional cell phone screens,
to incorporate OLED technology into their products. How- was presented in a conference later that week in Seattle, where
ever, due to engineering problems with low efficiency, limited it became clear Sony was not the only company pursuing this
lifetime, and limited color range, OLEDs have yet to replace type of research. Who knows what the next 10 years in OLED
current screen displays despite their other advantages [2,3]. innovation will bring?
Engineers continue to optimize OLED efficiency and utility,
and many have developed hypotheses and solutions to these Mary Yang is a sophomore studying International Relations at
three main problems. Brown University.
The problem with low efficiency can be remedied if the
References OLED.htm>.
1. Sony color flexible OLED: World’s first 16.7 million bendy display (Online). 2007 5. Dennler G, Sariciftci N. Flexible conjugated polymer-based plastic solar cells: From
May 25 (cited 2010 Jun 30). Available from: URL: <http://www.product-reviews. basics to applications. Proceedings of the IEEE 2005 Aug;93(8):1429-39.
net/2007/05/25/sony-color-flexible-oled-worlds-first-167-million-bendy-display>. 6. Petritsch K. Organic solar cell architectures. 2000 July. University of Cambridge.
2. Robles R. Physical Process in OLED Architectures with Transparent Carbon 7. Williams M. Sony shows rollable OLED display. 2010 May 26 (cited 2010 Jun
Nanotube Sheets as Electrodes. 2008 Dec 15. University of Texas at Dallas. 4). Available from: URL: <http://www.pcworld.com/article/197182/sony_shows_
3. Choudhury B. Organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) and structurally integrated rollable_oled_display.html?tk=rss_news>.
photoluminescence based chemical and biological sensors excited by OLEDs. 2005. 8. Bending OLED [image online]. In: Organic Electronics: A Cleaner Substitute for
University of Iowa. Silicon. 2002 Apr 23 [cited 2010 Oct 10]; Available from: http://ehis.niehs.nih.gov/
4. Military application of OLED micro-display technology. 2006 Nov 1 (cited 2010 members/2003/111-5/bendy.jpg
Apr 24). Available from: URL: <http://defense-update.com/features/du-3-05/feature-

18 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 18 10/28/2010 11:30:02 AM

 UCHICAGO

Medicine:
Lost in Translation?
Benjamin Dauber

A
migrant worker from Mexico was sent to an Oregon care and have found that LEP patients face longer hospital
state psychiatric hospital where he was diagnosed stays, an increased risk of misdiagnoses and medical errors,
with paranoid schizophrenia. When psychiatrists and a misuse of medical services, even after factors such as
spoke to him in both Spanish and English, the man became literacy, health status, health insurance, regular source of care,
agitated, waving his arms fiercely. The psychiatrists concluded economic indicators, and ethnicity are accounted for [3]. Ad-
that the man must be delirious. After being detained for a ditionally, follow-up compliance, adherence to medication
couple of years, it was discovered that the man spoke Trique, regimens and patient satisfaction are significantly lower for LEP
a language indigenous to Mexico. With the help of a Trique patients than they are for English speaking patients [4]. LEP
interpreter, psychiatrists finally diagnosed him as mentally populations are also less likely to receive preventative health
stable and discharged him. Aside services such as mammograms.
from the pain and emotional suf- Such disparities between English
fering experienced by the man, This variety in languages and speaking patients and LEP pa-
$100,000 in unnecessary treatment tients may occur because when
was wasted. Although this is an English proficiencies has had a a patient and physician do not
extreme example, this migrant larger impact on how healthcare speak the same language, the
worker is not alone in suffering doctor reduces his or her ability
due to a language barrier. is accessed by non-native to develop rapport, to obtain a
An important change shap- English speakers. comprehensive patient history,
ing the United States is the growth to learn clinically relevant in-
of the foreign-born population, formation and to increase the
accompanied by an increase in the interpersonal engagement in
non-English speaking demographic. Nearly 38 million people treatment—all important aspects of the physician-patient
in the United States are born in a foreign country (12.5% of relationship.
the total U.S. Population), and more than 55 million (19.6% of The detrimental effects of a language barrier are not lim-
the total U.S. population) speak a language other than English ited to reduced quality of care and emotional and therapeutic
at home. More than 24 million of these people speak English engagement. Language barriers can also create additional costs.
less than “very well”, and they are therefore considered to Without proper communication, doctors may fail to order
possess limited English proficiency (LEP). Among the adult necessary diagnostic tests or may reach mistaken diagnoses
population, 21% of Californians, 15% of Texans, 13% of New based on what they believe their patients’ symptoms to be.
Yorkers, and twelve percent of Floridians have LEP [1]. To To avert serious or fatal consequences, some doctors resort to
further complicate the situation, an estimated 311 spoken using expensive and often unnecessary tests to fill the gaps
languages exist in the United States [2]. This variety in lan- left by the language barrier [5]. Clear communication of symp-
guages and English proficiencies has had a larger impact on toms during a physical exam can lead to a more accurate
how healthcare is accessed by non-native English speakers. diagnosis, thereby decreasing the need for many laboratory
Verbal communication is one of the most effective means and screening tests.
by which a doctor can access a patient’s history to begin to The legal consequences of ineffective communication
diagnose, treat, and relate prognoses. This open communica- between patient and doctor, although secondary to patient
tion between doctors and patients helps ensure that patients welfare, can have devastating consequences for all involved.
receive the appropriate medical attention and treatment, and A doctor who cannot communicate with a patient due to a
that they progress appropriately. Shared language is necessary language barrier may deliver improper care, potentially lead-
for effective communication. However, because of language ing to a costly malpractice lawsuit. In one noteworthy case,
barriers, millions of people living in the U.S. cannot have this an 18 year old was taken to the Emergency Department (ED),
connection with their physicians. accompanied by his mother. The boy was unconscious, and
For patients whose primary language is not English, the only clue to his condition was the use of the Spanish word
navigating the American health care system—whether it be “intoxicado” by his mother, which translates as “nauseated”.
in a hospital, clinic, doctor’s office, nursing home, or public As no one in the ED spoke Spanish, hospital staff interpreted
health agency— can be complicated and rife with openings for the word to mean that the boy was suffering from drug over-
miscommunication from the outset. Researchers have docu- dose, and not nausea. Several days later, the doctors ordered
mented the deleterious effects of language barriers on health a neurological test, which revealed a ruptured artery; he was

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 19

Brown.indb 19 10/28/2010 11:30:04 AM

 UCHICAGO

not suffering from drug overdose. The boy became a

quadriplegic because he did not receive the appropriate
treatment in a timely manner, and consequently, his
family sued the hospital, the paramedics, the ED, and
the attending physicians for medical malpractice, and
settled for $71 million [6]. Although patients who have
trouble navigating the healthcare system because of
language barriers may have similar problems navigat-
ing the legal system, legal consequences remain a very
real risk for hospitals and their employees.
In addition to the concern about lawsuits for im-
proper care, language barriers also raise important ethical
issues. Informed consent from a patient is a necessary
prerequisite for providing care and is fundamental to the
physician-patient relationship. In the case of Quintero
v. Encarnacion, the U.S. Court of Appeals ruled that
informed consent must be obtained in the language
understood by the patient [7]. Similarly, because mis-
understood patients are unable to participate in their
health care decisions, language barriers undermine
shared decision-making. Since the ability of patients
to make decisions about their own health care is a basic
principle in medical practice, adequate communication
is necessary for ethical medical practice [8].
The U.S. courts and government have taken steps Reproduced from [16]
in the last fifty years to help facilitate adequate levels
to adopt and does not provide any funding for these programs.
of communication. In 1964, Congress passed Title VI of the
Much of it is left to the institution and individual practitioner.
Thus, language assistance has taken many forms, which vary
in cost, availability, and possibly, in accuracy.
The use of family members and friends as translators
seems like a relatively practical method of interpretation, as
Although the federal government family members often accompany patients to their doctors,
requires language assistance clinics and hospitals. However, this method of language as-
sistance assumes that the family members speak English as
programs to be provided, it does not well as the patient’s native language well enough to translate
outline a specific model of services accurately. This practice has come under increasing criticism
for compromising patient confidentiality and also because a
to adopt and does not provide any lack of experience or understanding of medical terminology
funding for these programs. Much by the translator can lead to errors. Family members may
not be privy to sensitive medically relevant information (e.g.
of it is left to the institution and pregnancy or abortion history, drug/alcohol use, etc). Using
individual practitioner. children related to the patient, who, by virtue of their schooling
in the U.S. may have better English language skills than their
LEP parents even at a very young age, causes its own set of
problems, as patients may not want to divulge information
about certain matters in front of their children. Furthermore,
acting as a translator may be stressful and emotionally dam-
Civil Rights Act to ensure that federal money not be used to
aging to children. Hospitals could find themselves at risk by
support discrimination on the basis of race or national origin
relying on family members to interpret since there is no way to
in government activities, including healthcare. Courts have
determine the competency of the family member, nor is there
consistently found a close connection between national origin
a way to make sure no conflict of interests exists between the
and language. As recently as 2003, the federal government
family member and the patient.
reiterated guidelines requiring that providers receiving federal
As an alternative to using family members to translate,
funds, such as from Medicare and Medicaid, offer language
some institutions rely on bilingual ad hoc staff from other
assistance to LEP patients when needed [4]. However, although
departments in hospitals and private practices. In a national
the federal government requires language assistance programs
survey, over 50 percent of the providers said that when they
to be provided, it does not outline a specific model of services

20 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 20 10/28/2010 11:30:04 AM


Reproduced from [17]
need interpretative services, they often enlist staff from clerical
and maintenance services [9]. If the ad hoc interpreters are
trained in health care, they may be more familiar with medi-
cal terminology than family members; however, interpreters
drawn from maintenance and clerical services usually do not
have health care terminology training. Moreover, while ad
hoc interpreters may be better than no interpreter at all, they
can make serious semantic distortions, which can negatively
affect provided care. One study evaluated ad hoc interpreter-
assisted encounters and found that between one-fourth and
one-half of words and phrases were incorrectly translated
[10]. Additionally, the costs of pulling these staff members
from their primary duties may be substantial. The use of ad
hoc interpreters is most efficient when medical institutions
maintain updated lists of eligible employees, assess employee
language and interpretation skills, provide interpreter training,
and include interpretation as a listed job duty [11]. Neverthe-
less, using ad hoc staff alone is unlikely to meet the needs of
all LEP patients and is frequently supplemented with other
types of assistance.
Professional interpreters, on the other hand, are formally
trained and possess a high degree of proficiency in mediating
communication between languages, reliably minimizing the
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 21
UCHICAGO
effects of language differences. They allow patients and physi-
cians to understand and exchange vital information about the
experience of illness, characteristics of disease, and personal
beliefs and values. Professional healthcare interpreters are
trained in health care interpreting, adhere to professional
ethics, and can accurately render communication from one
language to another.
However, while common in international business and
diplomacy, professional interpreters are rarely available in
healthcare. The American Medical Association, the largest
association of physicians and medical students in the United
States, has protested that the cost of professional interpretation
would place a heavy burden on physicians, especially with
existing budget cuts and funding being prevalent problems
in the health care industry. They also point out that finding
an interpreter may be difficult and may entail long delays
[12]. Furthermore, many insurers will not pay interpretation
fees, leaving individual practitioners and institutions to pay
for these services.
Taking all this into account, the Office of Management
and Budget quantifies the cost to be an additional average of
only $4.04 per visit by an LEP patient or 0.5 percent of the total
cost of a visit, but acknowledges that costs could vary widely
[12]. Proponents of professional interpreters point out that the
amount needed to pay for professional interpreters is far less
than the large disparities in medical spending that exist between
English speaking patients and foreign speaking patients. They
also highlight that legal battles may be extremely expensive
relative to the cost of having a professional interpreter—as
seen in the case of the $71 million lawsuit.
Good interpretation services are occasionally available
despite limited financial resources. Since immigrant communi-
LEP patients face longer
hospital stays, an increased
risk of misdiagnoses and
medical errors, and a misuse
of medical services
ties consist of people with a spectrum of language abilities,
the availability of these local language resources can be an
important asset. Some communities run programs that re-
cruit, train, and certify local medical interpreters. For example,
the Department of Linguistics at the University of Minnesota
runs a community interpreter program that recruits bilingual
individuals interested in medical interpreting and provides
over 150 hours of training [13]. However, although the use of
community members can help bridge communication hurdles
between doctors and patients at a relatively low cost, it may
also cause potential problems with patient confidentially.
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 21
10/28/2010 11:30:05 AM
 UCHICAGO
In the spirit of keeping up with technology, there are also
telephone services that provide on-demand interpreters. These
resources are usually employed when an on-site interpreter
is unavailable or when interpretation is needed for a rarely
encountered language [11]. The AT&T Language Line, for
example, is a 24-hour telephone interpreter service that is
available in numerous languages. The language requested
and the length of time the service is used determines the cost
for interpretation. However, one of the shortcomings of this
service is that, since the conversation is over the telephone,
non-verbal cues, which can be especially important in emer-
gency situations, are lost.
A hospital’s operating room (OR) poses its own set of
problems for the LEP population, as the above methods may
not be suitable for dealing with these patients who are un-
dergoing a surgical procedure. Most potential translators for
the LEP population are not allowed in the OR, and the use
of a telephone in the OR may not be very practical. During
emergence from anesthesia, when patients are typically still
drugged and drowsy, a language barrier between patient and
anesthetist may be magnified and may compromise the safety
of the patient, as he must respond to verbal commands from
the anesthesiologist. Based on patients’ responses to com-
mands, anesthesiologists evaluate extubation criteria, determine
neurologic functioning, and ascertain a patient’s level of pain.
A research study carried out at The University of Chicago
Medical Center found that patients with self-assessed weak
English skills and those who started learning English after age
12 responded to verbal commands only in their native language
during emergence from anesthesia [14]. The implications of
this are far reaching because even foreign language patients
with proficient English ability may only respond to their na-
tive tongue during this semi conscious state. One solution to
combat this potential problem is to use recorded commands
on a computer and play them back upon emergence in the
patient’s native language during the emergence period. The OR
provides only one example out of many where an encounter
with an LEP patient poses its own set of problems, and as
such, it must be dealt with on a case-to-case basis.
No single model of language assistance is used by all
hospitals. The specifics of each hospital’s language assistance
services will vary given the diversity of the institutions and its
References
1. Census News [Online]. 2010. [cited 2010 May 3]; available from: URL: http://www.
census.gov/012634.html.
2. World Languages [Online]: Anchorage School District. 2008. [cited May 5, 2010].
available from: URL: http://www.asdk12.org/depts/world_lang/advocacy.
3. Marcus, A. Emerging From Anesthesia, Mother Tongue Takes Over. Anesthesia
News. 2010 May 36;5.
4. Branch, C., Fraser, I., Paez, K. Crossing the Language Chasm. Health Affairs. 24,
no. 2 (2005): 424-434.
5. Flores, G., Leighton, K. Pay Now or Pay Later: Providing Interpreter Services In
Health Care. Health Affairs. 24, no. 2 (2005): 435-444.
6. Kempen, AV. Legal Risks of Ineffective Communication. American Medical
Association Journal of Ethics. 2007 August, Volume 9, Number 8: 555-558.
7. U.S. 10th Circuit Court of Appeals [Online]. 2010. [cited 2010 May 15]; available
from; URL: http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/cgi-bin/getcase.pl?court=10th&navby=c
ase&no=983129.
8. President’s Commission for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and
Biomedical Research. The law of informed consent. In: Making Health Care
decisions. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office; 1982; 3:appendix L.
9. Dover, C. Health Care Interpreters in California. UCSF Center For The Health
Professions. 2003.
22 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 22
surrounding communities. For example, hospitals in Seattle
are banding together to contract with on-call interpreter pools.
Clinics across the country are working with community or-
ganizations to identify bilingual residents who can be trained
as volunteer translators. Higher education institutions, such
as New York’s Hunter College, are teaching students to serve
as professional interpreters for college credit. In Oakland,
California, Asian Health Services has trained community resi-
dents in interpretation skills and offers their services to local
hospitals and community clinics. In North Carolina, the Duke
Endowment has funded the state’s Office of Minority Health
and the state’s Area Health Education Centers Program to
establish the Spanish Language and Cultural Training Insti-
tute, which is sponsoring statewide training for interpreters
working in health and human service settings [15]. Factors
that may influence a site-specific model include the size of
the hospital, the size of the LEP population it serves, the total
resources available to the hospital, and the frequency with
which particular languages are encountered. Indeed, most
hospitals find that to best serve their patients, they need to
use some combination of the models described above. Hospi-
tals, clinics, doctors’ offices, nursing homes, and public health
agencies need to choose which services to use, based upon
several factors—including their patients’ needs—when mak-
ing such decisions.
Language barriers in the health care system create a plethora
of problems for both patients and physicians. Issues such as
safety, cost, ethics, and patient discrimination arise due to a
lack of translation services provided for a LEP patient. Without
effective communication, the physician-patient relationship
can be severely compromised. Responding sympathetically
to a patient requires an acknowledgment of that individual’s
uniqeness and a respect for his or her life. Without a linguis-
tic connection, physicians lose their most important tool for
establishing a meaningful relationship with the patient. Bet-
ter communication across the language barrier will improve
the patient-physician relationship and will lead to an overall
improvement in the healthcare of those with LEP.
Benjamin Dauber is a sophomore studying Biology at the University
of Chicago.
10. Flores, G., Barton Laws M., Mayo SJ et al. Errors in medical interpretation and
their potential consequences in pediatric encounters. Pediatrics. 2003; 111(1):6-14.
11. Best Practice Recommendations for Hospital-Based Interpreter Services [Online].
Commonwealth of Massachusetts Executive Office of Health and Human Services.
[cited June 30,2010]; available from; URL: http://www.hablamosjuntos.org/pdf_files/
Best_Practice_Recommendations_Feb2004.pdf
12. Office of Management and Budget, Report To Congress. Assessment of the Total
Benefits and Costs of Implementing Executive Order No. 13166: Improving Access to
Services for Persons with Limited English Proficiency. March 14, 2002. Washington
DC.
13. Minnesota Refugee Health Provider Guide 2007 - Medical Interpreters. [cited
2010, May 13]; available from; URL; http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/idepc/
refugee/guide/11interpreters.pdf.
14. B. Dauber, M. Dauber, D. Glick: English: What A Foreign Concept?! Reversion To
Native Language Speeds Emergence in Immigrants. Anesth. Analg 2010; S-178.
15. Perkins, J. Overcoming Language Barriers To Healthcare [Online]. 1999.
[cited 2010 July 15]; available from; URL: http://www.sog.unc.edu/pubs/
electronicversions/pg/f99-3844.pdf.
16. http://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/images/womanhospital.jpg
17. http://blog.usa.gov/roller/govgab/resource/images/mg_patient.jpg
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:30:05 AM
 HARVARD

Whatever Happened to…One Laptop Per Child?

Robert Qi

A
fter witnessing the transformative effects that informa- The heart of the OLPC program is the XO laptop, dubbed
tion delivered via computer had on a rural Cambodian the “$100 laptop.” The lime-green machines are energy ef-
family, Nicholas Negroponte of the MIT Media Center ficient and damage-resistant. To deter the pilfering and/or
had an idea. What if all children of developing countries had selling of the XO on the gray market, the XO is built with
access to such computers and the information on the Internet? multiple anti-theft measures that effectively render a stolen XO
Negroponte believed that such use would give those children unusable [16]. To minimize cost and power consumption, the
the information opportunities they lacked under the status XO is designed without a hard drive (utilizing flash memory
quo, as well as facilitate their transition into the digital age. instead) or CD/DVD driver, though it has a USB port [15].
As such, he hoped that better-educated youth would be able The OLPC program has benefited students in other
to do more to improve their countries when they grow up [1]. ways besides providing access to information. For example,
Thus, the One Laptop Per Child (OLPC) initiative was the OLPC program has facilitated interpersonal skills devel-
born. First deliver- opment as the XOs
ing its manifesto of overcome distance
providing education in rural communi-
to the children of ties. Furthermore,
developing coun- some children
tries by providing have even taught
them with afford- their parents how
able computers and to use the Internet,
software at the 2005 and the prevalence
World Economic of XOs has reduced
Forum, OLPC is parental mistrust of
now comprised of a the education system
dedicated 32-person as they see their
staff in partnership children learning
with multiple tech [4]. Additionally,
companies, includ- the OLPC program
ing Advanced Micro facilitates participa-
Devices, Google, and tion in the modern
eBay; OLPC also information world,
works with govern- as well as allowing
ments of developing those in rural neigh-
countries to bring borhoods a level of
computer and net- access to information
work access to their comparable to their
nations’ children [1]. Reproduced from [16] urban counterparts

In 2007, OLPC began [5].

large-scale production of its computer and deployed its first
network servers. By December 2007, the first children began
using laptops provided by the OLPC initiative [1].
Since then, many countries have signed with the OLPC
initiative. Major users include Peru (290,000 units), Colombia
(170,000 units), and Rwanda (100,000 units). Countries with
small-scale pilot projects include Brazil, Iraq, and India, while
others such as Argentina and Greece have expressed inter-
est [2]. Between government purchases and initiatives such
as “Give 1 Get 1,” in which a donor would purchase two
computers, dubbed the “XO,” one for him/herself and one
to be donated to a child, OLPC hopes to replicate the success
of Uruguay, which recently announced that all children ages
6-12 had access to the technology [3].
However, there have been several difficulties with this
program after the initial launch date was pushed back from late
2006 to 2007 [6]. First, Microsoft and Intel have both expressed
skepticism at the idea, while Intel has withdrawn from the
OLPC board seat it once had over marketing issues. Next, the
XO faces direct private competition from Intel’s Classmate
PC, a machine of similar capabilities and price which has
found purchasers in Libya, Nigeria, and Pakistan [7-10]. Ad-
ditionally, the initial goal of producing a $100 laptop has not
been met. Instead of having prices drop the advocated $100
per computer, prices have risen to $175 to the current $199
per laptop [11,1].
The status of developing countries may reduce their en-
thusiasm for the OLPC program as well. With limited funding,

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 23

Brown.indb 23 10/28/2010 11:30:05 AM

 HARVARD

funding for the XO must

be weighed as funding unable
to be spent for better school
infrastructure or teacher in-
struction. Providing informa-
tion access to children may be
problematic for areas with
poor or no Internet connec-
tivity, lack of power sources,
and lack of maintenance ca-
pability should the XO break
down. Finally, countries may
believe that the XO, with its
emphasis on transforming the
way children are educated, is
fundamentally at odds with its
own perception of learning [5].
As such, the OLPC
program has not reached its
original lofty goals. In 2006,
it was hoped that between 5
and 10 million units would be
distributed by 2007 worldwide,
with major distribution in India Reproduced from [17]
and China [6]. However, as of
2009, only 1.2 million comput-
ers have been distributed worldwide.
There have been several developments with the OLPC
organization as of late. In January 2009, OLPC laid off 32 of the
64 employees it had at the time and reduced compensation to
its remaining 32 employees due to poor XO sales amidst the
global economic crisis [12,13]. Furthermore, the One Laptop
Per Child has now become “one laptop per child” (olpc, all
lowercase), and has separated into two parties: the Association
and the Foundation. While the Association focuses on creating
and marketing the laptops, the Foundation promotes the use
of technology in developing countries [14].
Technology-wise, the olpc had intended to replace the
XO with the XO2, a dual-touchscreen machine with multiple
operating modes, such as book mode, tablet mode, and com-
References
1. One Laptop Per Child. Retrieved November 15, 2009, from http://laptop.org/en/
2. Countries. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from One Laptop per Child Wiki website:
http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Countries
3. Ng, Jansen (2009). Every Elementary Student in Uruguay Now Has an OLPC
Laptop. Daily Tech. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from http://www.dailytech.com/
Every+Elementary+Student+in+Uruguay+Now+Has+an+OLPC+Laptop/article16542.
htm
4. Krstić, Ivan (2008). Astounded in Arahuay. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from
http://radian.org/notebook/astounded-in-arahuay
5. International Institute for Communication and Development (n.d.). ‘One Laptop
Per Child’: the debate continues… Retrieved November 16, 2009, from http://www.
iicd.org/articles/one-laptop-per-child-the-debate-continues
6. Shankland, Stephen (2006). Negroponte: Slimmer Linux needed for $100 Laptop.
CNET. Retrieved November 15, 2009, from http://news.cnet.com/Negroponte-
Slimmer-Linux-needed-for-100-laptop/2100-7346_3-6057456.html
7. Markoff, John (2008). Intel Quits Effort to Get Computers to Children. New York
Times. Retrieved November 15, 2009, from http://www.nytimes.com/2008/01/05/
technology/05laptop.html?ex=1357189200&en=9c2c17178c11e828&ei=5090&partner=r
ssuserland&emc=rss&pagewanted=all+
8. Smith, Stevie (2007). Intel Supplies Libya with 150,000 Classmates. m&c.
Retrieved November 16. 2009, from http://www.monstersandcritics.com/tech/news/
article_1370177.php/Intel_supplies_Libya_with_150000_Classmates
puter mode, as well as an improved microphone and camera.
However, olpc has recently scrapped the XO2, replacing it
with the XO-1.75, a more modest evolution of the XO with its
primary attraction being a new processor. The next generation,
the XO3, still remains in the design stage [14].
The success of the olpc program itself is certainly debat-
able. While it certainly has not lived up to its goal of providing
every child in a developing country with a computer yet, the
program has nonetheless positively affected the lives of many.
Regardless, the one-laptop-per-child program, has pushed the
concept of an extremely affordable computer into reality, even
if it currently has not created a true $100 laptop.
Robert Qi is a junior studying Molecular and Cellular Biology at
Harvard University.
9. Swinburne, Richard (2007). Intel Shows Off Classmate PC at IDF. Bit-tech.
net. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://www.bit-tech.net/news/
hardware/2007/04/18/intel_classmate_pc_at_idf/1
10. Kirk, Jeremy (2007). Nigeria Favors MandrivaOver Microsoft Once More. IDG
News Service. Retrieved November 18, 2009, from http://www.pcworld.com/
article/139480/nigeria_favors_mandriva_over_microsoft_once_more.html
11. Stern, Joanna (2007). Intel vs. OLPC: A Battle of Good Wills. Laptop. Retrieved
November 16, 2009, from http://www.laptopmag.com/default.aspx.
12. Bray, Hiawatha (2009). Fund loss staggers group giving laptops to poor children.
Boston Globe. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from http://www.boston.com/business/
technology/articles/2009/01/09/fund_loss_staggers_group_giving_laptops_to_poor_
children/?page=full
13. Roush, Wade (2009). Negroponte Outlines the Future of OLPC—Hints at
Paperlike Design for Third Generation Laptop. Xconomy. Retrieved Novemeber 17,
2009, from http://www.xconomy.com/boston/2009/11/02/negroponte-outlines-the-
future-of-olpc-hints-at-paperlike-design-for-third-generation-laptop/
14. Barrow, Kenneth (2007). OLPC XO User Review. NotebookReview.com.
Retrieved November 17, 2009, from http://www.notebookreview.com/default.
asp?newsID=4093
15. Bitfrost. Retrieved November 17, 2009, from One Laptop per Child Wiki website:
http://wiki.laptop.org/go/Bitfrost
16. http://afghanistan.usaid.gov/images/Photo.300.502.aspx
17. http://photos.state.gov/libraries/amgov/30145/week3/091908_ICDLsnapshot_500.
jpg

24 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 © 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.

Brown.indb 24 10/28/2010 11:30:06 AM


Modernization:
Russia from the 18th Century to Today
Anton Tarasenko
T
here is certain grandeur about the equestrian statue of
Emperor Peter Romanov on the banks of River Neva.
One cannot help but feel awe in the presence of the
‘Bronze Horseman’ – his outstretched arm pointing into the
distant west. Nevertheless – though imposing the statue may
be – the ‘grandeur’ is evoked not so much by the physique
of the rider or the character of the person it represents, as
the reforms initiated by Peter during his reign as both Tsar
and Emperor of Russia. These radical reforms transformed
Russia and its place in history from a medieval society into a
modern European Empire [1]. At the heart of this 18th century
modernization is the study of how far-reaching consequences
of scientific development can be.
At the time of Peter’s accession to the throne, Russia was
by most standards a backward country – when compared to
other European powers [1,4]. In fact, it would not be a far-
fetched comparison to say that while her western neighbours
were reaping the fruits of the Renaissance period, Russia was
yet to emerge from the Middle Ages.
Peter knew this had to change if Russia was ever to join
the likes of Britain, France and Sweden as a mighty European
Empire. In fact, it appears that Russia’s social, economic and
technological development was more poignant to Peter than to
any ruler who came before him [2]. On his quest to ‘Europeanize’
Russia – a term today synonymous with modernization –
Peter himself visited such places as: the Royal Observatory in
Greenwich, Deptford Dockyards, Fredrik Ruysch’s museum
of anatomy, and Dresden’s Kunstkammer as well as hospitals
and various enterprises [2]. These and many other places were
soon to become models for Peter’s Europeanization projects at
home. His Grand Embassy, in the meantime, recruited foreign
experts like: mathematician Henry Farquharson, engineer John
Perry, physician Nikolaas Bidloo, and shipwright Joseph Nye
amongst others [2]. These were to become Peter’s representatives
of the Western culture, arts and education in Russia.
What ensued following his Grand Embassy’s return to Russia
can most adequately be described as ‘radical Europeanization.’
During the years until his death in 1725, Peter’s reforms left
no aspect of society unaltered [3]. Of particular interest to this
essay is the economy of Peter’s Russia, and the role science
played in its development.
So how did science advocate change during the Petrine
Era? The sad fact is that modernization for Peter primarily
concerned modernization of the Russian army and navy (it
is worth noting that Peter had expansionist tendencies) [4].
Socio-cultural development came second to militarism. For
this reason, many schools and institutions founded during
that time were first meant to supply Russia with skilled
military personnel, and only then to educate its citizens [4].
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 25
MELBOURNE
This also applied to the advancements made in sciences and
engineering. Moscow School of Mathematics and Navigation,
St. Petersburg Naval Academy and Moscow Engineering School
were established for this very reason [4,5]. Such militarism is
understandable, however, since territorial expansion in Peter’s
time was analogous to economic development.
Such military and research establishments, of course,
soon gave Peter what he so doggedly pursued over the years
[6]. But - as so often happens - powerful armed forces coupled
with a ruler’s incessant desire for expansion, meant that Russia
was soon at war. Sweden, which was an important supplier
of goods to Russia -- was now her foe [7].
At the heart of this 18th century
modernization is the study of
how far-reaching consequences
of scientific development can be.
However, the surprising twist to the conflict was that rather
than leave Russia’s industry in ruin, the war with Sweden
provided an incentive for its advancement [7]. Society, then
and today, relies on incentives to move forward. The sudden
need to replace Sweden as a major supplier was for Russia just
that. Let us explore one area where this effect was particularly
evident - the metallurgic industry. Whereas in 1700, Russia’s
iron smelters produced approximately 2,000 tons, by 1710 they
produced more than 5,000 tons. By 1720, this figure increased
to more than 10,000 tons [7]! Following this mining jump start,
Russia’s iron and copper exports continued to grow rapidly
during the years following Peter’s reign. In the second half
of the 18th century – aided by rising demand for iron abroad
– Russia became a European leader among ferrous exports
[8]. There was a similar tendency at maximizing production
(perhaps less successful) in the industrial, commercial and
agricultural sectors [4].
Understandably, Russia did not experience a sudden
economic surge overnight. In fact, to believe that Peter’s
reformation of Russia’s internal economy could suddenly
reverse deeply entrenched attitudes and practices would be
simply naïve. Peter’s prolonged military conquests further
exacerbated the economic situation [9]. His reforms, in form
of schools established specializing in mining, agriculture and
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 25
10/28/2010 11:30:07 AM
 MELBOURNE
commerce and the introduction of latest practices were not
marked by any notable short-term accomplishments [4].
These reforms, however, provided the basis for the economic
expansion observed in the latter half of the century. From 1718
to 1788, Russia’s aggregate national income increased fivefold.
Whilst in the last few years of Peter’s reign, an average Russian
earned the equivalent of two thirds of his English counterpart,
by 1788 he earned as much as an average Englishman [10].
This is just another instance of how ‘broadening of knowledge’
contributed to Russia’s economic expansion.
Whether the growth of Russia’s metal exports and economy
in general can be directly attributed to scientific development
is, of course, debatable. It is clear, however, that Russia rose
from insignificance among metal exporters following the war
with Sweden [7]. In turn, the Great Northern War – as the
conflict came to be called – precipitated from what were Peter’s
expansionist ideals coupled with his newly Europeanized and
trained army [6]. The pursuit of the latter feat, however, would
have been an exercise in futility, were it not for the recruitment
of foreign experts, the establishment of educational institutions
throughout Russia and the progress made therein.
Meanwhile, most people consider the single greatest legacy
of Emperor Peter Romanov the founding of St. Petersburg
– the city on the shores of Neva [3]. The city was founded
on then-modern ideals and paralleled other great European
cities of the time in terms of beauty, concept and style. St.
Petersburg became an economic hub where everything spoke
26 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 26
Reproduced from [21]
of modernity. It reflected Peter’s vision for what Russia was to
become [11]. In short, it was a city where East and West came
together. St. Petersburg was Russia’s ‘window to the West.’
To date, St. Petersburg echoes Petrine Era modernization
reforms. Its founder – a ruler who instituted a storm of change in
Russia – still stands on the banks of River Neva. His outstretched
arm still points to the distant West.
Nearly three hundred years has passed since Peter
Romanov’s time. In June of this year, at an annual economic
conference in St. Petersburg, Russia’s President, Dmitry
Medvedev, announced to world business leaders that Russia is
‘serious’ about modernization [12]. Mr. Medvedev made these
announcements in light of the global economic downturn, which
has left Russia among the hardest hit nations. In particular,
what the recent crisis made clear is that dependence on natural
resources such as oil, metal and natural gas, could not possibly
drive Russia towards economic and social prosperity. Instead,
as Mr. Medvedev outlined in his reform agenda, Russia should
thrive towards establishing a culture of technological innovation
and entrepreneurship to drive itself forward.
One way in which President Medvedev plans to move
Russia forward is through the establishment of Russia’s own
‘Silicon Valley’ at Skolkovo [13]. In the United States, and
indeed the rest of the world, the name Silicon Valley has
become synonymous with high-tech business-enterprises and
has come to symbolize innovation. During his recent trip to
the United States, President Medvedev toured Silicon Valley
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM
 MELBOURNE

in California hoping to learn from the experience of America’s would finally stop with an improving economic climate. On
high-tech industry. Along the way, Mr. Medvedev visited the this basis, Russia’s research hub at Skolkovo could be another
headquarters of companies like: Apple, Cisco Systems, Twitter “window to the West.”
and others. He experienced firsthand the latest innovations In his ‘Strategy 2020,’ Mr. Medvedev presented a view of
in communication, networking and robotics and was even Russia’s economy in ten years time. In this report, he makes a
presented with a then-yet-to-be released Apple iPhone 4 by case that by 2020, advanced technological innovations should
Apple CEO, Steve Jobs [13]. account for 15 percent of all Russian exports, which is equivalent
With backing from the president himself, and companies to 10 percent of the country’s GDP. At the moment, high-tech
like Nokia, Cisco, Google and Boeing pledging millions in exports constitute roughly 1.1 percent of the national GDP
investments, Skolkovo is set to become [14]. The above statistics may
a successful first chapter in Russia’s seem quixotic, but that does
pursuit of a ‘knowledge economy’ not mean that the president’s
[13,14]. The question remains, plan is sure to fail. To ensure
however, about whether Skolkovo a chance of success in
can become another St. Petersburg fulfilling the above ambitions,
in the sense that Russian people will however, Mr. Medvedev must
reap the benefits of the progress made examine Russia’s long-term
therein. Or, will Skolkovo be just a commitment to establishing
bad attempt at grafting of Western and sustaining an economy
technologies and practices with little fixed on scientific and
room left for the renewal of Russia’s technological development.
economy [9]? Assuming the former, In order to do this, Russian
more optimistic scenario, what can policy makers must take
Skolkovo do to transform Russia? the ‘bottom-up’ approach at
One of the main problems it looking at Skolkovo and the
is hoped the Skolkovo project will rest of the science sector [13].
put end to, is the so-called ‘brain- Only then will Mr. Medvedev’s
drain’ that has plagued Russia since modernization efforts be truly
the early 1970s. It is estimated that successful.
since that time until the turn of While analysts believe that
the new millennium, over half a Russia is genuinely good in
million of Russia’s most talented the research field, there is a
have emigrated to the West. This systematic lack of innovation
Reproduced from [14]
‘brain-drain’ continues even to this and enterprise culture [9,16].
day as Russian scientists, engineers A revamp of the country’s
and entrepreneurs head West in troubled education system
search of better life and working Reproduced from [22] is needed if it is to revive its
conditions [14]. Six-thousand left in once-prided position as one
2009 alone [15]. Mr. Medvedev has of the leaders in science and
underlined many a time that the “import of brains, import of technology. According to Harley Balzer, the Director of Russian
specialists” will be crucial towards shifting Russia to a modern and East European Studies at Georgetown University, Russian
economy [15]. He has already injected billions into projects people must understand that scientific progress is inevitably
designed to lure foreign professionals and Russian émigré tied to their country’s future economic growth [17]. He also
from abroad. Among these, are projects aimed at innovations noted that reemergence of Russia as a great nation requires
in nanotechnology, communication, biomedical, space and the ability to “think critically, conceptualize and learn on one’s
nuclear related sectors [14]. It is simple: if conditions become own.” This, unfortunately, is often missing in the post-Soviet
favourable for foreign specialists to work and study in Russia, system of education. Could Skolkovo spell change in Russia’s
Russia’s native professionals will see little reason to emigrate. attitude and education system and consequently lead to the
These investments are furthered by relaxed business and economic expansion Mr. Medvedev believes in?
tax laws at Skolkovo which are designed to give entrepreneurs Education by itself, however, just won’t do. Let us step
and potential investors an environment in which they can back 300 years in time. In the 1700s, Peter Romanov established
function and realise their ideas [14]. Consequently, this enticing institutions to reverse Russia’s backwardness. Despite the
of specialists and enterprises could serve as a motive for apparent success of Peter’s education reforms, the real success
long-term foreign investment into Russia. In other words, a of institutions like the Moscow School of Mathematics and
success at Skolkovo for foreign investors could reverse the Navigation was only partial. Peter’s universities did manage
traditional apprehension associated with doing business in to inspire and educate thousands of Russians. But thousands,
Russia. Furthermore, the mass emigration of native intelligentsia perhaps even tens of thousands in a country of millions was

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 27

Brown.indb 27 10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM

 MELBOURNE
never enough to bring about the same level of progress Peter
had envisaged [9,18]. This same approach of ‘education for
progress’ will also not work in the 21st century. Instead,
Mr. Medvedev must understand that technical innovations
made at Skolkovo must enter the mainstream society. Unless
progress made at Skolkovo is done for and appreciated by the
While analysts believe that
Russia is genuinely good in
the research field, there is a
systematic lack of innovation
and enterprise culture.
people, modernization of Russia’s economy is doomed to fail.
In this regard, Skolkovo could lead to Russia’s sociocultural
development all the while being economic and intellectual
in design.
Yet, many people remain skeptical about whether Russia
can attain a ‘knowledge-based economy.’ In a recent survey
by PricewaterhouseCoopers, 71 percent of Russian businesses
reported being the subject of theft and bureaucracy in 2009 [14].
Indeed, corruption at state level and thieving bureaucrats remain
the biggest obstacles in Russia’s pursuit of a modern economy.
This is also the reason for the apprehension many foreigners feel
about making investments in Russia. To demonstrate to foreign
investors that Russia is indeed ‘serious’ about modernization,
these challenges must feature prominently on Mr. Medvedev’s
reform agenda [12]. Again, a successful business environment
at Skolkovo could potentially spill beyond the walls of this
References
1. Gregory L. Freeze, Russia a History. Somerset: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp.
87-88.
2. Gregory L. Freeze, Russia a History. Somerset: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp.
92-93.
3. “Peter the Great and Modernization of Russia,” indepthinfo.com [Online].
Available: http://www.indepthinfo.com/history/peter-modernization.htm#reforms
[Accessed: August 2010].
4. Chris Trueman, “Peter the Great - Domestic Reforms,” historylearningsite.co.uk
[Online]. Available: http://www.historylearningsite.co.uk/peter_the_great2.htm
[Accessed: August 2010].
5. “The 300th anniversary of the technical education in Russia,” Russian Association
for Engineering Education [Online]. Available: http://aeer.cctpu.edu.ru/engn/date/
aio_300_y.htm [Accessed: August 2010].
6. Gregory L. Freeze, Russia a History. Somerset: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp.
95-96.
7. Gregory L. Freeze, Russia a History. Somerset: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp.
98.
8. Arcadius Kahan, Richard Hellie; The plow, the hammer, and the knout: an
economic history of eighteenth-century Russia. United States: University of Chicago
Press, 1985, pp. 183-184.
9. Richard Hellie, review of Russia in the Age of Peter the Great, (review no. 64)
[Online]. Available: http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/64 [Date accessed:
August 2010].
10. “Economic development in long-term perspective: Russia 1700-1914,”
ountdownnet.info [Online]. Available: http://www.countdownnet.info/archivio/
analisi/russian_federation/476.pdf [Accessed: August 2010].
11. Gregory L. Freeze, Russia a History. Somerset: Oxford University Press, 1997, pp.
104-105.
28 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 28
innovation city and lead to a new type of Russian economy
– free from the burdens of corruption and bureaucracy. It
might be a naïve example of how scientific development can
influence an aspect of society like the economy. Peter the Great
once said, however, that Russia “is a land where things that
don’t happen, happen.” Perhaps this is what he meant when
he said those words.
On the same note, to resolve the ongoing Mikhail
Khodorkovsky and Platon Lebedev trial for corruption charges
would be to bolster investors’ enthusiasm [19]. It would show
the extent of Russia’s ‘seriousness’ to the same effect. To
investors and their enterprises, this could serve as the best
possible precursor to Skolkovo.
Much depends upon the ambitious plans to modernize
Russia and its economy. “The success of the ‘Smart Russia’
movement is a question of life and death for Russia,” says
Zhores Alferov, one the last few Nobel Laureates still living
in Russia. Alferov, like so many others, understands that
scientific and technical progress remains Russia’s best hope
at a ‘knowledge economy.’
To have this economy stay requires the rethinking of the
entire education system to better meet the challenges of the
21st century. What Russia needs most, however – something
that even the legacy of Peter could not give – is a culture of
enterprise and innovation. The future of Russia and its economy
depends on scientific development. To quote Alferov: “The
idea of Skolkovo is like Noah’s ark—all our ideas of hope and
survival are pinned on it.”
Anton Tarasenko is the winner of the 2010 Triple Helix Essay
Competition. He was born in 1992 in a city in central Russia.
Like that of many, his interest for engineering, was precipitated
by historical episodes like the Space Race and the moon landings.
Upon graduation from the University of Melbourne, he hopes to
gain employment in the research and development sector.
12. “Medvedev Tells Economic Forum Russia Is Serious About Reforms,” Radio Free
Europe Radio Liberty, June 2010 [Online]. Available: http://www.rferl.org/content/
Medvedev_Tells_Economic_Forum _Russia_Needs_Investment_Boom/2075383.html
[Accessed: August 2010].
13. “Russia Profile Weekly Experts Panel: Is Skolkovo Another St.
Petersburg?”russiaprofile.org [Online]. Available: http://www.russiaprofile.org/
page.php?pageid=Experts%27+Panel&articleid=a1278072887 [Accessed: August
2010].
14. Owen Matthews, Anna Nemtsova; “Smart Russia,” newsweek.com [Online].
Available: http://www.newsweek.com/2010/05/14/smart-russia.html [Accessed:
August 2010].
15. “Skolkovo: the Brain Attraction,” RT.com [Online]. Available: http://rt.com/
Politics/2010-07-01/skolkovo-surkov-innovation-center.html [Accessed: August 2010].
16. “New home for science in Russia,” RT.com [Online]. Available: http://rt.com/
Top_News/2010-03-21/prevent-brain-drain-russia.html [Accessed: August 2010].
17. Jodi Koehn, “Russian Education and National Security,” Woodrow Wilson
International Center for Scholars [Online]. Available: http://www.wilsoncenter.org/
index.fm?fuseaction=events.event_sum mary&event_id=3846 [Accessed: August
2010].
18. Max Okenfuss, “Technical Training in Russia Under Peter the Great,” jstor.org
[Online]. Available: http://www.jstor.org/pss/367380?cookieSet=1 [Accessed: August
2010].
19. “Russia Profile Weekly Experts Panel: Medvedev Promises Change to Believe
In?” russiaprofile.org [Online]. Available: http://www.russiaprofile.org/page.php?pa
geid=Experts%27+Panel&articleid=a127 7470377 [Accessed: August 2010].
21. http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1a/The_Bronze_Horseman.
jpg.
22. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peter_der-Grosse_1838.jpg.
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM

The Great Disjoint of Language and Intelligence
Koh Wanzi
A
stunning variety of languages has evolved in the world
since the birth of civilization, with some forming a
unique cornerstone of many cultures. To date, there
has still not been an accurate census of the exact number of
languages in the world. Street surveys throw up numbers in the
several hundreds, while the Ethnologue organization, generally
accepted to have the most extensive list thus far, catalogues
an astounding 6809 distinct languages [1]. The study of the
acquisition and mastery of any language offers fascinating
insights into our neural circuitry and specific regions of the
brain, as well as our cognitive processes. This has unfortunately
led to equating linguistic ability with intelligence; but this
article will try to dispel this notion, setting them up instead
as two independent domains. This essay, however, seeks to
set aside the diversity of languages and view them in a single
unifying light for their role in cognition. Furthermore, this article
proposes a need for education policy to be updated in line
with new theories of cognition in the interests of students who
might be unfairly penalized for simply lacking linguistic flair.
Linguistic Theories: Mould or Clock?
Of great interest is the exact nature of the relationship between
language and thought. In the field of linguistic theory most
theories can be classified in between two general categories at
opposite ends of the spectrum. They are commonly referred
to as “mould theories” and “cloak theories”. Mould theories
hypothesize that language is “a mould in terms of which
thought categories are cast” while cloak theories theorize that
“language is a cloak conforming to the customary categories
of thought of its speakers” [2].
The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis, proposed by American lin-
guists Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf, belongs to the
category of a mould theory. This theory consists of two closely
associated concepts—linguistic determinism and linguistic
relativity. Linguistic determinism holds that our thoughts are
determined and constrained entirely by language, while the
concept of linguistic relativity proposes that different languages
will cause people to think and perceive the world differently.
Experiments conducted with bilingual Japanese women living
in America have provided interesting evidence. These women
had American husbands, and spoke Japanese only when they
met each other. Meeting twice with a bilingual Japanese in-
terviewer, the first session was conducted in Japanese, while
the second in English. Though questions asked both times
were exactly the same, the answers given varied and seemed
to depend on the language used instead of having the same
answers in different languages as might be expected. In a
particularly striking example, one woman said in Japanese
that when her wishes conflicted with those of her family’s, it
was “a time of great unhappiness”. However, her response
to the same question in English was, “[I] do what I want”[3].
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
Brown.indb 29
NUS
Proponents of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis argue that this dis-
parity can be accounted for by linguistic determinism and
relativity, whereby the women’s thoughts and perception of
the world were dependent on the language spoken. However,
these results present severe limitations as this experiment is
unable to account for countless other confounding factors
occurring in the period between interviews that could have
caused different responses and shaped the women’s views.
In sharp juxtaposition with the Sapir-Whorf advocates
are the cloak theorists; their argument of “universalism” is the
polar opposite of the Whorfian conjecture. It is best illustrated
using the Neo-Classical idea that language is the “dress of
thought”. This theory has at its core the assumption that the
same thought can be expressed exactly in a variety of ways.
Therefore, it should theoretically be possible to express an idea
in one language, and then precisely translate it to any other,
putting paid to the phrase “lost in translation”. In contrast, the
Whorfian hypothesis emphasizes the difficulty of translation
between languages, since some languages have words that have
no exact translation as a single word in another language. For
example, the Portuguese “geram” means “unbearably cute”,
while the German word “schaudenfreude” means “pleasure
at the misfortune of others”. Whorf argued for this difference
in translations as evidence that speakers of different languages
viewed the world through different prisms carved by their
native language. For instance, in a translation of the English
language to Apache, the sentence, “he invites people to a feast”
translates roughly as, “he, or somebody, goes for the eaters
of cooked food” [3].
While the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis might seem to invali-
date the cloak theory of universalism through these counter
examples, it is guilty of several flaws. The problem of translat-
ing directly from one language to another might seemingly
strengthen the argument, but upon closer inspection it actu-
ally undermines the theory of linguistic determinism. When
non-speakers of the German language come across the word
“weltschmerz”, used to represent the feeling of world weari-
ness felt when recognizing the disparity between reality and
an idealized world, they readily identify with the feeling.
They are not impeded by their inability to speak German to
recognize the feeling the word conveys, as they should if the
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis holds true. This is testament to the
existence of a system rich mental expression that transcends
the boundaries of language. The idea that language is only a
subset of our vast mental vocabulary forms the cornerstone
of the book The Deeper Meaning of Liff by Douglas Adams.
The book contains examples of unconventional words, for
example “elecelleration”, that is, the “mistaken notion that the
more often, or harder, you press an elevator button, the faster
it will arrive”[4]. There exist other such actions or emotions
that are as yet nameless, but the fact that they are not in our
THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 29
10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM
 NUS
vocabulary does not preclude our noticing and feeling them.
A more nuanced view of the extreme versions of the mould
and cloak theories is thus required.
“Mentalese” as a Common Mental Language
A more moderate view of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis is the
first step towards a new understanding of the relationship
between language and thought. Instead of rigidly assuming
that thinking is restricted to the straitjacket of language, it is
important to recognize the potential for language to influence
rather than determine thinking. In his book The Language
Instinct, Stephen Pinker extends the idea of a rich mental world
that language can never entirely encompass. Pinker proposes
a form of mental language that he terms “mentalese”, a kind
of internal language we all possess, and which we convey to
others by means of language as a vessel. Pinker references
cases of “languageless” adults—deaf people who by force of
circumstance or otherwise, have been isolated from the verbal
world. This is where the extreme form of the Sapir-Whorf
hypothesis is refuted. If thought is confined by language, it
would make sense to conclude that the reverse is also true,
that without language there can be no thought. However,
these deaf adults display ability to process and learn things,
and are not impeded from “thinking” in the cognitive sense
of the word [5]. It could thus be said that language serves as
a conductor of “mentalese”, albeit a dynamic vessel which
potential to influence cannot be entirely discounted.
Implications for Education Policy
A particular medical condition provides a striking illustration
of how different language and intelligence are in the brain. In
children with Williams syndrome, which is accompanied by
varying degrees of mental retardation, early medical observers
had noted the “friendly and loquacious” nature of their subjects
and their “unusual command of language [in speech]”. Despite
this, a vast majority of adults with Williams syndrome possess
only “rudimentary skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic”. In
a study conducted at The Salk Institute for Biological Studies and
the UCSD School of Medicine, researchers sought differential
assessment of specific domains of function to isolate language
from cognitive performance. Subjects with Williams syndrome
were contrasted with those with Down syndrome and matched
for age, sex, and mental function on IQ measures. The study
noted the equivalent cognitive impairment of subjects with
both conditions, stating that they are “markedly impaired on a
range of purely cognitive tasks such as conservation, concept
formation, and problem solving”. However, amid the background
of general cognitive impairment, Williams syndrome children
differed from their Down syndrome counterparts in their ability
to express language. The study cites the “spontaneous and
fluent speech” of an 18 year old Williams syndrome adolescent
with an IQ of 49. She was said to show “great facility with
References
1. Linguistic Society of America [homepage on internet]. Washington, DC: The
Society [cited 2010 Mar 2]. Available from: http://www.lsadc.org/info/ling-faqs-
howmany.cfm
2. Chandler, Daniel. The act of writing: a media theory approach. University of
Wales; 1995.
3. Alchin N. Theory of knowledge. John Murray; 2002.
4. Adams D, Lloyd J. The deeper meaning of liff. 2nd ed. Pan books;1992.
30 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 30
language, being able even to weave vivid stories of imaginary
events and compose lyrics to a love song”. Yet in another stark
example of the “unusual dissociation of language from other
cognitive functions”, she has the academic skills of a first-grader
and requires a baby-sitter for supervision[6].
The evidenced lack of a correlation between language
ability and intelligence also has serious practical implications
for education. Singapore’s Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew said
recently that he had come to see the error of the Republic’s
method of implementation of bilingual education policy which
requires students to have almost equal proficiency in both
their first language and mother tongue. Because, he said,
it is not possible to master two languages at the same level,
Singapore’s method of teaching Mandarin to English-speaking
children using Mandarin itself turned generations away from
the language [7]. It is important for education policy makers
to realize the lack of a link between language mastery and
intelligence. If this gap in association is not recognized, chil-
dren who possess mathematical or scientific aptitude but lack
linguistic flair might be unfairly marginalized in the education
system. For example, in the GCE ‘O’ level examination at the
end of secondary education in Singapore, the final score is
computed based on the grade of one language subject and
five others from distinct subject groups. In this system, even
if a student scores a top grade of A1 in the other five subjects,
a poor grade in the languages could still pull the overall score
down enough to deny the student entry into top schools. While
this observation in no way seeks to undermine the importance
of all-rounded education and performance, language research
could someday persuade legislators to tweak the system so
that it is more accommodating to students of varying abilities.
This disproportionate language ability despite obvious
mental impediments ties in with Pinker’s theory of “mentalese”
as an entirely separate domain of thought and cognition. When
this rich mental world is sometimes hidden by the cloak of
expression that we call language, it can be underappreciated.
Simply put, language can act as a vessel, albeit an unsatisfactory
one, that holds and transports as best it can this vivid mental
landscape in which exists an infinite number of emotions and
concepts, countless of which have yet had a name put to them.
This mental world is larger than language itself. Intelligence
and cognitive abilities remain similarly in a separate domain,
perhaps tied intricately with “mentalese”, the native language
of the brain. As we grow more knowledgeable about these
findings, it will be important for education policy to evolve
alongside them. Furthermore, this could be the first step in
developing more accurate measures of cognitive ability.
Koh Wanzi ( u0903551@nus.edu.sg) is a second-year student studying
Life Sciences and English Literature at the National University of
Singapore.
5. Pinker S. The language instinct. London: Penguin Books; 1994.
6. Bellugi U, Wang PP, Jernigan TJ. Williams syndrome: an unusual
neuropsychological profile. In: Atypical cognitive deficits in developmental
disorders: implications for brain function. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates; 1994.
7. Au Yong, J. Bilingual policy difficult. The Straits Times. 2009 November 3.
Available from: http://www.straitstimes.com/Breaking%2BNews/Singapore/Story/
STIStory_449691.html [cited 2010 16 Feb].
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM
 CAMBRIDGE

The Reprogramming of Cell Fate

Chris Yates

A
recent discovery by scientists at Cambridge’s Babraham cells (PGCs), which later develop into sperm or eggs. Work
Institute has brought further understanding of how carried out at the Babraham Institute, the Howard Hughes
cell fate can be reprogrammed and how this may be Medical Institute and at the University of California at Los
used in the treatment of a variety of diseases by use of stem Angeles has determined just how much the modifications
cell technology. are erased. Looking at DNA methylation patterns between
Within virtually every cell in your body, the DNA sequence generations, the teams found that methylation levels dropped
is the same, yet there is a huge variety of cell types present, from from 80% to just 7% in the embryo, meaning the DNA was a
nerve cells to blood cells and many more. Within the nuclei blank slate on which the developing embryo can lay down
of these cells, the DNA has undergone various modifications, its own methylation marks. If the epigenetic marks are not
which act as a way of determining if a gene is switched on or erased correctly, it can lead to ‘epimutations’ by affecting gene
off. For example, a process called expression in the offspring. It is
methylation can alter the structure One of the major not known how often this occurs
of DNA while leaving the sequence in mammalian cells, but it could
unaffected. DNA is a long chain of bottlenecks is the removal of have medical implications as
millions of nucleotides, which can epigenetic marks well as affecting how traits are
base-pair via hydrogen bonds to passed on in evolution.
form the double helix. There are According to Professor
four nucleotides and they base-pair in specific ways - A pairs Wolf Reik, whose group at the Babraham made the recent
with T, and C with G. At so-called ‘CpG dinucleotides’, the discovery, the mechanisms by which this ‘demethylation’
C can be methylated and it is the pattern of methylation that takes place were “a black box.” Work by Professor Reik’s
can affect gene expression. CpG dinucleotides are where a C team has shown that methylated C in CpG dinucleotides
is directly followed by a G, and these are commonly found can be deaminated by a protein called AID [2]. Deamination
just before the start of a gene. Other ‘tags’ affecting gene ex- of methylated C converts it into T, meaning there will be a
pression can include changing how the DNA is packaged in mismatch in the base-pairing (as T normally pairs with A).
the nucleus, by modifying the histone proteins it is wrapped Within the cell, there is DNA repair machinery that carries
around. These changes are known as ‘epigenetic’ changes, out a process called base excision repair (BER) to remove the
from the Greek ‘over’, because Reproduced from [7]
they change gene expressions
whilst leaving the DNA se-
quence untouched.
All of the different cell
types in an organism arise
from a single fertilised egg,
which contains DNA from
both parents. The parental
DNA will have been modified
whilst in the parent, so there
is some epigenetic memory,
known as genomic imprinting,
which can affect how certain
genes are expressed depending
on which parent it has come
from. In most cases, however,
these epigenetic tags are re-
moved in order that the mul-
titude of different cell types
in the adult organism can
properly develop with their
own epigenetic modifications
[1]. This erasure takes place in
the embryo in primordial germ

© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010 31

Brown.indb 31 10/28/2010 11:30:08 AM

 CAMBRIDGE
Reproduced from [8]
T and replace it with a non-methylated C. As AID is expressed
in early embroys and PGCs, this led to the hypothesis that
AID may be involved in erasure of the epigenetic marks in
embryos. To test this, the group deleted the gene encoding
AID in mice and looked at the DNA methylation patterns in
PGCs. In AID-deficient embryos, methylation levels were three
times higher than in wild-type, showing that AID is indeed
involved in erasure of DNA methylation [3]. As removal of
DNA methylation is not completely blocked by deletion of the
AID gene, there are likely to be other mechanisms also involved
in the process. What these mechanisms are is unknown, but
according to Professor Reik, “the body of evidence is now
pointing to indirect demethylation through the action of key
enzymes such as AID.”
A second paper in the same issue of Nature showed that
AID is involved in reprogramming of cells to allow them to
become pluripotent [4]. Pluripotency refers to the ability of a
cell to develop into multiple different cell types, and is a feature
of stem cells. In pluripotent stem cells, epigenetic marks have
been removed, enabling them to lay down their own marks
as they develop further. Stem cells are found in embryos, but
owing to ethical objection to the use of embryonic stem (ES)
cells and the fact that animal models show ES cells to cause
tumour development, other types are being investigated for
therapeutic use [5]. In the laboratory, it is possible to convert
ordinary cells into stem cells by inducing the expression of a
set of transcription factors. These cells are known as induced
pluripotent stem (iPS) cells and are commonly used for research,
but there are some technical stumbling blocks in their produc-
References
1. Morgan et al. Epigenetic reprogramming in mammals. Hum Mol Genet
2005;14(Review Issue 1):R47-R58
2. Morgan et al. Activation-induced cytidine deaminase deaminates 5-methylcytosine
in DNA and is expressed in pluripotent tissues: implications for epigenetic
reprogramming. J Biol Chem 2004;279(50):52353-52360
3. Popp et al. Genome-wide erasure of DNA methylation in mouse primordial germ
cells is affected by AID deficiency. Nature 2010;463(7284):1101-1105
4. Bhutani et al. Reprogramming towards pluripotency requires AID-dependent
32 THE TRIPLE HELIX Fall 2010
Brown.indb 32
tion. One of the major
bottlenecks is the re-
moval of epigenetic
marks. If incompletely
done, there can be a
residual epigenetic
memory, which will af-
fect the pluripotency of
the iPS cells produced.
The discovery of the
mechanism by which
demethylation occurs
in embryos will there-
fore be important in in-
creasing the efficiency
of the reprogramming
of the cells. As stem
cells are currently
being investigated
for therapeutic use
in diseases such as
Alzheimer’s, increasing the demethylation of iPS cells is likely
to come in useful by increasing the capacity for the cells to
be reprogrammed.
Treatments involving stem cells have been in development
for some time since their importance in generating different
tissue types was discovered. Regenerative medicine involves
using stem cells to create a healthy version of a tissue that is
damaged in a patient, for example neurons in a patient with
epilepsy, or pancreatic cells in a diabetic. The treatment may
involve either growing the tissue in the laboratory before
transplanting it in, or putting the stem cells themselves into
the body where they can develop in situ. With a standard
transplant there is a risk of the body rejecting the foreign
cells, but if iPS cells can be made from the patient’s own cells
there is no risk of rejection. Research into the possible ef-
fectiveness of regenerative medicine is ongoing, but there
have been promising trials. For example, stem cells injected
into the blood are able to migrate to the site of brain injury,
where in animals they have been shown to stimulate growth
of neurons and blood vessels [6].
As ES cells have, in animal models, been shown to cause
tumours, there are widespread concerns about their safety
for use as treatments. While epigenetics is by no means the
end of the story, improving understanding of how cells are
reprogrammed in the embryo will be very useful in produc-
ing ES cells or iPS cells that are safe for therapeutic use.
Chris Yates is a third year student reading Biochemistry at Gonville
and Caius College, Cambridge University.
DNA demethylation. Nature 2010;463(7284):1042-1047
5. Knoepfler. Deconstructing stem cell tumorigenitcity: a roadmap to safe
regenerative medicine. Stem Cells 2009:27(5);1050-1056
6. Taguchi et al. Administration of CD34+ cells after stroke enhances neurogenesis
via angiogenesis in a mouse model. J Clin Invest 2004;114(3):330-338.
7. CC-BY-NC-ND, Annie Cavanagh, Wellcome Images. Available from: http://images.
wellcome.ac.uk and search for “B0006219”.
8. “Epigenetic reprogramming in mammals” by D. H. Morgan, F. Santos, K. Green,
W. Dean and W. Reik. Image reproduced with permission from W. Reik.
© 2010, The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved.
10/28/2010 11:30:10 AM
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© 2010 The Triple Helix, Inc. All rights reserved. The Triple Helix at the Brown University is an independent chapter of
The Triple Helix, Inc., an educational 501(c)3 non-profit corporation. The Triple Helix at the Brown University is published
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