Professional Documents
Culture Documents
MANAGE
PM E N T TO O L K IT
the camp
management
toolkit
© Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC)/The Camp Management Project (CMP) Edition May, 2008
This document is provided by the Norwegian Refugee Council/The Camp Management Project for
general distribution. All rights are reserved. Reproduction is authorised, except for commercial purposes
provided that NRC/CMP is acknowledged.
Neither the NRC/Camp Management Project, nor the main contributing authors accept any responsibility
for (a) the accuracy or completeness of the information set out in the Camp Management Toolkit 2008
or (b) any confusion, difficulty or liability arising from interpretation or application of its contents.
foreword
Flooding, an earthquake, armed conflicts between States, civil war, persecution
– there are many reasons why people may be forced to flee their homes and
leave their relatives and belongings behind. They find themselves homeless, often
fearful and traumatised, and in a situation of displacement where life changes
radically and the future is uncertain. Refugees or internally displaced persons
(IDPs) may have no other option than to seek protection and assistance in camps.
Although camps are necessarily a choice of last resort, they often represent the
only option for displaced persons in need of assistance, safety and security.
In situations of conflict and natural disaster camps may be needed for only a
matter of months. Often the reality is that camps last for years and sometimes even
for decades. Regardless of their life span, they can only offer temporary assistance
and protection and do not represent a durable solution for displaced persons.
Despite their temporary nature, camps exist to ensure that the basic human
right to life with dignity is upheld for the camp community. Once camps are
established efficient and sensitive management is needed to ensure that they
function effectively in what are often complex and challenging circumstances.
Where humanitarian assistance and protection in a camp are not organ-
ised, coordinated and monitored the vulnerability and dependence of the camp
population increases. Gaps in assistance, or duplication of humanitarian aid, can
lead to partial and inequitable provision of services and inadequate protection.
Working to raise the standard of living in camps and camp-like settings, and to
uphold the rights of camp residents, the Camp Management Project advocates
for the use and implementation of key guidelines, international legal instru-
ments, standards and the best practices outlined in this newly revised Camp
Management Toolkit 2008.
Since the Camp Management Toolkit was first published in 2004, the field
of camp management has undergone a process of rapid and significant de-
velopment. Today, camp management is recognised internationally as a vital
humanitarian sector for the assistance and protection of displaced persons in
camps and camp-like settings. This is clearly reflected in the inclusion in 2005
of the Global Camp Coordination Camp Management (CCCM) Cluster within the
cluster system and the subsequent increased frequency of camp management
For more information on the Camp Management Project and the CCCM Cluster,
uu
see the Toolkit Appendices 1 and 2.
main contributing authors: Joseph Ashmore, Sakura Atsumi, Laila Badawy, Nina M.
Birkeland, Gillian Dunn, Shelley Gornall, Emma Hadley, Mathijs Le Rutte, Lea Matheson,
Jane Wanjiru Muigai, Adriano Silvestri, Lindsay Spainhour, David Stone, Ellen Vermeulen,
Veit Vogel
with support and assistance from: Eva Ahlen, Philippe Allard, Karuna Anbarasan,
Astrid Sofie Arne, Lynda Attias, Eric Batonon, Joseph Bekele, Chris Bleers, Tina van den
Briel, Helge Brochmann, Andreas Capjon, Tiziana Clerico, Tom Corsellis, Vance Culbert,
Sara Davidson, Marit Elverland, Matthew Everitt, Kelly Flynn, Jon Fowler, Emanuela Gillard,
Mireille Girard, Sajith Gunaratne, Edith Heines, Kritte Hoffritz, Gisela Holmen Yngrot, Roald
Høvring, Emma Jowett, Joanina Karugaba, Hassan Khaire, Joann Kingsley, Bob Kitchen,
Hans Christen Knævelsrud, Damian Lilly, Anne-Marie Linde, Sara Lindvall, Helge Lyberg,
Kim Mancini, Lamin Manjang, Yannick Martin, Jenny McAvoy, Hanna Mollan, Sarah Mu-
scroft, Øyvind Nordlie, Kate Norton, Nuno Nunes, Håkan Ohlsson, Benson Okabo, Cecilia
Omole, Christian Oxenboll, Natalia Pascual, Ariana Pearlroth, Elisabeth Pender, Patrice
Pontcharra, Ron Pouwels, Qurat Sadozai, Lily Sanya, Shaun Scales, Guglielmo Schinina,
Gerry Simpson, Mark Slezak, Atle Solberg, Anne Soucy, Karl Steinacker, Paul Thompson,
Antonella Vitale, Eli Wærum Rognerud, Katrine Wold, Svante Yngrot, Alfredo Zamudio, Jake
Zarins, Jennifer Zimmermann
We also would like to thank the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre (IDMC) in Geneva
for their administrative support.
publisher: Norwegian Refugee Council photo credits: Peter Biro, Kritte Hoffritz,
The Camp Management Project Norwegian Refugee Council, Sujewa da
St. Olavs Plass | Postbox 6758 Silva, Mark Slezak, Veit Vogel
0130 Oslo, Norway
Email: camp@nrc.no The Camp Management Toolkit is funded
Website: www.nrc.no/camp by the Norwegian Ministry for Foreign
Affairs (MFA).
ISBN: 928-82-7411-185-0
chapter 19 583
Appendix 1: The Camp Management Project 583
Appendix 2: Cluster Approach and Camp
Coordination/Camp Management (CCCM) Cluster 585
Appendix 3: List of Acronyms 591
Appendix 4: Key Agencies and Websites 594
The Camp Management Toolkit is applicable to camps for both refugees and
internally displaced persons (IDPs) and in both conflict situations and natural
disasters. It is written to complement existing sector guidelines and standard
works such as The Sphere Project’s Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards
in Disaster Response and UNHCR’s Handbook for Emergencies, amongst others.
The term camp is used throughout the text to apply to a variety of camps
or camp-like settings – temporary settlements including planned or self-settled
camps, collective centres and transit and return centres established for host-
ing displaced persons. It applies to ongoing and new situations where due to
conflict or natural disasters, displaced persons are compelled to find shelter in
temporary places.
The organisation and structure of this 2008 updated version of the Camp Man-
agement Toolkit are different from previous versions. While the 2004 version was
organised chronologically, following the life-cycle of a camp from planning and
set-up to closure, the 2008 version is divided into four thematic sections:
• I: Introduction
• II: Core Management Tasks
• III: A Safe Environment
• IV: Camp Services (see table of contents).
Section I: Introduction
Section I provides an introduction to the Camp Management Toolkit 2008 and
the sector of camp management as a whole. As a relatively new and fast-devel-
oping humanitarian sector, it is important that there is a shared understanding
of what camp management is (Chapter 1), and what it seeks to achieve.
Camps and camp management can be highly context specific, and depend-
ent upon the nature and the particular circumstances of the camp operation.
Experience shows that one of the greatest challenges, both at the onset of a
new emergency and equally in situations of protracted displacement, can be to
mutually agree on the roles and responsibilities (Chapter 2) of those involved.
Such clarity is a vital prerequisite for an effective camp response. It also un-
derpins the accountability of humanitarian actors to the displaced community.
cross-cutting issues
Most of the topics in the Camp Management Toolkit are interconnected and have
relevance for and explicit links to other sectors and chapters. Such topics as GBV,
protection, participation and community involvement, information management and
environment are cross-cutting in nature and their messages are integral to the Toolkit
as a whole. In addition, information on cross-cutting issues such as gender, age, HIV/
AIDS, and environmental issues has been integrated throughout the chapters.
Understandably, each chapter has its own character, owing to the nature of each
topic and the fact that they have been written by a range of experts – from within
the Camp Management Project or external consultants. The chapters have been
carefully and thoroughly edited and streamlined, whilst retaining the personal
style and approach of the authors.
Key Messages
These reflect the chapter contents and highlight some of the most essential infor-
mation and issues to consider when dealing with the relevant aspect or sector.
Introduction
Depending on the nature and topic of the chapter, the introduction either takes
an overall glance at the chapter contents, or summarises and concludes, or
provides important background information.
Key Issues
Most of the information in every chapter is given here. Key Issues are flexibly
structured. Readers will note that the roles and responsibilities of a Camp Man-
agement Agency are not consistently structured in a separate section, but are
worked into the overall text where they fit best.
u Whilst camps are an option of last resort they are sometimes the only choice
for the temporary provision of protection and assistance to displaced popu-
lations forced to flee their homes due to natural disaster or conflict.
u The key aim of camp management is to ensure that standards in the camp
are upheld so as to allow the displaced population to enjoy their basic hu-
man rights whilst striving for durable solutions.
introduction
An earthquake, flood, tsunami, civil war, regional conflict, a failed peace accord
– these and other events can rapidly leave people homeless and in need of protec-
tion and assistance. Whether it is an unexpected natural disaster causing people
to be internally displaced from their homes, an eruption of conflict resulting in a
sudden influx of refugees or other catastrophic events, emergencies can strike
anytime and anywhere. For those who have lost property, lived through traumatic
events and are suddenly left outside the safeguards of their own homes and
communities, camps offer a safe place to run to, a place where they can receive
medical treatment, food, shelter and protection. Whilst camps cannot provide
permanent or sustainable solutions, if they are well-managed they can provide
a temporary refuge where vital and often life-saving assistance can be offered.
The overall aims of camp management are to raise the standard of living
in the camp, to ensure that assistance and protection programmes are in line
with internationally agreed laws and standards and therefore enable the camp
population to enjoy access to their basic human rights. Camp management must
provide effective coordination at camp level between the humanitarian assist-
ance and protection programmes being delivered and the displaced population
or beneficiaries. A Camp Management Agency works with a wide range of camp
stakeholders to ensure that the camp population has equitable access to the
assistance and services that they need and have a right to. It does so through
the management of information about the camp and the population; through
developing coordination forums and advocating for adequate provision; through
developing partnerships with all those involved and by effectively mobilising
camp residents to participate in leadership structures, decision-making and
the daily life of the camp.
Camps exist to ensure that the basic human right to life with dignity is upheld
for displaced communities. Camp management best practice is based on an
understanding that all activities in a camp should be undertaken with the core
aims of ensuring the protection of the camp population from abusive or degrad-
ing treatment and upholding their rights, including to food, shelter, health care
and family unity.
For a Camp Management Agency every intervention in the daily life of a
camp, or camp-like setting – whether, for example, repair of shelter roofs, set-
ting up of a pre-school or distribution of commodities – must be done in such a
way that camp residents’ vulnerability to violation, deprivation and dependency
is reduced and opportunities to enjoy their rights and participate meaningfully
and equitably are maximised. Likewise, it is the duty of the Camp Manage-
ment Agency to ensure that while displaced persons – refugees and internally
displaced persons (IDPs) – are staying in a camp they receive legal recognition
and protection, through registration, issuance of birth and death certificates and
assurance they will not be forced to return home against their wishes before it
is safe to do so.
uu For more information on the CCCM Cluster roles and responsibilities, and the Lead
Agencies please see the section ‘Partnerships and Stakeholders in Camp Manage-
ment’ later in this chapter; Appendix 2, and the Reading and References section.
The tasks undertaken by camp management will evolve and change as the
camp moves through set up and design, into a phase of care and maintenance,
and finally towards phase-out and closure. It is vitally important to identify
sustainable and durable solutions for the displaced population – whether return,
local integration or resettlement.
The Camp Management Agency should also feed information and data to the
Camp Coordination Agency and to any information systems which might have
been set up within the cluster.
«Every humanitarian agency (should) look beyond people’s immediate material needs to
wider questions of personal safety, and the dignity and integrity of the whole person».
Protection – An ALNAP Guide for Humanitarian Agencies, p.14
o The search for durable solutions has been prioritised from the outset.
o The Camp Management Agency’s project planning is in line with, and takes
account, of International law, standards, guidelines and codes.
o Systems are in place for the collection, analysis, storage and dissemination
of data and information about life in the camp to a range of stakeholders
– but with due regard for data security and confidentiality.
o The protection of persons with specific needs, and groups and individuals most
at risk is integrated (mainstreamed) into all camp management activities.
o The Camp Management Agency refers any issues that it is unable to solve
at camp level to the Sector/Cluster Lead.
• Linda Richardson and Gill Price, 2007. All In Diary. A Practical Tool for Field
Based Humanitarian Workers. www.allindiary.org/uploads/final_All_in_Diary_cd.pdf
Mary B. Andersen, 1999. Do No Harm: How Aid Can Support Peace – or War.
www.rienner.com/title/Do_No_Harm_How_Aid_Can_Support_Peace_or_War
Global CCCM Cluster, 2006. Roles and Responsibilities in Carrying out Camp
Responses. www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%2
0approach%20page/clusters%20pages/CCm/CCCM%20Roles%20and%20Responsi
bilities_26%20September%202006.doc
Global CCCM Cluster, 2007. Camp Coordination Camp Management. Best Practices.
www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Default.aspx?tabid=78
Global Humanitarian Forum Platform, 2007. Principles of Partnership.
www.globalhumanitarianplatform.org
IASC, 2006. Protecting Persons Affected by Natural Disasters: IASC Operational
Guidelines on Human Rights and Natural Disasters.
www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/YAOI-6UH5QQ?OpenDocument
IASC, 2006. Guidance Note on Using the Cluster Approach to Strengthen
Humanitarian Response. www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/
Portals/1/Home%20page/Annexe4.IASCGUIDANCENOTECLUSTERAPPROACH.pdf
IASC, 2002. Growing the Sheltering Tree; Protecting Rights through Humanitarian
Action, Programmes and Practices Gathered from the Field. www.icva.ch/gstree.pdf
ICRC, 2004. ‘What is Humanitarian Law?’
www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/humanitarian-law-factsheet/$File/
What_is_IHL.pdf
For those who have been in the role of a camp manager, or worked for a Camp
Management Agency, this hypothetical scenario is not so out of the ordinary.
Daily operations in an IDP or refugee camp often pull staff in multiple directions,
rarely making the task of ranking priorities straightforward.
The Camp Management Agency’s job is one of constant motion. Responsible
for coordinating other service providing agencies, monitoring humanitarian
standards and indicators, listening and managing situations of potential conflict,
promoting harmonious relationships and participation and addressing admin-
istrative tasks and broader staffing and agency issues. A camp manager can
take the role of a mayor, an ambassador, a diplomat, a finance officer, a protec-
tion monitor, a technician, a trainer and an all-round fixer. Camp management
requires quick thinking, innovation and careful planning.
Camp management interventions can take many forms – from a mobile team
visiting numerous camps infrequently, to a permanent on-site presence. In many
cases, a national or international NGO, made up of a team of staff members, is
responsible for day-to-day camp management operations. Each situation will
determine the most appropriate and feasible management structure. If account-
ability is to be ensured, it is essential that roles and responsibilities are clear. A
Camp Management Agency needs a clear and transparent ToR which matches
needs on the ground. The Agency must have sufficient capacity (both funding
and human resources) to carry out the required tasks.
key issues
Recruitment
Different stages of operations and changing needs on the ground require dif-
ferent personnel, skills and capabilities, so a flexible approach that allows for
building the capacity of team members should be implemented from the outset.
In many settings, camp residents can act as qualified and professional members
of a camp management team. Where personal qualifications and host country
employment laws permit, Camp Management Agencies should consider recruit-
ing both paid and voluntary staff.
Training
It is important to remember that training is ongoing and can be undertaken both
formally and informally. The Camp Management Agency is responsible for striving
to increase the capacity of camp management staff to perform their specific job
functions. All staff working in a camp should also receive training in:
• interviewing and observation techniques
• monitoring, reporting and documentation (based on standards like Sphere
or best practice guidelines, like the Camp Management Toolkit)
• vulnerability categories and persons with specific needs (noting any special
assistance that these beneficiaries may qualify for)
• protection, human rights and gender awareness
• community mobilisation and participation methods.
Codes of Conduct
Codes of conduct can be agency-specific, be developed specifically for one camp
or be universal in their application – most notably, the Code of Conduct of the Red
Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in Disaster Response Programmes (see
Reading and Reference section of this chapter). They seek to establish standards
for ethical behavior among camp staff and promote greater accountability and
transparency for all agencies working in a camp setting. Each staff member and
volunteer should have the applicable code of conduct explained to them and be
required to sign a copy of it upon commencement of employment. It is essential
that both training and codes of conduct are translated as appropriate, and are
available in the language(s) that camp management staff can easily understand.
Where a translator is used, it is important to double check the accuracy of the
messages communicated.
Monitoring and coordination help to uphold standards and hold agencies ac-
countable in the provision of services and assistance. Where performance levels
are poor, and quality or quantity is inadequate, the Camp Management Agency,
with the support of the Sector/Cluster Lead as appropriate, has a duty to advo-
cate strongly for agreed-upon standards and minimal levels of assistance.
Monitoring of all sectors operating within the camp should take place, with an
emphasis on:
• commodities like food and non-food items (NFIs)
• technical services related to water, sanitation, health and nutritional
status
• cultural and psycho-social programmes, including education and youth
activities
• maintenance and development of infrastructure such as roads, drainage
and educational or communal facilities.
Ensuring that the CCCM ToR and strategy reflect the needs on the ground is a
pre-requisite for effective camp management. It is equally important, in a context
where the cluster approach is implemented, to establish the link between the
CCCM Cluster and other clusters in order to avoid duplication of activities and
ensure consistent reporting and monitoring procedures.
Problems that can not be addressed at camp level should be referred up to the
Cluster Lead/Camp Coordination Agency. In turn, the Camp Coordination Agency
will intervene with authorities, donors and other stakeholders when problems
arise. Issues such as the involvement of representatives of State bodies in protec-
tion incidents, or misbehaviour by an agency representative working in the camp,
could be problems that require the Camp Coordination Agency’s attention.
Secondly, the Camp Management Agency has to determine the extent to which the
leadership structure is representational and working in the interests of camp resi-
dents. This requires speaking with different members of the community as much as
possible and trying to get a holistic picture of intentions, capacities and any gaps.
Unless there is no structure at all or there is deep dissatisfaction with the
leadership from the community, it is generally advisable to assist the community
to self-organise or work with whatever structures are in place. Gaps with regards
to representation and equitability in the system should be addressed through
complementary mechanisms, not by ignoring or bypassing the existing one.
For example, if the Camp Management Agency finds women's representation
to be lacking, it may be able to encourage a male and female leader for each
constituency or area. However, care must be taken that this would not be just
a hollow exercise in which the women still have no real voice. A more effective
method may be to support a network of women's groups which then have a
single voice at the highest levels. In addition to gender representation, minority
groups should also be assured equal representation.
In working with the community to design and set up camp governance struc-
tures, the Camp Management Agency needs to be aware of how leaders are
selected; and not advocate for artificial or culturally inappropriate procedures.
Equally, community leaders and representatives need to be given clear functions
and written, agreed upon ToRs. Humanitarians should respect and act upon
any fears the community may have of corruption and opportunities to create
patron-client systems. Ensure transparency and openness in all processes to
avoid suspicions and temptations to abuse positions.
By-laws
Under stable camp conditions, establishing guidelines governing the use of public
facilities can be one method to discourage the misuse of common camp facilities
and prevent possible tensions. Such guidelines (or by-laws) should be the result
of genuine cooperation between all stakeholders, notably the camp residents.
Environmental Protection
Environmental concerns are a feature of every camp and need to be taken
into account from the moment a site is being selected to after it has been
responsibly closed. Early preparation, sound planning and good coordina-
tion between all stakeholders – from the affected communities to national
authorities – should start at the very beginning of camp operations. Soil
erosion and the loss of natural vegetation cover are some of the most
common and visible environmental impacts. Others such as ground water
pollution and soil contamination might be less visible but are equally im-
portant. The nature and scale of these concerns will vary according to the
physical location and nature of the operation.
Care and management of the environment within and around the camp
should be coordinated with the Camp Coordination Agency, National Authorities
and host community.
managing information
Registration
In most contexts the management of information is closely linked to the registra-
tion of camp residents. Registration is the starting block for a Camp Management
Agency in order to provide baseline information on the characteristics of a popula-
tion, which in turn can inform additional assistance programmes and the effective
coordination of distributions. Furthermore, registration:
• ensures all camp residents’ access to basic rights and services during dis-
placement
• identifies which groups and individuals in the camp population have specific
needs and are in need of special assistance or protection
• enables humanitarian agencies to monitor the movement of the displaced
population – both those leaving the camp and new arrivals.
The list of individuals or groups with specific needs and those at heightened risk
is not fixed. Varying within each context, common categories are:
• female-headed households
• pregnant and breast-feeding women
• children (younger than five, separated, unaccompanied children and former
child combatants)
• older people
• people with mental disabilities
• people with physical disabilities
• persons living with HIV/AIDS or other chronic diseases.
Camp Population
In most planned camp situations, a camp’s population will be established through
an organised registration and referral system in cooperation with the national
and local authorities and the Camp Coordination or Sector Lead Agency. In order
to avoid multiple registrations a single registration system should be established
and agreed by all actors. This information forms the basic demographic data-
base for overall camp population figures throughout the life of the camp and
should be updated regularly to reflect births, deaths, arrivals, departures and
other fluctuations in the population.
This will enable a Camp Management Agency to carry out protection monitoring
work knowing why it is being done; what response capacity is in place, what the
camp population can expect and should be informed about, and what security
and confidentiality procedures must be followed to ensure compliance with the
Do No Harm principle.
Do No Harm
The Camp Management Agency and other actors working in the camp should
carefully consider whether any assistance programme or advocacy activity can
put the camp and host populations or others at risk of security threats, depriva-
tion of basic services and/or compromise the dignity and integrity of the displaced
population. The safety and security, dignity and integrity of displaced persons
should be at the centre of all assistance programmes.
To ensure that information is received and understood by women, men, girls and
boys a variety of strategies need to be used. It is important to:
• field test information before it is widely circulated in order to understand
how to present key messages
• realise that use of certain words can have different impacts on different
target groups
• utilise a variety of techniques to share key information: holding meetings –
which may include house-to-house visits for populations that are not mobile;
radio or newspaper announcements; information boards; formal addresses
from key persons in the community; employing educated and respected
members such as heads of religious communities or teachers to hold discus-
sion groups
• follow up to make sure that messages have been understood and acted
upon. This often overlooked step provides an important option not only for
clarifying that messages have been understood, but also to receive important
information back in relation to the issues under discussion.
The following table gives a good overview of the communication strategies used
to disseminate information:
activity strengths challenges
• details of announcements • not everyone who needs to
can be listed and referred to know the information may
Notice (Bulle-
• information is standard and pass by the notice board or be
tin) Boards
uniform for all camp resi- able to read.
dents
• good with non- literate
populations
Story Boards
• suggestive way of recalling
information
Community • simple way to announce and • not all members of the camp
(Town Hall) extend question and answer may be able, invited, feel com-
Meetings time to all fortable to come
• able to reach house bound • time consuming for staff
House Visits persons • may open up questions that the
staff may not be able to answer
• creative, widely enjoyed • dramatic presentations may
Theatre • can be easily remembered lead to misinformation with no
opportunity to correct or clarify
• likely to be respected • may have their own political
Key Leaders agenda in sharing the
information
Adapting • could be familiar and well • original conclusion of story may
Traditional loved be remembered rather than the
Stories new message
• easy to remember and enter- • may not be suitable for all
taining subjects (content)
Songs
• may be too short a method for
a long message
• great at raising awareness of • no opportunity for questions
people who may not be im- and answers
Camp Parade
mediately interested in town
/Rally
meetings or religious events.
• celebratory in nature.
o Women are adequately represented on the team – ideally reflecting the ratio
of men and women in the camp.
o All camp management staff have clear ToRs, job descriptions, roles and
responsibilities.
o There are clear procedures for the monitoring and appraisal of staff
performance.
o All staff are clear on the mandate of the Camp Management Agency.
o All staff have been trained in and signed the code of conduct, in an
appropriate language.
o Staff have been trained in integrating the needs of people with specific needs
into programming.
o The aims and capacities of the Camp Management project are clear and
transparent and in line with the overall camp response strategy.
o The Camp Management Agency’s mandate and project plan have been made
available to the camp residents.
o The camp population (including women and children) know where to report
a case of humanitarian misconduct or abuse.
o Standards, policies and guidelines are part of the training that staff members
receive.
o Ongoing monitoring at the camp level is in line with, and feeding into a total
camp response strategy.
o The Camp Management Agency has the trust and legitimacy required to
coordinate effectively at camp level.
o The protection and care of groups and individuals with specific needs and
those at heightened risk is being monitored.
o Protection monitoring work is being carried out with due regard for staff
training, confidentiality and response capacity.
o There are agreed upon codes of conduct in place for camp leaders.
o Groups with specific needs are involved in the life of the camp.
o Information about the services and programmes within the camp is well-
mapped and disseminated.
o There are procedures for ensuring that feedback from the camp population
informs changes and programme planning.
o National authorities have the capacity to take responsibility for the upkeep
of camp infrastructure as appropriate.
o The Camp Management Agency has the capacity to fill gaps in the care and
maintenance of camp infrastructure as needed.
o The general living conditions and social organisation of the displaced popu-
lation allow for the protection and care of persons with specific needs.
managing information
o The Camp Management Agency is working closely with the Cluster/Sector
Lead (Camp Coordination Agency in a CCCM response) on the management
of information.
o There are agreements with service providers about who is gathering what
information and why, at camp level (to avoid duplication and camp com-
munity data fatigue).
o A baseline database has been established on camp welfare issues for future
comparisons.
o Data is being analysed and disseminated for the benefit of all service
providers.
o The Camp Management Agency and the camp population have a relation-
ship built on trust and mutual respect.
o The local language is used when interacting with the camp residents.
o The needs of groups with specific needs are accounted for in communication
mechanisms.
o There are agreed upon and effective ways for dealing with disagreements
and disputes between the camp population and the Camp Management
Agency.
Global CCCM Cluster, 2006. Roles and Responsibilities in Carrying out Camp
Responses. www.humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%2
0approach%20page/clusters%20pages/CCm/CCCM%20Roles%20and%20Responsi
bilities_26%20September%202006.doc
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, 1992. Code of
Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in
Disaster Relief. www.ifrc.org/publicat/conduct/code.asp
Rebecca Macnair, 1995. Room for Improvement. The Management and Support of
Relief and Development Workers. www.sheltercentre.org/shelterlibrary/items/pdf/
RoomForImprovement_TheManagementandSupportOfRelief.pdf
Barney Mayhew, 2004. Basic Training for NGO Workers, Information Note, People
In Aid. www.peopleinaid.org/pool/files/publications/basic-training-for-ngo-workers-
inote.pdf
People In Aid, 2007. Motivating Staff and Volunteers Working in NGOs in the
South. www.peopleinaid.org/pool/files/publications/motivating-staff-and-
volunteers-working-in-ngos-in-the-south.pdf
Erin A. Weir, 2006, Conflict and Compromise: UN Integrated Missions and the
Humanitarian Imperative. Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre.
www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/OCHA-6SSFEA?OpenDocument
u Participation can positively impact the health, well-being and safety of the
camp residents and camp staff.
u Special attention should be given to ensuring that all groups are able to
participate, including those with specific needs and/or those who are mar-
ginalised and lacking a voice in decision-making.
u Participation and community involvement can take many forms, and should
be planned and integrated into all stages of the project cycle – assessment,
planning, implementation, monitoring and evaluation – and all phases of a
camp’s life cycle – from design and set-up to closure.
It is vital to remember that participation is a basic human right and that it pro-
motes many other rights. It is enshrined in article 27(1) of the Universal Declaration
of Human Rights that “everyone has the right freely to participate in the cultural
life of the community, to enjoy the arts and share in scientific advancement and
its benefits”.
The aim of this chapter is to provide Camp Management Agencies with the
insights required to ensure that camp residents are empowered to play an active
role in decision-making and in the daily life of the camp community. Participa-
tion and community involvement is an extensive topic and this chapter aims to
heighten awareness, not provide an exhaustive list of methodologies. Please
refer to the additional guidance provided in the Tools and Reading and Reference
sections at the end of this chapter.
Participation and involvement is part of any social group and fundamental to
developing and strengthening a well-functioning community. The dynamics of a
particular participatory structure are determined by the culture(s) of the group,
and their beliefs, norms, values and power relationships. Best practice for a Camp
Management Agency is to observe and understand existing or developing partici-
patory structures and dynamics in the camp, and to use, support and strengthen
them, in order to ensure a well-functioning, living and working environment which
respects local culture and maximises local skills and capacities.
The aim of participation in camp settings is not just to ensure that different
groups have a voice, but that they are heard and able to take part in making cru-
cial decisions which affect their lives. There is a fundamental difference between
consultation and participation. Whilst there may be considerable frustrations
if a Camp Management Agency does not consult the community, it can be even
worse to consult, but then not act on, or simply ignore the recommendations.
Humanitarians sometimes make the mistake of assuming that participation is
automatically viewed as a ‘good thing’ by all. While the humanitarian community
may tend to aim for an equitable and all-inclusive approach, this is not the norm
for many cultures. Camp Management Agencies may therefore find themselves
at odds with the population in this respect. That is why it is essential that they
understand the context and find a balance between cultural sensitivities and
giving voice to those who would otherwise not be heard.
Ensuring effective participation and community involvement can be time-
consuming and require targeted effort. Decision-making or the completion of a
Participation can take many forms, and it should be planned for and implemented
as part of the complete programme cycle:
• during assessments
• as part of strategic planning and design
• through implementation
• during monitoring
• in evaluation processes.
Participation can have a positive impact not only on camp residents, but also
on camp staff. Well-managed participation leads to a trusting and more open
environment where both the residents and the staff feel respected and able
to communicate their views and contribute. This environment leads to greater
transparency and accountability and may reduce conflict and corruption. Par-
ticipation contributes to a sense of ownership and the resulting responsibility
key issues
achieving participation
There are many ways in which the Camp Management Agency can encourage
and develop participation, but the most common way is through representational
groups. After assessing the context and existing participatory structures, camp
management works to find ways to support and further develop and/or adjust
them to ensure that participation is as representative as possible. Other ways
of involving camp populations include feedback and complaints mechanisms,
training, information campaigns and employment of camp residents. Members
of the host community may also benefit if included in these mechanisms.
It is not expected that all of these groups are present in any one camp setting.
Talking Stick
A simple but effective example of a communication tool for use in
representational groups is to use a ‘talking stick’ for ensuring that
people take turns in contributing to debates and that the others lis-
ten. This is simply a stick which must be held by whoever is talking.
Anyone, at any time, who is not the holder of the stick, is obliged to
listen until it is their turn. It can be an effective way of preventing
some voices dominating, and of preventing a heated debate degen-
erating into a shouting match.
Community Leaders
When there is a sufficient degree of cohesion to allow leaders to be identified, the
Camp Management Agency should ensure that sheltered space is made available
for them to meet in comfort. In some cases, materials such as notebooks and pens,
sports and recreation materials may be provided. Frequent meetings between the
Camp Management Agency and groups of leaders should take place and groups
and representatives should take part in planning, programming, monitoring and
evaluating service provision and protection.
Community groups are usually made up of people who have a common char-
acteristic – for example women, adolescents or older persons. In large camps,
there may be several groups within each category. It is important to involve them
in governance issues. Whilst a culture may discourage women and youth from
having direct leadership roles, the Camp Management Agency can encourage the
acceptance of representatives from these groups. Community groups can also
advocate either within the larger coordination structure or directly to the Camp
Management Agency about issues of concern to them. Thus, for example, youth
groups may seek educational or vocational opportunities.
The formation of community groups may or may not be a widely used or
accepted part of a community’s culture. In general, small group meetings are
welcomed, and are seen as a positive force in a camp environment. This may
be especially true where other social opportunities may be lacking or disrupted,
and should therefore be encouraged.
Advocacy groups provide a voice to those who may otherwise not be heard such
as children, the mentally or physically disabled, those who are sick, older people
and those living with HIV/AIDS. This can be the most difficult type of group to
help form and sensitivity is needed. Members of these groups may not wish to
come forward, or members of the family or community may not see their partici-
pation as necessary or positive. Some will be able to advocate for themselves
and others may find people to advocate on their behalf. For others, the visibility
involved in participation could jeopardise their security or further increase their
vulnerability or marginalisation. It is the responsibility of the Camp Management
Interest groups are centred on a common interest or issue which can be similar
to committees. Depending on the situation, interest groups can be less formal
than committees, in terms of monitoring and representation duties. The focus
might be camp security, teacher-parent liaison or water point maintenance. These
groups may liaise directly with relevant members of the population, or with the
NGO managing the relevant technical sector, but can also bring particular issues
to the Camp Management Agency’s attention.
assessing capacities
In addition to assessing the different social and leadership structures within the
camp, the Camp Management Agency should also proactively seek and identify
individuals with needed professional and personal skills. Information about
education levels and professions is often gathered during registration.
In addition:
• The application and recruitment process needs to be formalised.
• The agency seeking staff should openly announce any vacancy.
• The agency must follow transparent and objective employment criteria.
When it comes to deciding whether or not to offer compensation there are several
factors to be considered. It may be justified to pay somebody who is working
full time as this will mean that s/he is unable to take on other paid work to sup-
port family members. Work which serves the wider interest – such as cleaning
Some hold the view that communities should care for those unable to care for
themselves. In reality however, people are most often too busy caring for their
own families to care for others in the camp. Camp Management Agencies must
be aware of any traditional support systems and build on those in cooperation
with community leaders. Where absent, community support for those unable
to build their own shelter, collect their own water or walk to the community hall
must be organised. Camp Management Agencies may have to provide some
form of payment, either stipends, or food or construction material for work, to
ensure this level of care for vulnerable members of the community and those
with specific needs. Humanitarians need to remember that situations of crisis
and deprivation do not necessarily bring out the best in people. Most people
would rather spend their time looking for ways to support their own households,
and for many camp residents this in itself is challenging enough.
Once again, when it comes to training, the needs and existing skills of local com-
munities and local authorities should be considered. Local government officials
may have an interest in camp management training and local communities may
be in need of job opportunities.
Training for staff can be planned for specific and technical activities, for
example registration, distribution or drainage projects, or can be more generic
and broadly applicable to various other camp management tasks, such as ad-
ministration, minute-taking or updating information boards.
information campaigns
Information campaigns are a powerful tool for achieving wider community aware-
ness and participation on specific topics and activities. Unless security concerns
are too great, Camp Management Agencies may consider posting public informa-
tion about the conditions in the places of origin of the camp residents. This not
only helps to mitigate the frustration which can occur when displaced persons
do not receive news from home, but can also support informed decision-making,
encouraging the population to have a realistic timeframe and to participate in
discussions about long-term solutions.
Camp Management Agencies should arrange information campaigns around
their areas of responsibility, for example, the proper use and maintenance of
infrastructure. Other NGOs may also arrange campaigns around specific issues
such as measles vaccinations or personal hygiene.
misuse of participation
Misuse of funds and assets and manipulation or diversion of aid is a real risk in
any humanitarian endeavour. Staff recruited from the displaced community may
be under daily pressure from their peers. In particular, staff involved in registra-
tion and distribution, may face many challenges and find it hard to resist bribes
or coercion from relatives, friends or community leaders. There are no quick-fix
solutions to address or mitigate these risks. It does help, however, to:
• recruit with care and transparency
• provide training
• introduce a code of conduct
• frequently rotate staff
• ensure that all teams are comprised both of locally-hired staff and those
from the displaced community
• develop clear job descriptions, with roles, responsibilities and terms of
employment clearly specified
• use monitoring and appraisal procedures
• encourage and model transparency, honesty and openness
• institute confidential complaints procedures
• be consistent in following up issues of misconduct
• acknowledge and reward high standards of integrity.
o Their differences and similarities are used to inform inclusive and appropri-
ate participation structures.
o Groups with specific needs, those who are vulnerable or marginal are
represented, involved and participating.
o Identified existing leaders have been met and participation is built from
there with additional meetings and mapping exercises.
o Existing power structures within this population are used where possible
and representational and direct participation is ensured.
o Traditional power inequalities have been identified and work is done to monitor
and redress the balance without alienating certain segments of the population.
o Capacity in the camp has been assessed among the displaced population
and the host population.
o Camp staff and residents are trained in effective communication and conflict
management.
o There are agreements between the Camp Management Agency and service
providers about paid/compensated and voluntary employment in the camp.
o The host community is involved and participating in the life of the camp.
• Idealist On Campus. Power Mapping: A Tool for Utilizing Networks and Relation-
ships. www.idealist.org/ioc/learn/curriculum/pdf/Power-Mapping.pdf
• Linda Richardson and Gill Price, 2007. All In Diary. A Practical Tool for Field
Based Humanitarian Workers. www.allindiary.org/uploads/final_All_in_Diary_
cd.pdf
• William M Weis, Paul Bolton and Anita Shankar, 2000. Rapid Assessment
Procedures (RAP): Addressing the Perceived Needs of Refugees and Internally
Displaced Persons through Participatory Learning and Action.
www.jhsph.edu/refugee/publications_tools/publications/rap.html
Provides useful tools and information for practitioners in any field who are inter-
ested in using Participatory Rural Appraisal techniques. In addition to introduc-
ing PRA conceptually, the manual guides practitioners in thinking through what
kind of organisational capacity is required to conduct PRAs and offers sugges-
tions on how to get started and issues to consider.
Handbook used as part of a hands-on course to familiarise staff with the history and con-
cepts of participatory learning and action approaches, as well as provide concrete tools
for designing, developing and implementing participatory programmes. The handbook
also provides tips on effective facilitation and planning of participatory processes.
what is coordination?
The aim of coordination for a Camp Management Agency is to ensure that hu-
manitarian services and assistance are delivered in a cohesive and effective
way to the camp population, such that the standard of living in the camp is
maintained, and full and equal access to basic human rights is ensured for camp
residents. In order to achieve this aim, the following activities are undertaken
by a Camp Management Agency coordinating at the camp level:
• strategic planning
• gathering data and managing information
• mobilising resources and ensuring accountability
• facilitating a clear and agreed division of tasks
• developing and maintaining a network of partnerships with key stakeholders
inside and outside the camp
• providing leadership.
Levels of Coordination
In the management of a camp response for refugees or IDPs, coor-
dination can happen at many levels between different stakeholders.
From the perspective of camp management, and for the purposes
of this chapter, the focus will be on the role of a Camp Management
Agency and its responsibilities for ensuring effective coordination
between stakeholders inside a single camp, and working at the camp
level – or intra camp.
uu
uu For more information on the role of the Camp Coordination Agency or the Sector
Lead, see chapter 1.
key issues
The way in which a Camp Management Agency approaches coordination and the
outcomes that are achieved will directly impact on the protection and services
provided to a camp population. Whilst coordination is a topic frequently discussed
in relation to a camp response, its practical and effective implementation can
be difficult. Some of the challenges include:
coordination mechanisms
How is coordination achieved? The term ‘coordination mechanisms’ simply means
the methods we employ to coordinate, a vehicle for sharing information or a plat-
form for joint planning. Coordination mechanisms are the way in which coordination
results are achieved. In any camp response a variety of coordination mechanisms
should be used to coordinate with different stakeholders.
The method most commonly used – and arguably also misused – is the meeting.
A meeting may be used to achieve a variety of results. It may simply be used
as a forum to share information. It may also be used to take decisions. Listed
below are some coordination mechanisms commonly in use:
• meetings (including distributed agendas and minutes)
• teleconferences (involving more stakeholders)
• cluster/sector group (facilitated by the camp coordinator)
• camp-level representative groups (a diversity of key stakeholders such as
service providers at camp level)
• camp committees (representation of camp residents in camp governance)
• informal chats and exchanges (planned and/or ad hoc general relation-
ship building)
• task forces (often used to target a specific issue needing urgent, techni-
cal/expert attention and provide feedback and recommendations)
• working groups (a sub-group tasked with researching a specific issue or
producing a specific deliverable, and feeding back).
CM CM
CM CM
At camp level the Camp Management Agency is responsible for the development
and facilitation of various organisations and groups of persons present and active
in the camp. This includes service providers and camp residents and representa-
tives of groups with specific needs and those at heightened risk. It may also include
government representatives and those from the host community. A representative
group of stakeholders which meets regularly to discuss camp management is-
sues and recent events, identifies priorities and takes action to meet needs may
sometimes be known as the Camp Management ‘Team’. This group may be at the
centre of effective coordination and participation at camp level.
Coordination Tools
Coordination tools, (such as camp monitoring forms) fulfil a specific information
function and are developed for a particular context. Whether a tool is used for
intra or inter camp coordination purposes, specific tools need to be agreed and
developed by the relevant stakeholders. One of the key challenges in setting
up effective coordination is for parties to develop and use shared coordination
tools, which meet common needs for information. This may sound easy, but
it requires that stakeholders are able to trust information collected by other
No matter what mechanisms and tools are in place, facilitating effective coor-
dination requires a Camp Management Agency to take an active, inclusive and
flexible approach to developing solutions which aim to meet a wide diversity of
needs. In establishing coordination mechanisms and tools a Camp Management
Agency should:
• be familiar with the camp; including the people and the place. Get out of
the office and away from emails! Talk to people and listen to their needs.
• involve people in discussions on the need to coordinate, enthuse them about
its effectiveness and how to overcome challenges to effective coordination.
• map the actors involved in coordination at the camp level and include co-
ordination with both international and national actors
• get clarity on information needs and advocate for sharing information and
data collection systems and tools wherever possible
• brainstorm appropriate coordination forums and information sharing mecha-
nisms for different stakeholders
• use the ‘five factors coordination analysis’ tool (see Tools section of this chap-
ter) to evaluate existing coordination mechanisms and to improve them
• list coordination mechanisms in the camp such as meeting schedules and
make them visible in a publicly accessible place
• use a variety of mechanisms that make information accessible to all, includ-
ing those who are not literate
• advocate for shared coordination tools and train people how to use them
• establish committees to ensure that the camp residents are central to the
coordination process
• ensure plans and coordination aims are clear, simple, agreed and known
about
• hold regular and effective meetings and ensure minute-taking is good and
minutes list action points and deadlines for follow up
• keep everyone informed, at every stage and monitor plans and progress
• be prepared to adapt plans, procedures and processes if things aren’t work-
ing or situations change
}
• Location
• Membership
• Decision-making Commitment
• Formality
• Resources
Meetings
Having too many meetings can be symptomatic of complex relief operations.
Unless these meetings are well-planned and well-chaired, they often achieve
relatively little, at least in relation to the amount of time they consume. When
organising effective meetings it is important to ensure:
Is it meant to be organised for a larger and more inclusive group or for a smaller
group only or even bilaterally? When chairing a meeting, or supporting some-
one who is, it may be challenging to stick to the objectives and time set, whilst
facilitating contributions from the participants and allowing sufficient space for
the sharing of expertise. However, specific clear and achievable goals need to
be set which generate involvement and commitment in a spirit of trust.
uu See ‘How accountable are you?’ in the Tools section of this chapter
uu For more information on the role of the Camp Coordination Agency, see chapter 1.
uu For further details on information management, see chapter 5.
Assessment and
Data Collection
What information Step 1 in case study below What does this
is needed now? data mean?
Data processing
Evaluation
and analysis
Information and
What achievements Coordination Cycle Who needs this
have been made? information?
Implementatio Information
and monitoring sharing
Joint
Who will do what? Where are the gaps?
planning
Step 5: a joint plan is made, (in line with mandates and capacities, and
using UNHCR WASH standards as a benchmark), which involves the
repair of existing latrines and the construction of additional facilities. In
addition, the authorities agree to use the municipal council services once
a month, to pump out full septic tanks. Meanwhile, the Camp Manage-
ment Agency in Camp X works closely with the WASH committee, and
the representatives from the two WASH NGOs, and creates a ‘cleanliness
and hygiene’ project. This involves establishing a roster for latrines to
be regularly checked and cleaned, and for children to be educated in the
correct use of facilities with an emphasis on washing their hands.
o The importance of coordination is agreed and there is ‘buy in’ and acknowl-
edgement of its benefits.
o It is clear who is doing what and where: roles, responsibilities and expecta-
tions are agreed.
o Staff are trained to use these tools so that the information provided is trust-
worthy and valuable.
o Coordination forums are reviewed and there are procedures for feedback
and complaint.
o Language needs are catered for in mixed forums of expatriates and nationals.
o There are forums for joint planning which seek complementarity in line with
diverse mandates and capacities.
• Linda Richardson and Gill Price, 2007. All In Diary. A Practical Tool for Field Based
Humanitarian Workers. www.allindiary.org/uploads/final_All_in_Diary_cd.pdf
ECB Building Trust Working Group, 2007. Building Trust in Diverse Teams: The
Toolkit for Emergency Response. http://publications.oxfam.org.uk/oxfam/display.
asp?isbn=9780855986155
Inter Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2002. Growing the Sheltering Tree; Pro-
tecting Rights through Humanitarian Action, Programmes and Practices Gathered
from the Field. www.icva.ch/gstree.pdf
People in Aid, 2003. Code of Good Practice in the Management and Support of Aid
Personal. www.peopleinaid.org/pool/files/code/code-en.pdf
Hugo Slim and Andrew Bonwick, 2005. Protection – The ALNAP Guide for
Humanitarian Agencies. www.odi.org.uk/ALNAP/publications/protection/alnap_
protection_guide.pdf
The Peace Building, Development and Security Program (PDSP), 2007. Policy
Brief. Beyond Information Sharing & False Coherence: Interagency Coordination In
International Peace Missions. www.ucalgary.ca/pdsp/files/pdsp/pdsp-policy-brief_
coordintion_oct2007.pdf
The Sphere Project, 2004 Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Dis-
aster Response. www.sphereproject.org/component/option,com_docman/task,cat_
view/gid,17/Itemid,203/lang,English/
Jenty Wood. Improving NGO Coordination: Lessons from the Bam Earthquake.
www.odihpn.org/report.asp?id=2646
• Information about groups and individuals most at risk and groups with spe-
cific needs including children, women, older persons, sick persons, persons
with disabilities, ex-combatants and persons living with HIV/AIDS.
• Ask if too much information is being gathered. Whilst the ideal is that the
same information is shared and used by all to inform decision-making, in
reality different stakeholders tend to require different and very specific
data to inform their own projects. They may opt to collect it themselves.
data analysis
Data is analysed so that statistics can be generated, figures compared over
time or across populations, charts and graphs produced and reports written.
Primary data from the camp may be analysed and used by a variety of different
stakeholders to inform different service and assistance provision or advocacy
at different levels. Each context is specific and roles and responsibilities may
be different in IDP and refugee operations and in situations where the cluster
approach is activated.
Analysis can take place at the camp level and be conducted by the Camp
Management Agency. Data collation and storage is the first step, whereby data
from all the different forms is assembled and analysed. During this stage, the
data may be entered into a table or into a database. The data may also be cross-
checked at this stage to ensure that it is valid.
information dissemination
During dissemination, statistics and reports generated are distributed to stake-
holders in the camp response. The Camp Management Agency may need to dis-
seminate data to the camp population, the host population, service providers, the
national authorities and the Sector/Cluster Lead. If data is not shared, it means
no action can be taken. The inclusive sharing of information is the foundation of
ensuring that gaps in services and assistance in the camp are filled. The need for
inclusivity however, must be balanced with considerations of confidentiality.
Confidentiality means that sensitive data and information is treated in con-
fidence and not shared in public forums. When such information is shared it
should be done selectively and anonymously, ensuring that the identity of any
individuals concerned is communicated in ways that will not jeopardise that
person’s dignity, protection or security. Analysis can be shared in aggregate to
prevent the dissemination of data that is personally identifiable.
Information may be disseminated through coordination forums, meetings
and referral mechanisms where individual incidents and cases of concern are
referred by the Camp Management Agency to an appropriate organisation re-
sponsible for follow-up. In the case of child protection, for example, this would
be UNICEF.
Reports are disseminated to Sector/Cluster Leads giving statistics and a
description of activities and standards in specific sectors. Gaps, duplications,
concerns and recommendations may be highlighted. These can then discussed
in a Sector/Cluster coordination forum, where action plans can be made, taking
the mandates and capacities of different actors into account.
Service
Donors
providers
Camp
Camp Sector/Cluster
Management UNOCHA
community Lead Agency
Agency
National
p
authorities
m
Fe
ca
ed back to
Note that the links in the data chain are context specific. For example in some
circumstances service providers may have direct contact with national authorities
and other stakeholders. In others the camp community may be in direct contact
with the authorities.
Note: the above is only an example and education data-sharing and decision-mak-
ing may differ from operation to operation.
Service Providers
Water distribution gap Data on location, status
& Camp Manager
analysis in each zone of (functional or not) and
ment Agency
the camp; determining the usage of each borehole and
site(s) where new boreholes well in a camp,
or wells should be dug.
Note: the above is only an example and water data sharing and decision-making
may differ from operation to operation.
o Accurate, relevant and up-to-date information forms the basis for coordina-
tion between stakeholders in the camp response.
o The Camp Management Agency collects information on the level and stand-
ard of services and assistance in the camp.
o The formats used to collect data reflect the specific information required
and have been field-tested.
o The data collection forms contain clear and agreed standards and indicators
for monitoring sector-specific interventions.
o Camp Management Agency staff have been trained in the effective monitor-
ing of the camp and the use of data collection formats.
o The Camp Management Agency uses the primary data collected to compile
a gap analysis for the camp.
NRC, 2006. Outcome Report Camp Monitoring and Support, Aceh Province, Indonesia
ODI, HPG, 2005. Interpreting and Using Mortality Data in Humanitarian Emergen-
cies. A Primer for Non-Epidemiologists.
www.humanitarianinfo.org/IMToolbox/10_Reference/Humanitarian_General/2005_
Mortality_Data_In_Humanitarian_Emergencies_HPN.pdf
The Sphere Project, 2004. Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Dis-
aster Response. www.sphereproject.org/component/option,com_docman/task,cat_
view/gid,17/Itemid,203/lang,English/
Imogen Wall, 2006. The Right to Know: The Challenge of Public Information and
Accountability in Aceh and Sri Lanka, Office of the UN Secretary General’s Special
Envoy for Tsunami Recovery. www.wpro.who.int/NR/rdonlyres/94653175-72B4-
4E69-9075-D1921FF119FA/0/the_right_to_know.pdf
u Environmental issues can trigger disputes between host and camp communi-
ties as the natural environment may represent a common source of economic
support. Host communities should be involved in key decision-making that
relate to the environment. They should also benefit from some environmental
support activities, like tree planting, awareness raising, fuel-efficient stoves
and improved animal husbandry.
u A rapid environmental assessment should be carried out for each site prior
to its final selection. A more detailed and thorough environmental assess-
ment can and should be conducted at some later stage when humanitarian
priorities have been addressed.
u Attention needs to be given to ensuring that not only the visible impacts
on the environment, such as revival of vegetation cover, are addressed.
Examples of other issues include the overuse of groundwater resources or
contamination of surface or ground water which can unduly effect the local
environment.
introduction
Environmental concerns are a feature of every camp and need to be taken into
account from the moment a site is selected until after it has been responsibly
closed. Soil erosion and the loss of natural vegetation cover are some of the
most common and visible environmental impacts. Others such as ground water
pollution and soil contamination might be less visible, but are equally impor-
tant. The nature and scale of these concerns will vary according to the physical
location and nature of the operation. Specific considerations will need to be
made at the various stages of camp operations and will require careful analysis
to modify existing tools and best practices to the particular context where the
Camp Management Agency is working.
It is critical to carry out an environmental assessment as soon as a site is
considered for temporary placement of a camp, and certainly before a site is
finally selected. When viewing different site options, it is important to consider
the size of the site that is selected. Larger camps will have concentrated damage
due to site infrastructure and potential local harvesting of resources. Smaller
camps will cause less intensive damage, but will disperse the damage over a
larger area. The UNHCR Handbook for Emergencies (2007) suggests a maximum
site size of 20,000 persons with one-day walk between camps – in part to reduce
environmental damage.
key issues
uu For information on camp planning and closure and rehabilitation issues, see
chapter 7.
Monitoring
Projects that address specific environmental activities such as tree planting,
environmental awareness raising, promotion of fuel-efficient stoves and/or
agricultural extension will require their own in-built monitoring processes.
Periodic attention will also need to extend to activities addressing the envi-
ronmental consequences of water extraction, waste disposal or vector control.
Household visits and direct observation are also important monitoring aids as
these will reveal whether families are using and maintaining facilities such as
stoves in the correct manner.
Community Mobilisation
The Camp Management Agency should make sure that camp residents have ac-
cess to information about environmental management. Messages and guidelines
on environmental issues should be simple and easy to understand. Different
activities can be undertaken to raise and maintain environmental awareness
within the camp. These may include:
• organising special occasions, such as celebrations for World Environment
Day on June 5th
• including camp-wide community mobilisation activities when designing a
camp’s Environmental Management Plan
• promoting camp site clean-up or tree-planting campaigns.
Sharing special events with local communities also helps maintain good rela-
tions. Providing training and support to school environmental clubs is another
means of promoting environmental awareness.
Sun-dried mud-bricks used for walls or vaulted ceilings offer a possible alternative
to timber in some situations, especially where concrete or steel may be culturally
unfamiliar. Brick-built houses are generally more durable and offer better living
conditions. They also reduce the amount of wood typically needed for construction
by around 80%. However, significant amounts of water are required to establish
the correct mixture. Pits excavated for mud will fill with water and can become a
breeding pond for malaria-transmitting mosquitoes if not filled.
Water
Water should be safe for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene. In order to
promote sound environmental management, it is essential to ensure that exist-
ing water sources such as springs are protected from:
• livestock
• latrines, which should ideally be placed at a 30m distance
and downstream
• clothes washing and bathing areas
• burial grounds
• waste disposal sites.
The Sphere Project, 2004, states that “the bottom of latrine pits
should be a minimum 1.5m above the maximum water table.” This
distance may need to be increased for fissured rocks or limestone,
or decreased in fine soils. Drainage or spillage from defecation sys-
tems must not flow towards surface water or shallow groundwater
sources.
Rainwater Harvesting
In dry or seasonal environments, efforts can be made to encourage the use of
basic rainwater harvesting methods. Often a much-overlooked practice – and
one with which camp residents may already be familiar – collecting and stor-
ing rain water can significantly supplement a camp population’s supply during
periods of heavy rain and reduce the risk of drinking contaminated water. Unless
large reservoirs are built, the volume of water collected will not last to the end
of a dry season. Collecting water from roofs has been most successful in regions
with heavy and prolonged rains.
domestic energy
In camp situations, the most visible and lasting environmental impact is often
damage to the surrounding area caused by the collection of wood for cooking.
Other natural resources, like animal dung and crop residues, are commonly
used by displaced people for cooking, heating and as a source of light. Although
circumstances will be different in each location, an average family requires
between 1-2 kg, and as much as 4-5 kg, of fuelwood per day for cooking. Every
effort should be made to limit the amounts of natural resources used in food
preparation through:
• Promoting regular use of fuel-efficient stoves for when they are used prop-
erly they can significantly reduce the amount of fuel required. Experience
has shown that for fuel-efficient stoves to work well in a camp environment
there ideally needs to be a local shortage of fuelwood. This can be induced
‘artificially’ through tighter control over the free collection of wood. Users
also need time to become familiar with the stove design and knowledgeable
about its upkeep.
uu See the World Food Programme’s Fortified Blended Food Recipe Book
uu For information on food and non-food item distributions, see chapter 13.
Unintended Consequences
The free-of-charge collection, transportation, storage and distribu-
tion of fuelwood organised by humanitarian organisations or local
administrations is, in some situations, the only way of providing
camp populations with their basic requirements. This may, however,
encourage camp residents to additionally collect wood in the area
surrounding the camp and sell it on markets or make charcoal out
of it. It is necessary that the Camp Management Agency monitors
the camp population’s use of fire wood as well as the availability of
fuelwood and charcoal on the nearby markets.
As long as the community feels ownership for the plan – through developing
and implementing it themselves – it should also be able to adapt the plan to
changing circumstances over time.
Environmental Rehabilitation
Environmental rehabilitation does not necessarily mean returning the site to its
former status. This could be costly and time-consuming, if indeed it could actu-
ally be achieved. What may be more appropriate is to determine what the host
community would like to see happen to the site once the camp has been closed
and the site made safe. They may not wish to see it returned to its past status.
By pointing out different options that could perhaps be realistically achieved and
more useful to them, the Camp Management Agency can ensure that environ-
mental considerations are taken into account. Some options to suggest are:
• income-generating activities spanning a range of short-term benefits from
market gardening to longer term investments such as hardwood production
• turning an empty former camp site entirely into a community plant nursery
and tree plantation where the population has access to the many goods and
services these can provide, according to their agreed regulations.
agriculture
Many camp residents establish small-scale agriculture projects while displaced.
Local rules, previous experience and the amount of available space, will dictate
the range of farming activities. Using household waste water to irrigate fruit
trees or vegetable gardens can be a good conservation technique, especially in
places where gardens are located within a family compound or in circumstances
where water is in short supply.
livelihoods
Many natural resources lend themselves to immediate personal use or potential
gain through sale. Wild fruits, herbs, plants and even wild animals may be caught
and consumed or sold. Camp residents often collect fuelwood, or transform it
into charcoal to gain quick cash. To avoid such direct environmental exploita-
tion and to ensure the security and welfare of the camp population, the Camp
Management Agency should:
• clearly articulate which types of activities are allowed, or are strictly pro-
hibited, and get written agreements with camp authorities as well as, the
host community
• develop awareness of income-generating activities that are linked with the
use of natural resources. Small-scale craft making such as baskets, mats and
screens from grasses, and small furniture items from bamboo or wood may
increase livelihoods, but the scale of these initiatives needs to be balanced
with environmental interests.
livestock
Keeping livestock may not be possible in every camp situation, but where it does
take place, special provisions need to be made in order to:
• have separate watering points – distant from people’s living shelters and
not contaminating ground or surface water bodies
• ensure adequate sanitation around all animal pens and watering points
• prevent transmission of disease and parasites by encouraging good animal
husbandry practices and vaccination campaigns in collaboration with vet-
erinary services
• provide continuous sources of fodder – this may require adequate grazing
land for free-ranging animals or a supply of cut food for penned livestock.
Arrangements may be needed with local communities for grazing rights for
herds of larger animals.
o The person or team of people to carry out the assessments are selected.
o Local authorities and lead agencies are consulted to verify that the camp
site and environmental priorities are those approved/endorsed by their
department/agency.
o Relocation plans are prepared for persons that need to be moved in order
to protect critical natural resources.
o The camp staff, host community, community leaders and committees are
trained in, or otherwise informed of, matters related to environmental pro-
tection and the negative effects of poor environmental planning.
shelter
o Shelter materials (especially timber), including those brought from other
areas, are from sustainable sources.
o Natural materials are harvested at the right time of the year to ensure sus-
tainability of future harvests.
o Latrines are appropriately sited and constructed to ensure that they do not
pollute groundwater or the surrounding area.
o A solid waste management system and strategy are in place which includes
recycling and composting.
o Solid waste pits are appropriately sited and constructed to ensure that they
do not pollute groundwater or the surrounding area.
o Clearly demarcated burial sites are sited to ensure that they do not pollute
groundwater or the surrounding area.
livelihoods
o If livestock are present, there is sufficient grazing and fodder available to
feed them locally.
o Organic farming practices are encouraged for cultivation in and around the
camp.
firewood/fuel
o Periodic assessments are conducted of the amount of fuelwood (or other
energy sources) needed and being harvested.
environmental rehabilitation
o Projects are put in place to rehabilitate the camp once people return home.
o Implementing agencies and local authorities have funds available for the
clearing/decommissioning of the camp.
o Plans are drawn up and agreed in advance regarding any intended future
use of the camp site and existing infrastructure.
o The host community is consulted about rehabilitation of the camp area and
site.
o Tree planting schemes are appropriately funded for an adequate time period.
Emphasis is placed on using native tree species.
• Best Practice Guidelines for the on-site Decommissioning of Emergency and Semi-
Permanent Raised Level Latrines from Sri Lanka
Maarten K. van Aalst. The Impacts of Climate Change on the Risk of Natural
Disasters. www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1467-9523.2006.00303.x
Rustem Ertegun, 2002. Balancing Upon a Fine Line – Humanitarian Action and
Environmental Sustainability.
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1309/is_4_39/ai_96951843
UNHCR and IUCN, 2005. Forest Management in Refugee and Returnee Situations. A
Handbook of Sound Practices. www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/438724c42.pdf
UNHCR and IUCN, 2005. Livestock Keeping and Animal Husbandry in Refugee
and Returnee Situations. A Practical Handbook for Improved Management.
www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/4385e3432.pdf
UNHCR, CARE, 2005. Framework for Assessing, Monitoring and Evaluating the
Environment in Refugee-related Operations. http://postconflict.unep.ch/liberia/
displacement/documents/UNHCR_CARE_FRAME_Toolkit.pdf
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children, 2006. Beyond Firewood:
Fuel Alternatives and Protection Strategies for Displaced Women and Girls.
www.womenscommission.org/pdf/fuel.pdf
u Camps exist for the provision of assistance and protection to displaced com-
munities. Fulfilling these objectives is the task of the Camp Management
Agency at every stage of the camp life cycle, not least during camp set-up
and camp closure. The priority is to ensure a safe, secure and healthy en-
vironment that is efficient to manage, supports participation and provides
access to basic human rights.
u Setting up and closing camps requires a great deal of input from experts
and other participants. The role of the Camp Management Agency includes
ensuring that all stakeholders are involved and participating. The expertise
of camp planners, technical staff, governments and authorities and the host
community should all be employed.
uu For a diagram on transitional shelter options, see the Tools section at end of the
chapter.
introduction
The aim of this chapter is to provide Camp Management Agencies with insight
into best practice in camp set-up and closure. It provides an overview of what
is required to ensure that camps are established with proper attention to site
selection and site planning, and that camp closure processes are developed early
to ensure the protection of the population and the management of the site and
its assets. This chapter does not include exhaustive descriptions of every aspect
of camp set-up and closure, but rather acts as an aide-memoire to help Camp
Management Agencies ensure that the right questions are being asked and that
their role and responsibilities in the various processes are clear.
The site of a camp and how it is planned have a critical impact on the health,
well-being and protection of the displaced population, as well as on the ability
to manage daily activities, ensure participation and develop relations with the
key issues
camp set-up
Ideally, sites are selected and camps are planned before the controlled arrival of
the displaced population. This is a rare occurrence, however, and in most cases,
the Sector/Cluster Lead Agency, the Camp Management Agency and other ac-
tors will arrive on the scene to find populations already settled and coping in
whatever way they can.
Location
Security
The camp’s location in itself could enhance the protection of the displaced popula-
tion, or it may jeopardise protection. Protective factors include host communities
with strong ties to the displaced population, the proximity of responsible security
forces, and ample resources. Negative factors include proximity to hostile communi-
ties–whether across a border or not – proximity to military or rebel bases, and areas
where there are already strained resources. In general, a camp should be located
at least 50 kilometres or one day’s travel on foot from any front line, border, mined
area or other hazard. Setting camps away from security threats or natural hazards
may be costly and complicated; however, failure to do so adequately may destabilise
entire regions and undermine all subsequent humanitarian response.
Access
Any site must be easily accessible in all seasons. Accessibility is not only of impor-
tance to ensure the regular provision of relief supplies, but ensures a population’s
mobility to pursue livelihoods and access to essential services, such as health
Environmental Impact
As a general rule, sites should never be identified near national parks, wildlife
sanctuaries, conservation areas or potentially vulnerable ecosystems, such as
lakes, forests or in watershed catchment zones. Ideally, each camp should be
situated at least 15 kilometres or a day’s walk from such a site. If no alternative
option is available, then precautionary measures need to be planned, such as
supporting rangers to prevent incursions. Equal care regarding distance should
be considered for areas of particular importance for religious or traditional fes-
tivals, monuments, historic buildings, memorial sites and cemeteries.
Not all aspects of a site are visible or otherwise easy to identify. In areas where
land is scarce, it is likely that the site has been abandoned or never used for
a good reason such as the presence of landmines or contamination. Advice
should be sought from local planning offices, rural development institutions
and agricultural ministries.
Dealing with waste – solid or liquid – is another main concern, although
many solid wastes are actually recycled within the camp. Attention needs to be
given to ensuring that surface and underground water sources are not polluted
and that the disposal of solid waste is carried out properly, either in designated
pits within the camp, or off-site if necessary. Waste from hospital or small-scale
industry might need special treatment such as incineration.
Conditions
Availability of Resources – Water, Fuel wood and Construction Materials
The availability of water is probably among the most important criteria to deter-
mine a site’s suitability. Such is the vital importance of water that short supply
can cause not only outbreaks of disease and death, but conflict as well.
Water in sufficient quantities must be available and accessible year-round.
Groundwater and surface water levels may be deceptively high in wet seasons,
but extremely low in dry seasons. The use of water tankers or pumping water
over long distances should be avoided if possible because it is costly and vulner-
able in terms of breakdowns and security.
In general, water quality is less of an issue during site selection than wa-
ter quantity since many effective treatment options are available to cope with
sedimentation and purification. However, this is not the case with rarer sources
of contamination, such as heavy metals.
Before a site is selected, it is important to calculate as closely as possible the
daily water needs of the camp to ensure that this quantity can be provided 365
days a year. The following table and example are based on Sphere (2004):
uu For information on standards and indicators for water supply, see chapter 14.
The other major resource which must be considered during site selection is fuel
for cooking and/or heating. If wood is the main fuel source that camp residents
are familiar with, a survey may be required to assess expected needs of the popu-
lation, the capacity of the local environment to meet these needs, and the way
in which wood harvesting should be organised – supervised or free-to-gather.
In most situations, fuel-saving stoves and energy-saving practices should be
introduced and other wood-saving alternatives explored.
The wider environment extending 15 km/one day’s walk – return journey
– from the camp should be assessed for the availability of fuel wood.
uu For an example see the Forest Stewardship Council – FSC www.fscus.org which
promotes responsible management of the world’s forests.
Soils which absorb surface water easily are preferred, in particular for the con-
struction and proper functioning of latrines. If soils are too sandy, latrines and
other structures could collapse. Excessively rocky ground will hinder shelter and
latrine construction, and make gardening difficult.
In general, the main structures of the camp should be at least three metres
above the rainy season water table.
Availability of Land
National and local authorities often have their own interests in identifying certain
sites and avoiding others. Displaced populations are frequently settled in rather
isolated, remote or unsuitably rocky or swampy areas for reasons of security,
in order to avoid conflict over real or alleged scarce local resources or even as
a shield between warring parties. Some options may be unacceptable as the
security and protection of the camp population are a priority. The eventual site
identification will usually be based on a compromise between the interests of
all stakeholders and the land available. Some potential conflicts over land may
be seasonal and not immediately apparent at the time of assessment -including
access needs for seasonal pastoral herd movement or grazing. The two ques-
tions that should be asked are:
1. If the land is not already being used for settlement, why not?
2. If the land is being used for some purpose, what will happen if a camp
is set up instead – for example, if land is lost for grazing?
site planning
Even as different sites are being considered and the legal issues worked out,
the SDC must start to plan the actual camp. Again, this is a complicated process
which requires the input of many experts and stakeholders.
Approximate No.
Smaller Unit Larger Unit
of People per Unit
1 family or household = 4-6 people
16 families or households û 1 community = 80 people
16 communities û 1 block = 1,250 people
4 blocks û 1 sector = 5,000 people
4 sectors û 1 camp = 20,000 people
Address Systems
As the general layout of the camp becomes clear, an address system
should also be developed; being able to identify sectors and blocks,
down to family shelters that will facilitate planning on both a large
and small scale. Eventually, this becomes critical in being able to
identify persons with specific needs and community leaders, and so
on. Using symbols, pictures or colours in conjunction with written
names or numbers will make it easier for children and non-literate
people to find their way around the camp.
Medical waste
facilities
camp closure
Like camp set-up, the closure of a camp is a context-specific process, which
can take place for a variety of reasons, and in a diversity of ways or stages
– from planned and orderly closure influenced by organised return movements
or dwindling donor support, to abrupt and chaotic closure due to security threats
or government coercion. The identification of durable solutions is an essential
goal of best practice in camp management, whether this is:
• return to the area of origin
• integration into the area of displacement
• resettlement to a third location (neither the area of
origin nor of displacement).
It may sometimes be the case that whilst assistance and service provision phase
out, the camp itself does not ‘close’, in terms of the removal of its infrastructure
or its function as a community. It may itself become a viable permanent settle-
ment, town or site of economic or social activity.
Whatever the circumstances around phase-out and camp closure, careful
planning and extensive coordination is crucial and should be carried out by
the Camp Management Agency in collaboration with the Sector/Cluster Lead
Agency, the government authorities, local and international service provid-
ers, the camp population and the host community. The people of main concern
are the displaced, and involving them in the process is imperative. Also, it is
important to prepare the ground for an orderly closure with contractors and
Assessment
Perhaps most crucial in return exercises is to assess whether return is voluntary.
Assessing the degree of camp communities’ free will to return is a responsibility
of all stakeholders, including the Camp Management Agency.
The decision to return needs to be based on free and informed choices, both
about the situation within the area or country of displacement, and the conditions
of the area or country of origin. Voluntary choice – derived from the principle
of non-refoulement (the stipulation in international refugee law preventing the
involuntary return of refugees) – implies the absence of any pressure, as in physi-
cal force or threats against safety. Material pressure may involve ambiguous
promises of land upon return or financial compensation. Psychological pressure
may involve repeated warnings or threats, or disseminating hate messages.
The terms ‘‘push’’ and ‘‘pull’’ factors are often used in the
humanitarian field. In the context of a camp:
A ‘push’ factor would be a feature or event that pushes a person away
from or encourages a person to leave the camp environment. Reasons for
this may be community conflicts, unfavourable conditions, oppression,
the disregard of human rights or a lack of assistance and services.
A ‘pull’ factor would be a feature or event that attracts a person to
the camp. Reasons for this may be better living conditions and service
provision, protection issues, and family or community reunification.
Voluntary Return
In order to be considered voluntary, a decision to return must be free and in-
formed. It is essential that the displaced population have access to information
about the situation in their place of origin, or resettlement that is accurate, objec-
tive and updated. Voluntary return is often spontaneous, and once the decision
to leave the camp has been made, it can take place en masse very quickly or
in smaller numbers over a longer period of time. Voluntary return may also be
an organised effort planned by authorities and humanitarian agencies when
conditions for return are considered conducive for the population.
The return or repatriation of IDPs and refugees is dependent upon the situa-
tion in the country or areas of origin, and the necessary pre-conditions – volun-
tariness, safety, security and dignity – for both groups are the same. Voluntary
return or repatriation in safety, security and dignity involves a range of conditions
that should be met. Safety and security conditions must be ensured both during
and after return, and are measured against the following criteria:
• physical security, such as protection from armed attack or any physical threats
Although the Camp Management Agency must always liaise with community
leaders on return and repatriation issues, consulting leaders alone is not suf-
ficient. Their views may not represent the aspirations of all and there is a risk
that collective decision-making in terms of security or livelihoods may overrule
individual needs. This can be particularly true with groups at risk who fear be-
ing left behind.
Spontaneous Return
The spontaneous return of displaced people may happen quite unexpectedly.
Spontaneous return may be triggered by sudden changes in the home areas
or may be provoked by a change in security in the areas of displacement. The
Camp Management Agency may provide transport support where required if
conditions for return are conducive. The transport needs of those most at risk
should not be forgotten, nor should the needs of persons with specific needs
who may be left behind during the first phase of return.
Displaced people may decide to return home or depart for other areas even
when conditions along the road or at the selected destination are insecure. The
Camp Management Agency should aim to identify motivations for return or de-
parture. This may identify other issues, such as political or military motivations
or increased tensions. It may, however, also indicate that certain groups feel
discriminated against or made insecure by the presence of other groups within
the camp. Overall conditions of continued hardship, such as lack of sufficient
food and water or other services, may also force people to leave.
In collaboration with authorities and service providers, issues around hard-
ship, security and increasing tensions must be addressed by the Camp Manage-
ment Agency. Whether or not to advise against return is context-dependent and
should be decided in consultation with the Sector/Cluster Lead Agency, service
providers and authorities.
The term “spontaneous return” may also be used to describe people choosing to
return on their own rather than as part of agency-organised return programmes.
Indicators of the feasibility of the exit of the Camp Management Agency could
include:
• identification of durable solutions which can be implemented
• camp residents no longer needing the protection of the Camp Management
Agency
• the situation in the area/country of origin improving to the extent where
return is possible
• the camp residents refusing the offer of durable solutions and the Camp
Management Agency being unable to continue to run the camp, for financial
and/or ethical reasons
• drying up of donor support to run the camp, whether justified in the eyes of
the Camp Management Agency or not
• safety and security factors, such as threats against the life and property of
humanitarian workers working in the camp
• the presence of aid workers or particular groups of aid workers putting the
population at more risk of harm than proportionate risk warrants
• access to the displaced population is no longer available or made extremely
difficult
• another transitional settlement solution is required.
In this situation, some of the measures mentioned in this chapter that are also
necessary in the case of camp closure, will be relevant as well. This includes
liaison with the authorities and with other stakeholders for the promotion of
protection and future provision for the remaining camp population.
Special Programmes
If camp residents are to return to mined areas, mine risk education must be
organised for all. A number of information strategies can be used, including
training workshops, posters, leaflets and children’s theatre.
uu For more information on mine risk and mine risk education, see the International
Mine Action Best Practice Guidebook in the Reading and References section of
this chapter.
Administrative Documents
Operations reports, books of accounts and financial records are some of the
vital administrative records that need to be kept for at least five years based
on sound accounting practice.
A lessons-learned document should also be produced, which tells the history
of the camp, including successes and how they were achieved, and challenges
and how they were addressed.
Deregistration
The deregistration of people leaving in an organised and phased way can be
straightforward. Deregistration can be linked to the transportation manifests
which record all returning individuals. Likewise, people must deregister prior to
receiving return packages or transportation allowances. Deregistration becomes
more difficult when people decide to return spontaneously on their own. Peo-
ple may decide to keep ration cards in order to allow return to the camp when
deemed necessary, or leave their cards with others.
Environmental Considerations
Camp closure will produce large amounts of waste of different kinds, such as
shelter materials, left-behind belongings and damaged items of various kinds.
Also, chemicals, batteries, expired drugs and other health-sector related waste
will most likely have to be dealt with. Preparing for camp closure includes the
set up
o The Camp Management Agency works with the Sector/Cluster Lead Agency
in establishing a Site Development/Camp Planning Committee.
o Information is analysed about the pros and cons of the site(s), based on
considerations of:
• safety, protection and security
• social and cultural considerations
• the location and conditions of the land, including size, access, distance from
the border and available resources.
o Future changes and uncertainties are planned for such as new arrivals and
camp expansion.
o The camp is planned and set up in line with international standards and
indicators.
o Ways forward are decided upon to best use positive aspects and mitigate
the effects of unfavourable ones of the site.
o Pros and cons of selected sites and the reasons behind final decisions are
documented.
o In situations of self-settled camps, decisions are made about the need to reor-
ganise or resettle the community or parts of the community as appropriate.
o If a growing disparity exists between the living conditions of the camp resi-
dents and the host population, the Sector/Cluster Lead Agency, the authori-
ties, the Camp Management Agency, UN agencies and NGOs consult on the
possibility of implementing projects or sharing goods or services.
o An address system for the camp is planned, taking into account the needs
of non-literate camp residents.
o Plans for phase-out, exit and camp closure are considered from the start,
including land agreements, service contracts, documentation storage and
confidentiality, asset management, and the assessment of possible durable
solutions.
o Groups most at risk and vulnerable individuals are supported and pro-
tected throughout the process. Special information or awareness-raising
programmes and links with longer-term development projects are developed,
which will help camp residents integrate back home.
o Administrative procedures ensure that all documents are either with their
owners before they leave, with lead agencies (Sector/Cluster/Protection),
NGOs or are destroyed.
o Any camp residents staying behind have been provided with adequate as-
sistance and protection.
o The camp assets and infrastructure are distributed fairly and transparently
with due regard for the host community.
o Information and support is provided to help camp residents deal with un-
certainty: their questions are answered and they are given advice about the
future.
EXIT
Camp Planning Camp Management and Camp Transition
and Camp Set-Up Camp Maintenance and Camp Closure
For more information about when final drafts are available, contact:
info@proactnetwork.org
• Quick guidelines for transitional settlements or camp site selection from Sri
Lanka
• Primer for the design of refugee camps
• RedR. Latrine Decommissioning Training Notes (South Asia earthquake)
• Suggested technical processes for the decommissioning and closure of IDP
sites from Sri Lanka
• Decommissioning procedure checklist from Sri Lanka
• Best practice guidelines for the on-site decommissioning of emergency and
semi-permanent raised-level latrines from Batticaloa, Sri Lanka
• Shelter and settlement standards matrix from Sri Lanka
Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). The Pinheiro Principles – United
Nations Principles on Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced
Persons. www.cohre.org/store/attachments/Pinheiro%20Principles.pdf
Global IDP Project, Refugee Studies Centre, 2000. ‘‘Going Home: Land & Prop-
erty Issues’’ Forced Migration Review. http://fmo.qeh.ox.ac.uk/Repository/getPdf.
asp?Path=FMR/1600/01/14&PageNo=1
Global IDP Project, Refugee Studies Centre, 2003. ‘‘When Does Internal
Displacement End?’’ Forced Migration Review
http://fmo.qeh.ox.ac.uk/Repository/getPdf.asp?Path=FMR/1600/01/08&PageNo=1
IDMC, Human Rights Centre Memorial, 2006. An Uncertain Future: The Chal-
lenges of Return and Reintegration for Internally Displaced Persons in the North
Caucasus. www.internal-displacement.org/8025708F004BE3B1/(httpInfoFiles)/
AB9962E52FC79BB3C1257203002C35AA/$file/russia_report.pdf
Hugo Slim and Andrew Bonwick, 2005. Protection – The ALNAP Guide for
Humanitarian Agencies. www.odi.org.uk/ALNAP/publications/protection/alnap_
protection_guide.pdf
The Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 and 1967.
www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id=3b66c
2aa10
UN-HABITAT, SUDP, Bosasso- Guidelines for the Planning and Upgrading of IDP
Settlements (1 & 2)
UNHCR, 2006, ”Looking to the Future”, chapter 8, The State of the World’s Refugees:
Displacement in the New Millennium. www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/4444afcf0.pdf
Protection activities in a camp should ensure that refugees and IDPs enjoy,
without discrimination:
• physical security – protection against physical harm
• legal security – including access to justice, a legal status and documentation
to prove it and respect for property rights
• material security – equal access to basic goods and services.
States have an obligation to respect, protect and fulfil the rights of everyone
who is within their jurisdiction, including non-citizens, in accordance with appli-
cable national and international law. For the protection of camp residents to be
achieved, refugees and IDPs should be treated in accordance with standards in
international human rights and refugee law as well as international humanitar-
ian law. In order to ensure protection, the Camp Management Agency should
be aware of the rights to which camp residents are entitled and which may be
at risk due to the camp setting, the circumstances of displacement, or the way
assistance programmes are implemented.
Rights
While human rights are universal and inalienable, indivisible, interdependent and
interrelated, the following rights may be particularly relevant within a camp set-
ting. Some of these rights apply to all persons, whereas others relate to specific
groups (e.g. children or refugees):
Protection Risks
Typical protection risks arising in a camp setting include, amongst others:
• attacks on civilians by parties to the conflict
• presence of armed elements in the camp
• child recruitment
• gender-based violence (GBV)
• abuse, neglect and exploitation of children
• risk deriving from family separation, particularly for children, the oldest or
other community members who rely on family support for their survival
• presence of landmines around the camp
• common crime
• inadequate law enforcement
• conflicts within the camp population and with host communities.
key issues
Refugees
A refugee is any person who is outside his or her country of nationality, or if
stateless, outside his or her country of habitual residence, and is unable to
return there owing to:
a well-founded fear of persecution for reasons of race, religion, nationality,
membership in a particular social group or political opinion, serious and indis-
criminate threats to life, physical integrity or freedom resulting from generalised
violence or events seriously disturbing public order.
Why is there no need for a separate IDP status? The IDP definition
is a descriptive definition rather than a legal definition. It simply
describes the factual situation of a person being uprooted within
his/her country of habitual residence. It does not confer a special
legal status in the same way that recognition as a refugee does. This
is not necessary for IDPs because, unlike refugees who require being
formally recognised as such by the country of asylum or UNHCR under
its mandate, IDPs remain entitled to all the rights and guarantees as
citizens and other habitual residents of a particular State. In some
countries, national law may have introduced a legal status.
Stateless Persons
Stateless persons are those who are not considered to be nationals of any State.
In many circumstances, stateless persons have no legal status in the country
in which they are habitually resident and are without effective national protec-
tion. Although entitled to a legal status under the 1954 Convention Relating to
the Status of Stateless Persons, this Convention has not been ratified by a large
number of States.
In situations of displacement, stateless persons may become even more vulner-
able. If persons among the IDP population are stateless, they may face discrimi-
nation when it comes to accessing rights generally available to nationals; e.g.,
registration of their children at birth or access to other forms of documentation.
Stateless persons may also be among the refugee population. If they meet
the definition of refugee as noted above, they are also entitled to refugee status
and the same rights such status carries with it.
protection by whom?
Host governments are responsible for protecting and promoting the rights of
all persons staying on their territory. Sometimes they are unable to fulfil these
obligations as they lack capacity or resources. There may also be cases where
the national authorities are unwilling to respect, protect and fulfil the rights of
certain groups of persons.
The international community has mandated a number of organisations to
support governments to fulfil their obligations. These agencies have a specific
expertise in protection. The four main mandated protection agencies that the
Camp Management Agency may encounter in the field are:
• The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
• The United Nations Children’s’ Fund (UNICEF)
• The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights
(OHCHR)
• The International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).
Protection of IDPs
Providing protection and assistance to IDPs is first and foremost
the responsibility of the State and its institutions. The international
community has, however, an important supporting role to play. The
scale of crises and the scope of human suffering call for a wide-rang-
ing humanitarian response that lies beyond the mandate or capacity
of any single agency or organisation. A joint, or collaborative, effort
by a range of human rights, humanitarian, developmental, political
and other actors is required, which needs coordination.
As part of the recently launched humanitarian reform process,
the cluster approach was introduced as a mechanism to enhance
predictability and accountability in the protection of IDPs. A cluster
is essentially a sector group. Eleven global clusters have been set
up, including a protection cluster. At a global (headquarters) level
the protection cluster is led by UNHCR. Within the protection cluster,
uu
uu For more information on the Cluster Approach see chapter 1 and appendix 2.
Although each context will be different, the agencies with particular areas of
expertise are:
• refugee protection
• profiling and/or registration
• camp coordination
• community mobilisation and empowerment activities
• measures to prevent and respond to specific protection
risks, including gender-based violence, forced displace-
ment or forced return, lack of documentation and
HIV/AIDS.
UNHCR • provision of emergency assistance to address urgent
United Nations protection needs
HighCommissioner • emergency and transitional shelter
for Refugees • protection/returnee monitoring and reporting
www.unhcr.org
• technical advice on the development of national
policies, strategies and legislative reform relating to
displacement
• training and capacity-building of national authorities,
civil society, displaced communities, and humanitarian
workers on protection standards and issues
• advocating for durable solutions for refugees and IDPs
and providing support in implementing them
• advocacy on protection
• inter-agency coordination of protection-related activi-
ties, including assessments, strategy development,
project implementation, monitoring, and evaluation.
uu For more information on groups with specific needs see chapters 10 and 11.
uu For more information on equitable distributions of food and non-food items,
see chapter 13.
uu For more information on participation of the camp population see chapter 3.
Being able to prove a death in the family can be crucial for inheritance
and compensation. In some countries, during or following civil wars or
disasters (such as the South Asian tsunami), compensation is payable for
lost loved-ones. Sadly, it is often the case that when people die during
flight it is not possible to register the death. Procedures for death regis-
tration are often very strict, requiring a post-mortem and/or an inquiry
and registration at the place of death. In civil war in particular this can
be very problematic, especially if people are missing and their death
is not confirmed. It’s important to remember also that in some cultures
a death certificate is not just a piece of paper – it can be an important
step in the grieving process and a pre-requisite for re-marriage.
uu For an example of how to report a protection incident, see the Tools section of
this chapter.
uu
Curtailment may mean that residents cannot leave the camp or are
limited to a certain radius around the camp. They can also mean that
only a certain number of residents are permitted to leave the camp at
any given period and can do so only after having obtained a pass from
the local authorities, often from the national police present in the camp
who control entry to and exit from the camp. If camp residents violate
the encampment policy, they may be subject to fines, arrest, detention
and in case of refugees, possibly, refoulement (forcible return to their
country of origin).
Certain severe restrictions on freedom of movement may amount
to detention. Detention is confinement within a narrowly bounded or
restricted location, including prisons, closed camps, detention facilities
or airport transit zones, where freedom of movement is substantially
curtailed and where the only opportunity to leave this limited area is to
leave the territory. Everyone, regardless of legal status, has the right to
be protected against arbitrary or unlawful detention. This means that
while the prohibition against detention is not absolute, a State must
ensure, for the detention to be consistent with international standards,
that certain requirements are met, including that it is based on law, it
is not arbitrary (that is, it must be reasonable and necessary in all the
circumstances), it is subject to periodic review and the person detained
must have the right to challenge his or her detention in a court of law.
In a number of camp situations, national authorities have placed
general restrictions on the freedom of movement of residents, justify-
ing this to protect public order, national security and/or the security
of the camp population. In different situations, the authorities have
uu
o Camp staff are trained in and have an awareness of key national and inter-
national legal instruments and know what protection entails.
o Camp staff are aware of the mandates of protection actors working in the
camp.
o The Camp Management Agency supports the Protection Lead and mandated
agencies in advocating for the rights of the displaced to be upheld, including
access to justice and law enforcement mechanisms in the camp.
o Monitoring tools and systems are agreed upon and in place to enable the
Camp Management Agency to monitor and record the provision of assist-
ance, services and security in the camp.
o Participatory assessment techniques are used to find out about the com-
munity’s protection concerns, including the different needs and concerns
of women and men, boys and girls of all ages.
o Camp Management Agency staff have all understood and signed an agency
code of conduct.
o The Camp Management Agency is aware of protection risks that may result
from freedom of movement restrictions.
• UNHCR 2006, The UNHCR Tool for Participatory Assessment in Operations. www.
humanitarianreform.org/humanitarianreform/Portals/1/cluster%20approach%20
page/clusters%20pages/Em%20Shelter/Tollkit%20Field/7.2%20Assessment7.2.2
%20Guidelines/7.2.2.8%20UNHCR%20Participatory%20Assessment%20Tool.pdf
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment.
or Punishment. www.unhchr.ch/html/menu3/b/h_cat39.htm
IFRC, 1994. The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief.
www.icrc.org/web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/57JMNB
Inter Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2002. Growing the Sheltering Tree;
Protecting Rights through Humanitarian Action, Programmes and Practices
Gathered from the Field. www.icva.ch/gstree.pdf
Gil Loescher. ‘‘UNHCR and the Erosion of Protection’’. Forced Migration Review.
www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR10/fmr10.10.pdf
OCHA. An Easy Reference to International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Law.
www.reliefweb.int/OCHA_ol/pub/Easy%20Referencs%20to%20IHL%20and%20HR.htm
Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR).
Working with OHCHR. A Handbook for NGOs.
www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/NGOHandbooken.pdf
Hugo Slim and Andrew Bonwick, 2005. Protection – The ALNAP Guide for
Humanitarian Agencies.
www.odi.org.uk/ALNAP/publications/protection/alnap_protection_guide.pdf
The Brookings Institution, 1999. Handbook for Applying the Guiding Principles on
Internal Displacement. www.the-ecentre.net/resources/e_library/doc/HanbookIDP.pdf
The Convention and Protocol Relating to the Status of Refugees, 1951 and 1967. www.
unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id=3b66c2aa10
UNDP, 2005 Programming for Justice: Access for All. A Practitioner’s Guide to a
Human Rights Based Approach to Justice. www.undp.org/governance/docs/Justice_
Guides_ProgrammingForJustice-AccessForAll.pdf
Gavin David White, 2006. A Failure of Protection. Refugee Camps and the
Proliferation of Conflict. www.gavindavidwhite.com/Refugee%20Camps%20and%2
0the%20Proliferation%20of%20Conflict.pdf
u Registration and profiling data provides the basis for planning programmes
and ensuring the provision of assistance and services in a camp or camp-like
setting.
u The role of the Camp Management Agency is to coordinate with and support
key registration and profiling partners. Knowledge of the relevant obliga-
tions, mandates and roles is important.
registration
Registration is a systematic method of collecting and recording data to ensure
that the person can be identified in the future. It may include information about
individuals or families, such as their names, dates of birth or gender. This infor-
mation is collected for a specific purpose, whether to ensure assistance delivery,
individual follow-up or protection intervention. A secondary use of registration
data is for profiling – where collected registration information is aggregated
to understand the characteristics of the registered population. The purpose of
registration – and specifically how the information is to be used – determines
the information fields that need to be collected in any registration exercise.
Effective registration and profiling therefore involves first defining the objec-
tive of the exercise and then setting up the methodology to carry it out effectively.
It is essential that the objective of the exercise and the concrete expected out-
come are clear to all parties involved. The methodology should clearly address
the issue of who is responsible for what and standard operating procedures
should be written up.
Registration also assists in identifying groups at risk and their specific needs.
Specific protection programmes such as tracing, legal representation and fam-
ily reunification can only be adequately implemented if reliable and up-to-date
data are available. Once registration is conducted, it needs to be a continu-
ous process that records and updates essential information as it changes over
time, such as births, deaths, marriage, divorce, new arrivals and departures.
Depending on the context, the Camp Management Agency is often involved in
procedures for the continuous update of registration data in a camp to ensure
its ongoing relevance.
Registration and documentation of displaced persons is the responsibility of
the government. However, UN agencies, NGOs and Camp Management Agencies
invariably play an operational role in the planning, gathering and utilisation of
data, depending on their mandate or their role.
While the basic definition of registration is the same, different spheres of
law regulate these obligations with respect to refugees and asylum seekers on
the one hand, and internally displaced persons on the other.
uu For more information on the IDP Guiding Principles, see the Reading and Refer-
ences section at the end of this chapter.
profiling
Profiling is a method of collecting the characteristics of the population in an
aggregated manner which can be generalised to the entire population. The
objective of profiling is primarily to obtain baseline information and subsequent
overview of the population to allow, for example, for better targeting of assist-
ance or understanding of the dynamics among the communities. As indicated
above, registration data can be a basis for obtaining a profile of a population.
However, if the objective is to obtain the general characteristics of the popula-
tion only, there are many other methods that can be used: both quantitative
methods – such as estimation or surveys – and qualitative methods – such
as key informant interviews or participatory assessment. These methods are
outlined and described below.
Refugee Profiling
This is often done based on the registration data if the overall registration data
exists. However, other profiling methods are also used, depending on the par-
ticular situation or in order to obtain a more in-depth analysis of the dynamics
within the refugee population.
IDP Profiling
IDP profiling has been defined through inter-agency agreement. The Global Pro-
tection Cluster has endorsed Guidance on Profiling Internally Displaced Persons,
which indicates “the collaborative process of identifying internally displaced
The methods for profiling range from desk review, estimation, surveys, registra-
tion and focus group discussions to key informant interviews.
key issues
Refugee Profiling
As indicated above, profiling occurs using the existing registration data in many
cases. However, this does not exclude other profiling methods to be used in the
camp setting by the Camp Management Agency, as well as those providing
protection, assistance and other services to better understand the population.
Age, gender and diversity-sensitive participatory assessment may be one of the
ways to gather additional and in-depth information on a particular subset of the
population. However, any additional profiling exercise should be coordinated
carefully and in advance with the government/UNHCR – as well as all partners
involved in the camp – in order to reduce overlaps and maximise the exercise
result for the various agencies.
IDP Registration
In contexts where the ‘cluster approach’ has been activated, and as outlined
in chapter 1 of this Toolkit, there are three levels related to Camp Coordination
and Camp Management (CCCM):
i. registration
Registration can be conducted either at the family/household or individual level.
Normally there is a phased approach, with family/household-level registration
taking place initially, followed by individual registration, if necessary. In some
situations, due to the requirement of the operation or the objective of the exer-
cise, individual registration may take place directly without a family/household
registration taking place.
If family/household registration is to take place first, it needs to be ensured
that those with specific needs are registered individually from the beginning so
the proper follow-up can be conducted – for example, separated or unaccom-
panied minors within a family.
Phase 1: Preparation
This phase includes:
• setting up coordination mechanisms
• consolidating existing baseline information
• training of staff
• setting up logistics
• conducting information campaigns.
Phase 3: Registration
This phase includes:
• registration of the family or individual
• the provision of documentation.
Each of these phases in the registration process is described in more detail below.
Coordination
Registration can be costly – both in terms of material and human resources
– and requires tremendous logistical preparations. National authorities and
Sector/Cluster Lead Agencies – UNHCR as Camp Coordination Agency for refu-
gee matters as well as IDPs in complex emergencies and IOM as the Camp
Coordination Agency for IDPs in natural disaster settings – should at all times
have overall managerial responsibility, be responsible for the master lists and
the storage and safe-keeping of data. Service providers present in the camp
should be encouraged to participate directly in the registration process and/or
facilitate the process by making available personnel and necessary facilities
such as latrines, water points and registration booths.
Participation
The government authorities and Sector/Cluster Lead Agency should ensure that
the objective for the exercise is clear and obtain input from other agencies work-
ing in the camp. Different stakeholders each have their particular interests in
registration and the collection of data. For example, service-providers may need
lists for supplementary feeding programmes, immunisation and distribution of
non-food items (NFIs). Multiple registrations should be avoided, as registration
exercises restrict people’s movement, interrupt ongoing economic activities and
cause anxiety among people fearful of being passed over.
Displaced populations should be involved in the registration process as much
as possible and from the very beginning. Displaced women and men should take
part in designing the registration process, disseminating public information to
fellow camp residents and monitoring access to registration. It is especially im-
portant that women take part in decision-making regarding responses to security
risks pertaining to women and girls during any registration process. Planning
Information to Collect
Information collection is time consuming, and it is essential to remember that
the more information one collects, the more time is required. Time is always
scarce in the earliest stages of an emergency. For the initial registration during
emergencies, it is therefore often recommended to plan for a rapid household
registration to ensure that food and essential services provision can start for
the displaced population as soon as possible.
Camp Address
The Camp Management Agency has the responsibility to establish an address
system in camps. Displaced people have the same right to an address as eve-
ryone else. An address makes it possible for the displaced to communicate and
for others to communicate with the displaced. Further, it is necessary to be
able to ensure appropriate protection and assistance, as well as follow-up on
specific needs. By having a proper camp address system, the process of fixing,
registration and verification become easier to manage.
Registration Fraud
As registration normally provides access to entitlements, it will be prone to at-
tempts of fraud. For example, fake camp registration cards or entitlement cards
might be produced and start to circulate. People might borrow family members
from the host community or neighbours to inflate their household size. The Camp
Management Agency should develop consistent routines for updating records
and replacing lost or damaged camp registration cards and entitlement cards.
People may try to register under false names, making cross-checking with other
lists futile. Well-organised fixing is key for the success of all registrations. On-
going information campaigns and welcome centres for new arrivals might help
limit fraud or illegal transfer of cards.
Safety Considerations
Safety of staff as well as of the displaced community needs to be considered in
every step of the process. It is important to prepare contingency plans for ef-
ficient crowd control and to provide clear instructions to all participants in the
registration exercise on how to deal with aggressive crowds or agitated persons.
Proper information sharing prior to any exercise is crucial to avoid confusion
and potentially disruptive crowds. Equally important is the availability of suf-
ficient services. Insufficient drinking water, lack of shade or shelter from rain
Verification Activities
Finding out why people do not show up for food distribution should
be part of verification activities, and is an important protection ac-
tivity.
New Arrivals
New arrivals in the camp should go through a similar process of registration.
They should be issued documentation by the competent authority/agencies
as indicated above. New arrivals should be cross-checked for records at other
camps or at any other distribution point by camp management staff. This can
easily be done if a database has been set up. It is essential to establish an agreed
procedure with all agencies on how to deal with “spontaneous arrivals” that
arrive directly in the camp. The procedure should also be known to the camp
residents, so that when their friends and relatives arrive, they can inform them
of the proper procedures to get registered.
Deregistration
Persons who permanently leave the camp or are deceased no longer have en-
titlements to assistance and should be deregistered. In practice, families rarely
report departure or death as they hope to continue to receive assistance with
Desk Review
Desk review is a useful first step. It aims to obtain a view on what information
is available, sufficient, outdated or simply non-existent. It also shows where
the main information gaps lie and where to prioritise more data gathering. It
should review both locally and internationally available information to the extent
possible.
Quantitative Methods
In most cases, these methods either collect data on the whole population or part
of the population in a way that the results can be extrapolated to generalise
about the whole population.
2. Flow Monitoring
People are counted while passing a given point – such as a cross-
roads, bridge, ford or mountain pass – either throughout the move-
ment (comprehensive) or with enumerators returning to the same
spot at certain times of the day or week (spot). Useful for estimating
numbers during a mass movement of people, such as during an
exodus from a given area or a return movement.
3. Dwelling Count
Counts the entire number of huts in a given area to obtain an esti-
mated overall number of the people in that area. Can be combined
with a survey to obtain additional information on the residents.
4. Head Count
Counts the entire number of people living in a given area. More
labour-intensive in comparison to dwelling count.
Registration
Profiles can be extracted from existing registration data. Once registra-
tion data is entered electronically, analysis can be conducted.
Population Census
Usually conducted by national governments in intervals of ten years. It
covers the entire population of a country and besides individual data, a
set of relevant socio-economic information is gathered for every house-
hold. For IDP situations, the profile of the population may be available
in the national census information.
Qualitative Methods
Qualitative methods differ from quantitative methods in that their final outcome
may not necessarily be expressed only in numbers, and their way of data-gather-
ing does not need to adhere to statistical concepts. They complement the quantita-
tive methods and are useful for the triangulation and interpretation of results.
o The camp population participate in and are involved in the planning, imple-
mentation, monitoring and evaluation of the registration/profiling process.
o Attention has been paid to the access of women and girls to the registration
process, ensuring their safety, perception of safety and identifying possible
solutions to their safety challenges.
o Temporary staff from the camp and host community, including females, are
trained and sign a code of conduct prior to employment.
o The registration has been timed to ensure that it does not clash with other
significant activities.
o Existing baseline information has been collected and consolidated from local
authorities, WFP and camp and community leaders, and, where necessary,
estimates have been made.
o Clear and systematic public information campaigns are run prior to registra-
tion/profiling exercises.
o Data is stored safely and securely with due regard for confidentiality and
with clear agreements on the sharing of data.
o Ways to manage and encourage deregistration when people leave the camp
or are deceased have been planned.
Judy El-Bushra and Kelly Fish. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons
www.huntalternatives.org/download/40_refugees.pdf
Global Protection Cluster Working Group, 2007. Handbook for the Protection of
Internally Displaced Persons. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?pag
e=search&docid=4790cbc02
John Telford, ODI, 1997. Good Practice Review. Counting and identification of
beneficiary populations in emergency operations: registration and its alternatives.
http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/LGEL-5NULUQ/$FILE/rrn-count-sep97.
pdf?OpenElement
UNHCR/WFP, 2004. Joint Assessment Guidelines (with Tools and Resource Materials).
http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/ena/wfp038210.pdf
WFP, European Commission, DAN, 2006. Desk Review: Estimating Population Size
in Emergencies. www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/JBRN-72BDLB/$FILE/wfp-
coordination-Dec06.pdf?OpenElement
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 311
key messages
u Camp management staff should make frequent and regular (preferably mul-
tiple times during the day) monitoring visits to distribution points, security
check points, water and sanitation facilities, service institutions and other
high-risk areas. Their findings should be shared with the relevant protection
partners and humanitarian organisations.
312 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
introduction
uu For wider understanding of what constitutes GBV, see the Inter-Agency Standing
Committee’s “Guidelines for Gender-based Violence Interventions in Emergency
Settings”.
The nature and extent of specific types of GBV vary across cultures, countries
and regions. Examples include:
• sexual violence, including sexual exploitation/abuse and forced prostitution
• domestic violence
• trafficking
• forced/early marriage
• rape
• harmful traditional practices such as female genital mutilation, honour
killings, burning of brides for dowry or other family disputes and widow
inheritance.
While gender-based violence is usually targeted at women and girls, boys and
men may also be survivors of GBV. GBV can occur within the family or community,
and is perpetrated by persons in positions of power, including at times by police,
guards, armed forces, armed groups and UN peace-keepers. It can take place in,
or be condoned by, families, communities and institutions – including schools,
detention centres and religious facilities. Recent experiences have unfortunately
demonstrated that gender-based violence against refugees and IDPs can also
be committed by humanitarian aid workers.
uu See the Code of Conduct for The International Red Cross and Red Crescent Move-
ment and NGOs.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 313
Acts of GBV violate a number of universal human rights protected
by international instruments and conventions. Many – but not all
– forms of GBV are illegal, and are considered criminal acts under
national laws.
314 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
setting such as a camp is difficult, especially if the emergency interven-
tion prioritises meeting basic human needs for food, water and shelter
but has little awareness of gender relations and issues and how they
are understood by the displaced community’.
key issues
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 315
When communities flee they bring with them their customs and
traditions. Among these are harmful traditional practices, such as
female genital mutilation (FGM). While sometimes viewed as cultural
traditions that should be respected, these harmful practices are seri-
ous human rights violations.
Certain categories of women and girls are particularly at risk of GBV, such as
those who are single heads of households and/or without family support. Girls
at heightened risk often include unaccompanied girls, girls in foster families,
girls in detention, girls associated with armed forces or groups, mentally and
physically disabled girls, child mothers and children born out of rape.
316 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
not willing or able to look after their children and perform domestic du-
ties. As a result, the burden fell on surviving female relatives, including
elderly women and female children who were in some cases kept out
of school to carry out the domestic duties that their mothers had per-
formed. Many women felt overburdened as they had their own family
responsibilities in addition to new extended family obligations. Women
also complained that men were not willing to remain unmarried for
long and because so many women had died, forced and early marriage
increased dramatically.
Perpetrators are sometimes the very people upon whom the survivors depend to
assist and protect them, including police, government officials, and humanitarian
workers and peacekeepers. All staff members and persons working on behalf of
the camp residents should be trained on and sign codes of conduct. The Bulletin
issued by the UN Secretary-General in 2003 (Special measures for protection
from sexual exploitation and sexual abuse) applies to all UN staff including UN
peacekeeping forces conducting operations under UN command and control,
as well as NGOs under contract to the UN.
Experience in several camps has demonstrated that certain measures have
allowed the displaced populations to become more adept at safely and appropri-
ately identifying perpetrators and has minimised acts of GBV committed by the
police. These include: mandatory training for police officers on GBV and sexual
exploitation issues, mandatory wearing of name tags for easy identification
and establishment of a photo registry of all police officers. The engagement of
female officers has enhanced police effectiveness on issues related to gender-
based violence.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 317
role of a camp management agency
To prevent and respond to GBV from the earliest stages of an emergency, a mini-
mum set of coordinated activities must be undertaken quickly and in collabora-
tion with all partners (women’s groups and organisations, NGOs, government,
UN agencies and the displaced and host community).
Within the camp setting, the Camp Management Agency has roles and respon-
sibilities in both the prevention of GBV and GBV response interventions. Key
activities for the Camp Management Agency related to both of these are:
318 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
• raising community awareness
• protection systems
• ethics.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 319
• ensure sufficient space and privacy (including, when possible, door locks)
is allocated, especially for female-headed households
• design communal shelters with sufficient space and adequate material for
partitions between families
• check that the solution provided is the right one in the cultural context,
considering that in certain contexts it will not be culturally acceptable to
place single or widowed women together on their own
• monitor the security and well-being of such groups regularly
• make arrangements for appropriate alternative sources such as solar energy
for lighting in communal areas (especially latrines and showers) and for
individual use (e.g. torches for families)
• plan location and design of shelter areas to promote community spirit and
reinforce community-based protection, while preserving privacy, safety and
security of individuals and the family unit
• ensure that women and minority group community members are provided
opportunities to meaningfully participate in decision-making processes
concerning location of services and shelter design
• ensure areas children use are safe and can be monitored by
the community
• introduce alternative fuel arrangements based on the community’s assess-
ment of the best alternatives: this must be a priority prevention action
• in consultation with women, and if appropriate, provide for women’s centres
to enable safe meeting spaces for different activities including provision of
health, psychosocial and legal services in response to GBV.
320 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
• promote food security and livelihood strategies, particularly targeting single
women-headed households, young widows, older women and men, and
others who are most at risk of abuse, exploitation and rejection
• conduct life skills and vocational training for adolescent girls and boys and
provide work placement services so that they are better equipped to support
their families with additional incomes.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 321
Choice of the best facilitators to use for awareness-raising
projects is very context specific. In some cases it may be better to
use a member of the local community, in other situations a member
of international staff may be preferred by the community. The gender
of the facilitator should also be taken into account.
Protection Systems
• cooperate with responsible protection organisations in the establishment of a
coordinated, confidential, and appropriate referral and reporting mechanism
for survivors of GBV in the camp
• provide health, psychosocial, legal and material support
• promote and/or assist in the establishment of a network of community-based
support, ensuring that they are properly trained
• promote the training and mobilisation of men’s groups for gender equality
and the prevention of GBV
• ensure that survivors provide their informed consent before any redress
measures are taken
• ensure that in all cases survivors are permitted to make informed deci-
sions.
322 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
Operation-specific Standard Operating Procedures should regu-
late how to deal with the consent issue in the case of a child survivor.
In some countries there may be a formal obligation to report to the
authorities. Normally, the informed consent of the parents or guard-
ian should be sought, unless the risk emanates from them. In such
situations, the case should be referred to the relevant national child
protection authorities and, if these are not available, a best interests
determination (BID) should be undertaken by the lead agency in
child protection.
Ethics
• provide information to the camp community on the conduct expected from
humanitarian personnel
• explain to the camp community the procedures for reporting complaints
involving humanitarian workers, peacekeepers and/or security personnel
• assess knowledge and skills on prevention and response to GBV among
agency staff and arrange for training/briefing sessions, as appropriate
• ensure that all staff are trained on, familiar with, and sign applicable codes
of conduct
• employ and train committed female staff and promote the employment of
female staff by other actors
• ensure all staff working in the camp are clearly identified; names and func-
tions should be provided in writing to the community so that follow up can
be provided in the case of complaints
• ensure that Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs) minimise the number
of times the survivor is asked to tell his/her story or interviewed, and that
he/she is aware of his/her rights regarding interviews by visitors, including
the media.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 323
Response to Gender-Based Violence
Camp residents who have experienced gender-based violence often approach the
Camp Management Agency as a first responder. Its staff need to be prepared to
handle such incidents in a manner that prioritises confidentiality, respect, sensitiv-
ity and the dignity of the survivor. Suggested actions covering the four response
areas (health, psychosocial, safety, and legal response) are listed below.
Referral Systems
• ensure that staff receive appropriate training on responding to the needs of
survivors, including interview techniques and comprehensive knowledge of
referral mechanisms and options available to them
• agree, with appropriate protection agencies and NGO partners, on incident-
reporting mechanisms and referral systems (when possible and relevant),
which pay due regard to confidentiality (including data protection require-
ments), respect, sensitivity and the dignity of the survivor
• ensure partners collectively agree which information is absolutely necessary,
the manner in which it can be collected so that minimal harm is done to the
survivor, what information needs to be shared and in what capacity, which
(if any) individuals and organisations need to be informed of the incident
and what measures are in place to protect the survivor, the information, and
those responding
• ensure that non-identifying information about the incident should be ap-
propriately shared with relevant protection agencies.
Safety/Security
• prioritise the safety of the survivor, his/her family and agency staff at all
times
• respect the wishes, rights and dignity of the survivor, while always consider-
ing the needs and safety of the community as a whole
• ensure that children are always interviewed by those trained in age-sensitive
interviewing and counseling techniques
• ensure that child survivors are not subjected to unnecessary multiple inter-
views
• when necessary, make arrangements to relocate a survivor to a safe area
and provide discreet individual security provision, follow-up support and
monitoring
• whenever possible, ensure that any perpetrator from within the community
is removed.
324 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
Health
• advocate for health services in the camp to be equipped to respond to sur-
vivors of gender-based violence when possible, particularly ensuring avail-
ability and delivery of:
o emergency contraception
o post-exposure prophylaxis (in response to HIV exposure)
o STI treatment
o hepatitis and tetanus vaccination
• establish referral systems that ensure a rapid medical response and care of
GBV survivors.
Psychosocial
• advocate for clear and timely referral systems for affected persons to receive
psychosocial support
• ensure that community-driven psychosocial support mechanisms are not
detrimental to the rights of the survivors.
Legal
• refer survivors who wish to seek legal redress to the responsible protection
agency(ies).
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 325
checklist for a camp management agency
o The Camp Management Agency staff are trained in issues of GBV and ap-
propriate prevention response and referral systems.
o Camp residents exposed to GBV before arrival in the camp receive appropri-
ate care and treatment.
o The culture of the displaced community – including gender and power re-
lations, traditional roles, and any harmful traditional practices – informs
prevention of and response to GBV.
o Groups and individuals especially at risk of GBV are identified and the Camp
Management Agency works in close cooperation with protection actors.
o Staff members and all those working on behalf of the camp residents have
been trained on, and signed, codes of conduct.
o Safe and confidential reporting mechanisms are in place and the community
are informed about how to use them.
326 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
o Monitoring of high-risk areas in the camp is prioritised by the Camp Man-
agement Agency and is consistent and regular.
o Women are involved in decisions which effect the daily management of the
camp and the delivery of assistance and services and help to minimise the
risk of GBV.
o The Camp Management Agency works closely with programmes that promote
skills and vocational training to reduce vulnerability.
o The safety, security and dignity of those affected by GBV is prioritised at all
times.
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 327
tools
328 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
Amnesty International, 2005. Stop Violence Against Women. How to Use
International Criminal Law to Campaign for Gender-sensitive Law Reform. www.
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Judy El-Bushra and Kelly Fish. Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons.
www.huntalternatives.org/download/40_refugees.pdf
Coordination Committee for the prevention of Sexual Exploitations and Abuse
(CCSEA), 2003. Understanding Humanitarian Aid Worker Responsibilities: Sexual
Exploitation and Abuse Prevention.
http://ochaonline.un.org/OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&docId=1061909
Tamara Fetters, 2006. “Abortion care needs in Darfur and Chad”, Forced
Migration Review. www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR25/FMR2527.pdf
Forced Migration Review, 2007. Sexual violence: weapon of war, impediment
to peace. www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR27/full.pdf
Gender and Water Alliance, 2006. Mainstreaming Gender in Water Management.
www.genderandwater.org/content/download/4545/37857/file/Gender_%20and_
IWRM_ Resource_Guide_complete_200610.pdf
Global Protection Cluster Working Group, 2007. Handbook for the Protection of
Internally Displaced Persons. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?pag
e=search&docid=4790cbc02
ICRC, 1994. The Code of Conduct for the International Red Cross and Red Crescent
Movement and NGOs in Disaster Relief. www.ifrc.org/Docs/idrl/I259EN.pdf
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2005. Guidelines for Gender-based
Violence Interventions in Humanitarian Settings: Focusing on Prevention of and
Response to Sexual Violence in Emergencies. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/
refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=439474c74
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2006. Women, Girls, Boys and Men:
Different Needs – Equal Opportunities. www.who.int/hac/network/interagency/news
IASC_Gender_Handbook_Workshop_Final_Report.pdf
IRC, INEE, WCRWC. Ensuring a Gender Perspective in Education in Emergencies
www.womenscommission.org/pdf/EdGenderTool.pdf
OHCHR, Fact Sheet No. 23. Harmful Traditional Practices Affecting the Health
of Women and Children. www.unhchr.ch/html/menu6/2/fs23.htm
PLAN, 2008. “Because I Am a Girl’’. The State of the World’s Girls 2007.
www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/TBRL-73ARJL/$FILE/plan-becauseiamagirl-
may 2007.pdf?OpenElement
camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence 329
UNHCR. Gender-based Violence. Action Sheet No.4 (taken from the Handbook for
the Protection of Internally Displaced Persons).
www.unhcr.org/protect/PROTECTION/4794b3512.pdf
UNHCR,1991. Guidelines on the Protection of Refugee Women
www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/3d4f915e4.pdf
UNHCR, 1995. Sexual Violence Against Refugees: Guidelines on Prevention and
Response. www.icva.ch/doc00000837.html
UNHCR, Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children WCRWC), 2001.
Respect our Rights: Partnership for Equality, Report on the Dialogue with Refugee
Women. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/protect/opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id
=3bb44d908
UNHCR, 2001. Good Practices on Gender Equality Mainstreaming. A Practical Guide
to Empowerment. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&
docid=413476574
UNHCR, 2002. Gender Training Kit on Refugee Protection and Resource
Handbook. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain/opendocpdf.
pdf?docid=3f463b632
UNHCR, 2003. Sexual and Gender-based Violence against Refugees, Returnees
and Internally Displaced Persons: Guidelines for Prevention and Response
www.rhrc.org/pdf/gl_sgbv03_00.pdf
UNHCR, (forthcoming 2008). Handbook on the Protection of Women and Girls.
www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=protection_kit
UNICEF, 2005. Early Marriage. A Harmful Traditional Practice.
www.unicef.org/publications/files/Early_Marriage_12.lo.pdf
UN Secretariat, 2003. Secretary-General’s Bulletin: Special Measures for Protec-
tion from Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse.
http://ochaonline.un.org/OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&DocId=1001083
WFP, 2006. Getting Started: HIV, Aids and Gender in WFP Programmes.
www.wfp.org/food_aid/doc/GETTING_GENDER7.pdf
WHO, UNHCR, 2004. Clinical Management of Survivors of Rape: Developing Proto-
cols for Use with Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons.
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2004/924159263X.pdf
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (WCRWC), 2005.
Masculinities: Male Roles and Male Involvement in the Promotion of Gender Equality.
A Resource Packet. www.womenscommission.org/pdf/masc_res.pdf
330 camp management toolkit | chapter 10 – prevention of and response to gender-based violence
protection of
persons with
specific needs
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 331
key messages
u Within the camp population, certain groups of persons may have specific
needs. In order to provide assistance and protection in line with their needs,
it is important that all stakeholders are aware of what these needs are. Indi-
viduals, within or outside these groups, may be at heightened risk compared
to other camp residents.
332 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
introduction
Persons in these categories may have specific protection needs which must be
addressed. In many cases it is the family or the community that provides the
support that these individuals require. However, this is not always the case.
Where appropriate care is in place, capacities are often stretched and resources
limited. In the absence of family or community support, members of these groups
face heightened protection risks within the camp.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 333
Specific Needs in a Camp Setting
Persons with specific needs may be more vulnerable to deprivation,
harm, exploitation, abuse and violation than other people in a com-
munity. If the consequences of their vulnerability are not recognised
and addressed, it can have serious, sometimes life-threatening con-
sequences for their physical and/or psychological health, and can
have a significant impact on their well-being and ability to access
their basic human rights. Persons with specific needs may not have
access to appropriate communication channels to make their needs
known. Likewise they may be unable to speak out due to age, dis-
ability, stigma or fear. They may be unable to make their needs
known or voice a complaint when they do not have the assistance
and protection that they require.
In a situation of displacement, family and community networks
are stressed and often fragmented. People with specific needs may
not have the same level of care and support from the community in
a camp setting that they would otherwise enjoy. Likewise, in a camp
setting where fear, deprivation and tensions can lead to breakdowns
of cultural and ethical/social values, life can bring additional risks
of neglect, violence or abuse, against which the most vulnerable
members of the community must be protected.
The specific needs of individuals may change over time. It is therefore essential
that assessments are done to analyse not only the protection risks faced by certain
groups, but also by the individuals within the group. For example, a child in the care
of a foster family in the camp, may have different needs at the time of return or reset-
tlement. Or an older woman living with her daughter, would have different needs at
the time when her daughter marries and goes to live with her husband’s family.
334 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
It is essential that the Camp Management Agency ensures camp staff have the
training and competencies required to work towards the protection of, and up-
holding the rights of, all groups and individuals, not least the most vulnerable.
In particular, camp staff must be trained in and sign a code of conduct, which
provides specific guidelines on ethical conduct and the nature of their behaviour
with camp community members. It is particularly important that those staff
working with women and children, as well as other groups with specific needs,
are familiar with and adhere to a code of conduct.
key issues
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 335
ment, the disruption of family and community structures, as well as from the lack
of resources which normally accompany such situations. In a camp setting, refugee
or internally displaced children may be exposed to risks of violence, sexual abuse
and exploitation, forced recruitment or forced labour. They may be denied birth
registration and documentation or prevented from attending schools. School
environments may be unsafe and expose them to exploitation and abuse.
In many camp situations, organisations entrusted with child protection, such as
UNICEF, are present and implement programmes for children. Some child protection
activities, such as psychosocial support, tracing, family reunification, specialised
support to former child soldiers, or best-interests determination require particular
expertise and should be undertaken by specialised agencies – for example, the
International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) in the case of tracing.
The Camp Management Agency, however, also has a responsibility to ensure
that children are not exposed to protection threats in the camp and that specific
children at risk are identified, their needs assessed and that action is taken to
adapt or target assistance and programmes accordingly. Some of the actions
that a Camp Management Agency would need to take include:
• making sure that boys and girls go to school and have an opportunity to stay
in school and not drop out. Education is a right, and it is also a fundamental
protection tool. It helps both psychosocial and developmental needs and
provides children with skills and capacities to help them make better life
choices and protect themselves against exploitation and abuse. Going to
school can counter some of the effects of trauma following displacement,
and bring a much needed return to routine and normality. Activities to en-
sure a safe school environment and the participation of all refugee and
internally displaced children in the camp in educational activities should
be supported by the Camp Management Agency. Obstacles which prevent
certain refugee or internally displaced children (such as unaccompanied or
separated children, child-headed households, girls – including adolescent
girls) from accessing education should be assessed, with an aim of instituting
programmes and measures to overcome them. The monitoring of schools
and the support of a protective and positive learning environment should be
undertaken by the Camp Management Agency in close collaboration with
the service providers for education in the camp. In the absence of agencies
supporting education, the Camp Management Agency may be required to
play a more substantial role in the support of informal schooling and/or the
recruitment of voluntary teachers.
336 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
uu For more information see chapter 17.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 337
When dealing with the protection needs of children, the Camp Management
Agency should be guided by the principle of the best interests of the child. This
means that the best interests of the child should be pursued continuously as the
primary objective in any decisions or actions taken affecting children. It should
permeate all child protection and care issues. While formal best interests deter-
minations (BID) may need to be taken in certain situations, this would normally
be done within the national child protection system, or, if necessary, by the
protection agencies operating in the camp or on behalf of its residents. While
the Camp Management Agency would not be involved in formal BID procedures,
it will have a role in identifying and monitoring the needs of children for whom
such procedures are necessary. Involving the child in decision making through
consultation and participation is central to best practice.
338 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
of their parents however, girls and young women were especially at
risk. The elders committee told us that often grandparents were left in
charge of the younger generation and that they were unable to provide
adequately for them. Displacement had caused the social fabric and the
ethical framework of the community to degenerate. Incidents of violence
and abuse were common. Young men from within the camp community
would rape and defile girls left alone. This pattern of abuse, they told
us, was leading to conflict and to forced marriages. Parents of girls and
young women were faced with an impossible choice between rebuilding
their lives through the use of the transitional sites or remaining in the
camp for the protection of their daughters. Conversations with older
people in the camp clearly indicated that community based solutions
for the adequate protection of girls, and for the support of grandparents
need to be found.”
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 339
Being without their primary care structure (normally their parents), unaccom-
panied and separated boys and girls can face an increased risk of protection
problems. Guided by the 2004 Inter-agency Guiding Principles on Unaccompanied
and Separated Children, the Camp Management Agency should:
• Prevent further child separation by initiating information and awareness ses-
sions for all camp residents on the risks of separation during relocation or
repatriation/return, or by certain activities which children may be asked to do
outside the camp (i.e. collecting firewood). Residents should also be involved
in identifying and implementing measures which can be taken to prevent sepa-
ration or abductions from occurring, (e.g. monitoring, awareness raising), as
well as developing response systems within the camp whereby children would
know where to go and what to do if separated from their family.
• Ensure that such children are promptly identified, registered and documented.
This should also include mechanisms to identify children who become unac-
companied or separated in the camp (for instance due to death or departure
of parents).
• Develop clear selection criteria for foster families and initiate training pro-
grammes for those chosen to foster children. It is also recommended to
formalise the foster care arrangement through the signing of documentation.
Unaccompanied or separated children may also be in households headed
by an older sibling. This may, in certain cases, be the most suitable care
340 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
arrangement for the family. Such households may, however, face heightened
risks of discrimination, exploitation or abuse. Older children who have the
responsibility to look after younger siblings may be unable to access edu-
cational or other activities.
• Ensure psychosocial care is provided, given the harmful effects that separa-
tion can have on a child’s psychological well-being. The role of the Camp
Management Agency is to promote the establishment of such specialised
services in the camp.
• Avoid singling out those who were formerly associated with armed forces
or groups for special activities, as this may ostracise them. Ensure that
programmes are inclusive and address the needs of all children affected
by armed conflict. These programmes should be open to and benefit all
children in the camp. Isolating particular groups of children for special treat-
ment may impede their integration into the community or may be seen as
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 341
rewarding those who were recruited. This is especially the case for girls who
were associated with armed forces or armed groups and their children, as
actions and activities which identity them as such may increase the stigma
attached to their involvement and worsen their situation. There may be a
need to proactively look out for these girls.
342 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
out of school and unemployed adolescents and youth
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 343
A youth committee comprised of either or both camp and host
community youth is often one of the most challenging committees to
initiate, especially if the youth committees are not centred on sports
teams and events. For inclusive participation reasons, focusing youth
activities and committee start-up solely on sports can be somewhat
problematic. Often sports initiatives are not fully embraced by the
female youth population in the camp (and female youth from nearby
host communities are often not granted permission by family mem-
bers to travel into the camp to attend collective sports events with
other youth, most notably male youth). Focus on sport can further
marginalise vulnerable and differently-abled young people without
intending to.
344 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
Youth committees may require a different structure to other camp
committees. It is suggested that youth committees have ‘double’
roles (two co-chairs, two note-takers, two treasurers, etc.) as well as
members who attend meetings regularly. This is because inevitably
some youth will lose interest and/or will drop out due to disinterest
or other duties (such as care of family members, livelihoods and/or
educational opportunities). If the youth committee ‘doubles’ all as-
pects of structure then it is likely that the committee will stay intact
and functioning even when membership ebbs and flows.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 345
Women and girls who were associated with armed forces or groups may also face
heightened protection risks, including risk of re-recruitment or abduction, risk of
discrimination or abuse, including sexual abuse and exploitation. They may also
have psychosocial needs due to their experiences. Their opportunities for family
life may decrease, or their children may be shunned by the community.
The Camp Management Agency has to play a central role in ensuring that
women with specific needs are identified, their specific needs are assessed
and that action is taken to involve them, and to adapt or target assistance and
programmes accordingly.
uu For further guidance on activities for the prevention of and response to GBV, see
chapter 10.
While certain response mechanisms will need to be put in place by agencies with
relevant expertise, the Camp Management Agency plays a pivotal role in mini-
mising risk factors for women and in monitoring the effectiveness of responses.
Actions required by Camp Management Agencies include:
• individual registration and documentation of refugee and IDP women. Meas-
ures must be in place to identify groups of women with specific needs.
Individual registration should be complemented through participatory as-
sessments to ascertain the risks which certain groups of women face and
their protection priorities, as well as their resources and capacities
• designing the camp in a manner which ensures women have safe access to
facilities such as latrines and showers
• assessing activities and services, such as the distribution of relief items, to
ensure that everyone has equal access, and that the mechanisms in place
do not put women at risk of sexual exploitation
• providing refugee and IDP women with information on their rights under interna-
tional and national law as well as the services available to them in the camp
• ensuring the full participation and active involvement of women in camp
governance structures as well as in decisions affecting their lives and com-
munities. It is essential that the Camp Management Agency promotes and
facilitates the full and active participation of refugee and IDP women in
planning, implementation and monitoring, including the identification of
targeted responses for certain groups of women
• promoting activities which strengthen women’s leadership, skills and capaci-
ties; this will contribute to their empowerment, and in turn will improve their
protection situation within the camp
346 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
• addressing, in cooperation with the competent authorities and protection
agencies, the physical security needs of individual women at heightened
risk in the camp setting
• providing information on how and where to direct confidential grievances on
violation of rights or discrimination in access to camp services and facilities.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 347
Innovative and Inclusive – Voice from the Field
“An income generating programme for female-headed households was
not going well. Attendance was poor due to issues concerning care of
their children whilst they attended classes or workshops. In search of
a solution, they started with a coordination initiative between women
– some women provided child care whilst the others attended class,
and then they would switch.
Then came the new ‘twist,’ and the innovation. The older members
of the camp were invited to come and do story-telling for the children.
This was a terrific idea because it not only provided entertainment and
education to the children by passing on traditions and legends. It also
gave older people a sense of purpose and belonging that had been
missing. It allowed for better communications with older people, es-
pecially those who were more mobile, and helped projects to deliver
better targeted assistance.”
older persons
Older persons are another group within the IDP or refugee community who may
be vulnerable and have specific protection needs. The World Health Organisa-
tion defines “older person” as an individual above the age of 60. Nonetheless,
factors such as life expectancy and health and economic conditions are relevant
in considering who is old.
Challenges facing older persons may include difficulty in accessing food
and non-food items, water, health services or participation opportunities due
to decreased mobility. Older persons may have special dietary needs which are
overlooked when designing supplementary feeding programmes. They may be
at risk of being robbed or assaulted. Older women, who tend to make up larger
proportions of IDP or refugee camp populations than older men, may be at
increased risk of physical and sexual abuse.
Certain people within older groups may face increased protection risks. These
include unaccompanied older persons, grandparent-headed households, older
persons with health or mobility problems and older persons who have limited
mental or physical capacity or limited literacy. As indicated above, it is vital that
the Camp Management Agency and other protection organisations ensure that
participatory assessments include older persons and that all programmes and
activities are analysed from a gender, age and diversity perspective.
348 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
Unaccompanied older persons may be unable, for example, to protect their belong-
ings and be at increased risk of theft. Shelter conditions may force them to live
with strangers, who may resent having to accommodate an older person. Some
unaccompanied older persons may face difficulties in collecting and carrying water
and non-food items. They may be at risk of isolation, loneliness and depression.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 349
The Camp Management Agency should:
• Understand the role played by older persons in the community prior to dis-
placement and recognise that older persons are a resource to the community
and that they have something to contribute to community life. They can be
a resource for education, communication, conflict resolution and leadership
within their families and communities. They may have useful skills and abili-
ties which can aid the community. Active older persons should therefore be
included in skills training and income-generation programmes. They should
be encouraged to participate in community committees and to take an active
part in community life, which could include involvement in dispute resolution
mechanisms, child care activities, traditional birth services and the continu-
ation of community traditions, unless these violate the rights of others.
350 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
• Ensure that older persons with health or mobility problems have equal access
to medical services and relief items. The mechanisms for distribution of relief
items should be assessed to ensure that older persons are not inadvertently
discriminated against in their access to relief items, and that they are not at
risk of theft, intimidation or assault while in the process of obtaining them.
• Ensure that older persons are aware of their rights within the camp, and
of the services and facilities available and how to access them. Provide
information on how and where to direct grievances on violation of rights or
discrimination in access to camp services and facilities.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 351
Raising Awareness – Voice from the Field
“Here in northern Sri Lanka many of the long-term displaced who live
in camps are well organised into committees and are very helpful to
agencies doing assessments and distributions. What we found missing
was attention to persons with specific needs, who were more vulnerable
during distributions. We asked the camp committee to identify older
people and those with disabilities and to put their ration cards at the top
of the pile, so that they could get help and assistance first and not have
to stand in the sun; and also so they could get the help of neighbours
to carry things home for them.
By insisting that these people should have priority in the queue,
and pushing the community to help them, it has created better aware-
ness – among both children and adults. This now seems to be spilling
over into other areas as well. In our monitoring activities people have
asked us to include ‘elder-friendly’ items – like a scoop for bathing from
a bucket; sweaters and shawls because older people feel the chill and
flasks so that tea and soup remain hot for longer.”
352 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
Simple technical interventions can have a positive impact on
helping to meet the needs and rights of people with physical dis-
abilities:
• handles at convenient heights on latrine doors
• bars and support rails to hold onto around shelter and in washing
areas
• a cushion to support a correct sitting position
• a shady and comfortable sitting spot close to a shelter block,
allowing easy access to and contact with the wider community
• a path which allows wheelchair access.
These solutions often cost very little, but they require planning and
an awareness of what is required. Using community participatory
assessment methods like focus groups, can help a Camp Manage-
ment Agency to support appropriate and specific solutions to meet
the needs of those with physical disabilities.
Particular risks may be faced by persons living with HIV and by groups at risk
of HIV, such as for instance persons involved in sex work, homosexuals and
substance users. They may face discrimination and stigma, including from within
their own family and community. Ensuring confidentiality for HIV status persons
is therefore critical.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 353
• Initiate cooperation with specialised organisations or rehabilitation services
for persons with disabilities, including the provision of wheel chairs and
crutches.
• Adapt camp services, such as latrines and showers to ensure that persons
with disabilities are not hindered in their access. Their access to services
and relief items must be evaluated and if necessary, mechanisms should be
put in place to deliver such services to them.
• Promote the rights and dignity of persons with disabilities, including mental
disabilities, within the community, and ensure that people with disabilities
have appropriate access to information about their rights and the services
available to them in the camp, including access to education.
• Advocate for and monitor health services in the camp (and access to host
community services as appropriate), including referral systems to specialists
and clinics.
• Provide information on how and where to direct grievances on violation
of rights or discrimination in access to camp services and facilities. The
Camp Management Agency should take care to ensure that information is
presented in an accessible manner taking into account any communication
barriers, or lack of mobility which some persons may face.
• Be attentive to discrimination and stigma on the basis of HIV/AIDS and ad-
vocate with health service providers and social and community workers to
ensure that services to persons living with HIV/AIDS (PLWHA) are provided
in a manner that does not reveal their HIV status to the community.
• Advocate with health service providers that groups at risk of, or living with,
HIV/AIDS have full access to confidential HIV prevention and treatment
programmes, and ensure that they are not isolated or criminalised.
• Ensure that vulnerability reduction programmes are established for sex
workers and substance users.
354 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
HIV/AIDS Mainstreaming in Camp Closure
Programming in Liberia
During camp closure programming in Liberia, the Camp Management
Agency incorporated specific questions about HIV/AIDS issues in
the information tool (registration form linked to a database) used
to register camp populations for travel to areas of origin or desired
area of return.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 355
checklist for a camp management agency
o Camp staff are trained in the protection and care of groups with specific
needs, and sign a code of conduct.
o Camp design and set-up takes into account the protection needs of vulner-
able groups within the community, in terms of their safety, security and their
access to services and assistance.
o There are safe spaces and opportunities for sport and recreation for children
and young people in the camp, including girls.
o Persons with specific needs are represented and participate in camp activities.
o There are committees for groups with specific needs in the camp, and those
with specific needs are represented on sector-specific committees.
356 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
o Organisations entrusted with child protection work to provide protection for
children who may be especially vulnerable – unaccompanied, separated,
orphaned, sick or children associated with fighting forces.
o Promoting the care and dignity of older camp residents and ways of valuing
and developing their role in the community are planned.
o Those who are sick, have disabilities and/or are immobile are ensured access
to essential assistance and services and programmes for their protection.
o The Camp Management Agency advocates for and works closely with health
service providers.
o There is support in place for those who are carers of persons with specific
needs.
o The Camp Management Agency works to support the protection and confi-
dentiality of those living with or affected by HIV/AIDS.
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 357
tools
Action for the Rights of Children (ARC), 2001. Critical Issues: Abuse and
Exploitation. www.savethechildren.net/arc/files/c_abex.pdf
358 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
IASC. Guidelines for HIV/Aids Interventions in Emergency Settings.
www.unfpa.org/upload/lib_pub_file/249_filename_guidelines-hiv-emer.pdf
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2006. Women, Girls, Boys and Men:
Different Needs – Equal Opportunities. www.who.int/hac/network/interagency/
news/IASC_Gender_Handbook_Workshop_Final_Report.pdf
ICRC, International Rescue Committee, Save the Children UK, UNICEF, UNHCR,
World Vision International, January 2004.Inter-agency Guiding Principles on
Unaccompanied and Separated Children. www.unhcr.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/prtect/
opendoc.pdf?tbl=PROTECTION&id=4098b3172
IFE Core Group, 2007. Infant and Young Child Feeding in Emergencies. Operational
Guidance for Emergency Relief Staff and Programme Managers.
www.ennonline.net/pool/files/ife/ops-guidance-2-1-english-010307.pdf
UNHCR and Save the Children Alliance, Action for the Rights of Children, A Rights
Based Training and Capacity-building Initiative. www.icva.ch/doc00000773.html
Save The Children, 2004. Separated Children. Care & Protection of Children in
Emergencies. A Field Guide. www.savethechildren.org/publications/technical-
resources/childsurvival/SEPARATED_CHILDREN_CONTENTS.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 359
Save the Children, 2005. Protecting Children in Emergencies, Policy Paper, Vol. 1,
No. 1. www.savethechildren.net/alliance/what_we_do/policy.pdf
Save the Children UK, 2005. Reaching all: Core principles for working with
children associated with armed groups and forces. www.eldis.org/go/display/
?id=20100&type=Document
William Spindler, 2001. The Situation of Separated Children in Central Europe and
the Baltic States, Separated Children in Europe Programme, UNHCR/Save the
Children Alliance. www.nominorsindetention.org/download/stc-coparaison-11-pays-
est.pdf
UNHCR. 10 Key Points on HIV/Aids and the Protection of Refugees, IDPs and other
Persons of Concern. www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/444e20f32.pdf
UNHCR,2006. Conclusion on Women and Girls at Risk, No. 105 (LVI). www.uhcr.org/
cgi-bin/texis/vtx/refworld/rwmain?page=search&docid=45339d922
360 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
UNHCR, 2007. The Protection of Older Persons and Persons with Disabilities.
www.unescap.org/esid/psis/meetings/ageingmipaa2007/UNHCR.pdf
UNICEF, 2002, Implementation Handbook for the Convention on the Rights of the
Child. www.unicef.org/emerg/index_32032.html
United Nations Principles for Older Persons, 1991. General Assembly Resolution
46/91. www.un.org/NewLinks/older/99/principles.htm
US Committee for Refugees and Immigrants. Resource Guide for Serving Refugees
with Disabilities. www.refugees.org/article.aspx?id=1965&subm=178&area=Partici
pate&
WFP, 2006. Getting Started: HIV, Aids and Gender in WFP Programmes.
www.wfp.org/food_aid/doc/GETTING_GENDER7.pdf
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (WCRWC), 2005. Youth
Speak Out: New Voices on the Protection and Participation of Young People Affected
by Armed Conflict. www.womenscommission.org/pdf/cap_ysofinal_rev.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs 361
362 camp management toolkit | chapter 11 – protection of persons with specific needs
camp
security and
staff safety
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 363
key messages
u The physical protection of refugees and IDPs, and maintaining law and order
in camps, is the responsibility of the State. Nevertheless, humanitarian agen-
cies have an important role to help identify the threats camp residents are
exposed to, determine and implement measures that can prevent or mitigate
the impact of such threats and provide support to national authorities.
u Ensuring security and the safety of camp staff involves managing risk. The
level of risk depends both on the level of threat and the level of vulnerability
to that threat. Staff and camp residents are often affected by different threats
to their safety and security.
u Camp Management Agencies need knowledge of the context and its actors
and their motives, along with an awareness of the situation on the ground
and how it is changing. This will inform a systematic and effective approach
to security and staff safety.
364 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
Key Terminology
• Security relates to the protection of camp residents, humanitarian
staff and assets from danger and risk, such as violence, attack,
damage or theft.
• Safety relates to ensuring the physical well-being of camp resi-
dents and staff.
• Protection is the overarching concept which incorporates security
and safety, and concerns actions which uphold the human rights
of camp residents and humanitarian staff.
introduction
While threats to life, liberty and security are often reasons why people flee, such
threats rarely cease after flight, but often continue to pursue displaced persons
during all stages of the displacement cycle. Displacement, and the removal from
the usual protective environment of one’s own community, has the tendency to
render persons more vulnerable to threats to security. In addition, traditional
coping mechanisms, as well as the protective function of the family unit, will often
have been reduced or disappeared entirely. While fleeing from harm, displaced
persons can be perceived themselves as a cause of insecurity, especially when
arriving en masse and when resources in the host community are scarce.
Camps will generally be perceived by refugees and IDPs as a safe haven,
as an area where they will be protected and assisted. Naturally, this is what
camps are designated to provide and a goal to which all relevant stakeholders
– importantly, including the displaced themselves – should work towards. But
unfortunately, camps – as temporary structures meant to accommodate often
different communities fleeing the trauma of persecution or violence – can also
create an environment of lawlessness, attract violence and crime or be attacked
by armed forces or groups. In situations of conflict, camps are often located
in close proximity to warring parties or borders, which increases the threat of
insecurity. Much of the work on security must be focused on the prevention of
such threats from materialising.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 365
It is the State that has the primary responsibility for the protection of all persons
in its territory – whether refugees, IDPs or host communities – and for ensur-
ing public order and security from internal and external threats. Human rights
and humanitarian actors should not give assurances for security or safety as
this risks creating a false sense of security. These actors do, however, have an
important responsibility to take protective measures to help reduce exposure
to and mitigate the devastating effects of violence.
uu For more information on protecting persons with specific needs who may be
particularly vulnerable, see chapters 10 and 11.
This chapter will look at three broad categories of threats that refugees and IDPs
in camps are most commonly exposed to. They are intrinsically interrelated in
that the realisation of the threats and activities to mitigate their impact in one
category will have direct impact on all other categories:
• threats arising from a general break-down in law and order, including indi-
vidual or collective acts of crime, violence – such as the infliction or threat
of physical, mental, sexual or other harm or suffering, which may result in
injury, death, physical or mental disability or deprivation
• threats arising in the context of armed conflict; for example, at the hands of
or as a result of the activities of armed forces and groups who are parties
to a conflict
• threats arising as a result of communal or intra-group tension, either within
the refugee and IDP population – for instance, along ethnic and/or religious
lines – or between the refugees and IDPs on the one hand, and the host
population on the other – for instance, owing to competition for scarce
resources, such as land, water or firewood.
366 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
Staff safety for a Camp Management Agency may in many ways be linked with the
safety and security of refugees and IDPs. However, humanitarian staff may not
be exposed to the same threats as refugees and IDPs, or have the same levels of
vulnerability to those threats. A person’s gender, age, health, ethnicity, religion,
language and social status, amongst other characteristics, will affect their level of
vulnerability to a particular threat. In a camp situation, an unaccompanied child
is likely to be more vulnerable to forced recruitment, or a member of a particular
ethnic group may be more vulnerable to abuse, violence or murder.
The Camp Management Agency’s knowledge of the context in which they are
working, and an understanding of the stakeholders involved and their motives,
is therefore an essential starting point for assessing the security threat and the
risk for agency staff and camp residents.
When camp staff are safe and assets are secure, agencies are able to main-
tain a presence in the camp, which in turn can have a positive impact on uphold-
ing the safety, security and protection of camp residents. When risks to staff are
well-managed, staff will be able to better deliver assistance to those who need
it. Restrictions of movement that security risks impose on humanitarian actors
– and the subsequent reduced access to populations of concern – create an ad-
ditional security risk for refugees and IDPs as they are denied the protection and
assistance they require. Agencies should have their own staff security regulations
and standard operating procedures (SOPs), of which all staff should be aware.
It is advisable that security and evacuation procedures and arrangements are
carefully planned in close coordination with all the affected organisations, as
well as relevant government institutions.
key issues
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 367
and infrastructure. In some cases, the State itself may be supporting or condoning
violence, attacks or abuse that have a direct impact on camp populations.
The displaced persons themselves may struggle with traumatic experiences, anxi-
ety and high levels of stress associated with displacement and their situation. In
combination with poverty, lack of education and limited livelihood opportunities
– together with a breakdown of social norms and values – this situation is likely
to lead to a marked increase in crime, exploitation and abuse in the public as well
as the private sphere.
Such threats can range from a variety of minor offences, such as theft and
vandalism – but also more serious forms of intimidation and exploitation or serious
crimes, including physical assault, murder and forced disappearances. In camps,
gender-based violence (GBV) remains the most common crime, also occurring often
in the domestic sphere. Rape and sexual assault, abuse or humiliation and sexual
exploitation – including forced prostitution and sex in exchange for aid – are all
examples of GBV that can occur in camp settings.
Having lost the protection of their homes, families and communities, and lacking re-
sources such as shelter, food and water, displaced persons frequently find themselves
at greater risk of being subjected to violence, while at the same time their ability to
recover from its harmful effects is undermined. Their situation also limits the capacity
of individuals and families to themselves address their security concerns. The often
closed environment of camps and settlements – coupled with anxiety, desperation,
marginalisation and the lack of hope about a durable solution – contributes to an
increase in both the frequency and seriousness of such acts of violence.
368 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
They need to ensure that:
• Security experts are involved in security risk assessments and analysis. This
should form the basis of security strategies, including standard operating
procedures and contingency plans, together with a focus on risk mitigation
and risk prevention. A risk assessment and analysis should include:
1. the form and type of threat
2. those targeted or otherwise at risk and the level of their vulnerability
3. the actors involved and their motives
4. existing capacity of the State to address the risks, the obstacles it faces
and the kind of additional support needed
5. the impact on persons of concern, the coping strategies they have
adopted and the kind of support they themselves need to counter the
risks involved.
• Camps are designed, to the extent possible, to take into account protection
and security-based physical planning, including their location, layout design
and access to services. Considerations will include:
1. distance from armed conflict or other sources of violence
2. size of the camp
3. community participation in family plot layout
4. allocation of adequate space per family
5. safe access to resources, such as food, water and firewood
6. services, such as police, camp management offices, sanitation facilities,
schools, markets and community centres
7 security lighting
.
8. establishment of child-friendly spaces.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 369
to communicate information through radio, theatre or printed media, providing
objective security-related information and advice. This should include informa-
tion on the obligations camp residents have with respect to camp regulations
and law and order.
Adequate and equitable provision of relief assistance can reduce exposure or
mitigate the effects of crime, violence and abuse. Relief distribution should take
into account persons with specific needs and the needs of the host community.
Adequate reporting mechanisms should be established for incidents of crime,
violence and human rights abuses. There should be the provision of relevant and
easy-to-understand information on when and how to access such mechanisms. A
referral system must ensure that information on incidents is properly recorded,
coordinated among and followed up by relevant agencies, and processed with
due attention to confidentiality concerns.
It is important to ensure that community and camp management committees
– including relief distribution committees – are non-discriminatory, participatory
and representative, particularly of women and other groups with specific needs. All
possible efforts must be made to ensure the community’s engagement in education
or vocational training, and cultural, religious and sports activities. This not only
limits exposure to risk, it reduces the chances of persons resorting to violence, helps
individuals recover from the effects of violence and helps build livelihoods.
militarisation of camps
The civilian and humanitarian character of camps is an important protection
standard which is critical to ensuring the safety and security of refugees and
IDPs. This principle, however, is not always respected, and many refugee and IDP
camps have been and are susceptible to militarisation. This is particularly the
case where refugee and IDP camps are located in or close to a conflict area.
Militarisation of a camp means the infiltration of the camp by combatants.
It may take the form of combatants infiltrating for rest, access to food and
medical or other services, or for recruitment purposes – forced or otherwise
– of members of the camp population. The militarisation of camps may lead
to an increase in physical and sexual violence, a breakdown in law and order,
attacks on the camp from the neighbouring country or armed forces or groups
and diversion of humanitarian aid from the civilian camp population to members
of the armed forces or groups. NGO and UN workers may have their access to
the camp curtailed due to the presence of armed elements, or even face seri-
ous security risks themselves, including hostage-taking, assault or murder. If
370 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
camps are under the control of armed groups, the host government may react
by refouling – forcibly sending back – the refugee population or limiting local
integration possibilities. Additionally, voluntary repatriation possibilities or return
to their place of origin may be jeopardised for refugees or IDPs, either by the
armed group or the country of origin. Militarisation of a camp invariably has a
profoundly negative impact on relationships between the camp and the host
population. In some cases, the warring parties may use the camp strategically
as a human shield, in case of attack.
At the beginning of an operation, it is especially important to ensure that
armed elements, whether combatants or armed civilians, are identified. Combat-
ants should be separated from the civilian population and interned elsewhere.
Armed civilians should be informed that arms are not permitted in the camp and
where possible, disarmed by the relevant authorities. The national authorities
are primarily responsible for such procedures, but the international community
may need to assist States to develop their capacity to do so.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 371
• hold regular consultations with camp residents, including camp leaders and
security committees, on security-related issues. Such consultations should
give the refugees or IDPs a sense of shared responsibility for their own se-
curity and allow for discussions on what measures they feel can positively
contribute to an improvement of their security
• ensure that agency staff are trained on militarisation and security issues
and how to monitor changes in the context and indicators that point to
increased threat
• prioritise effective security management, including risk assessment pro-
cedures and regular review of security strategies, SOPs and contingency
planning, should security deteriorate
• conduct awareness-raising and sensitisation activities for the camp population.
If it becomes known that there are armed elements in the camp, the Camp Man-
agement Agency should notify the authorities and appropriate UN agencies. At
the outset of the operation the Camp Management Agency should discuss this
issue with other protection agencies working in the camp, and agree with whom
the Camp Management Agency should share information in the event that it
becomes aware of the presence of armed elements.
In situations of ongoing hostility and where appropriate, landmine aware-
ness activities should be appropriately coordinated with all relevant actors. This
should either be done by a specialised de-mining agency or, if not available, by
a designated agency with awareness and experience.
372 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
Recruitment, Including the Recruitment of Children
States can require compulsory military service of its nationals. Armed groups
have no such right. International humanitarian law prohibits host States from
forcibly recruiting refugees into their national armed forces in times of war
against the refugees’ home country. More broadly, States should not recruit
refugees – even though not explicitly prohibited under international law – as this
would be inconsistent with the civilian and humanitarian character of asylum,
undermine the refugee’s right to seek and enjoy asylum, and violate the State’s
obligation to guarantee the physical safety of refugees. IDPs, on the other hand
– if nationals of the country concerned – may be subject to compulsory conscrip-
tion by the national armed forces. IDPs should, however, be protected by the
State against discriminatory practices of recruitment into any armed forces or
groups as a result of their displacement.
Under no circumstances should displaced children under the age of 15 – or
under the age of 18, for States who are signatories to the Optional Protocol to
the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the UN General As-
sembly on 25 May 2000 – be recruited, required or permitted to take part in
hostilities. Displaced children, both boys and girls, may be at particular risk of
forced recruitment or abduction for military, sexual or labour purposes, due to
reduced social and community protection, discrimination or the lack of economic,
educational and other opportunities. Unaccompanied or separated children may
be even more vulnerable to recruitment, making prompt family tracing activities
all the more important in situations where forced recruitment is a risk.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 373
The Camp Management Agency should be prepared to play a central role in
the task of monitoring and reporting any incidents of recruitment or attempted
recruitment of children. It has a duty to:
• design and implement programmes which promote family livelihood activi-
ties, vocational training, recreational activities and health care for all chil-
dren, including girls in order to make them less vulnerable to recruitment.
The Camp Management Agency should either initiate such activities or lobby
other agencies to do so
• reinforce educational opportunities, including for girls. While all children
should be encouraged to attend school, it is possible that schools may
become recruiting grounds for armed groups and they must be regularly
monitored. Special measures, such as civilian security patrols, may need to
be taken to protect children in schools if this threat exists
• individually register and document all children in the camp – especially
unaccompanied or separated children. This is a vital protection tool to help
prevent recruitment of children. Registration data can help to ensure that
any recruitment in the camp or in the schools is detected early on, allowing
for preventative measures to be taken
• use a participatory approach which includes seeking children’s input to
preventive measures. The Camp Management Agency can provide support
to adolescents to form youth groups and enlist UNICEF as a partner and
resource in this and other youth activities
• pay special attention to the needs of former child soldiers and other children
who were associated with an armed force or an armed group, as they are a
group at particular risk of re-recruitment.
Civil-Military Relations
For humanitarian action to maintain its neutral character, it is impera-
tive that it is clearly distinguished from the military. If this principle
of distinction is not adhered to, the objectives of humanitarian and
military action become intertwined, which will seriously undermine
the capacity of humanitarians to serve refugees and IDPs.
At the same time, emergency operations increasingly take place
in highly militarised environments, where humanitarian efforts would
be seriously hampered if not supported and assisted by military
resources. This is a highly complex issue that requires finding a
uu
374 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
balance between upholding the neutrality and independence of
humanitarian action, while acknowledging that in certain circum-
stances, support of the military will be needed. A lot of policy guid-
ance exists on how relations between civilian and military actors
should be conducted.
For Camp Management Agencies it is important to know that
under certain conditions the military may be involved in humanitarian
aspects of operations in order to fulfill a humanitarian obligation.
This could be linked with providing security to refugee and IDP camps
or the surrounding area and its population, providing security to
humanitarian operations and humanitarian staff, or even outside the
scope of security by, for instance, providing logistical support.
To conduct these activities while not confusing the humanitarian
objective, it is necessary to establish close liaison arrangements,
clear information-sharing networks, and be transparent towards the
refugees and IDPs. Minimum guidelines for working with the military
need to be included in strategic planning.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 375
of reasons, including ethnic or racial tensions, or fears on the part of the host
community that the arrival of the camp residents will expose them to armed
attacks, increased criminality or insecurity, or disease. The arrival of a large
number of refugees or IDPs may also lead to increased competition over scarce
resources, particularly in remote or underprivileged areas. Water, food, agricul-
tural or pastoral land, as well as firewood, may be limited, and host communi-
ties, wanting to protect their access to such resources, may resort to violence
or demand that national authorities take action to limit the camp residents’
movement outside the camp.
The presence of humanitarian workers can also have a detrimental effect,
culturally, environmentally and/or on the local economy, by, for example, pushing
up prices. The conduct of agency staff towards the host and the camp population,
and towards each other in public places, is important, as is an awareness of the
unintended, but nevertheless negative, impact that humanitarian operations can
have on a community. This may be especially true when the host population is
in as much, and sometimes more, need of assistance than the camp commu-
nity. National and local authorities, wanting to prioritise the needs of their own
citizens, may enact measures which restrict the rights of camp residents, such
as freedom of movement and the right to work.
As the environment is often a key source of conflict, attention needs to be
paid from the beginning to preventing or limiting environmental degradation
caused by the camp or its residents. This will reduce the burden placed on the
host community and may also help to reduce tension between the two com-
munities.
376 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
The Camp Management Agency should:
• play a role in undertaking a situational analysis to identify the sources of
tension or potential for conflict between the camp residents and the host
community. Using a participatory approach, the input of both the camp and
host communities should be sought
• support and facilitate confidence-building measures, including regular meet-
ings between the refugees/IDPs and host communities and establishment
of joint committees with representatives of both communities
• support and facilitate sensitisation campaigns among the host community to
foster a climate of understanding, acceptance and tolerance. These can be
targeted at the community at large as well as at specific groups or institutions,
such as schools, religious communities, local authorities and the media
• organise recreational and sports activities for the children of both com-
munities
• support establishment of facilities and activities to which camp residents
and the host community have equal access, such as health and educational
institutions and services. This could involve maintaining or improving local
infrastructure, such as roads, schools and hospitals, or constructing water
installations to provide potable water to both the camp and host communities.
It could include access by the host community to programmes set up for the
camp population, such as skills training and other livelihood activities
• promote campaigns to sensitise both the camp and host communities to
environmental concerns, including possible deforestation if collecting and
cutting firewood is an issue of concern, and over-grazing if the IDPs or
refugees have cattle or other animals with them
• advocate for and facilitate the implementation of environmental rehabilitation
programmes, which could include reforestation if destruction of forests is an
issue of concern. The establishment and support of environmental committees in
which representatives of the host and camp community participate can further
ensure good communication between the two communities on this issue
• advocate for improvements to assistance packages and programmes to ensure
that natural resources needed by the host community are not overtaxed by
camp residents. In situations of scarce firewood, this may mean the identifica-
tion and distribution of alternative sources of heating and cooking which do not
require firewood, or at a minimum, require reduced quantities of firewood
• set up and support conflict management and resolution forums to address issues
in a timely manner before relationships become strained, or before tensions or
violence destroy trust, in coordination with the lead protection agency.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 377
staff safety
The Camp Management Agency must make sure that sound security systems
are in place. These will include gathering information about the situation in the
camp and the local environment, assessing threats, risks and vulnerabilities,
reporting and monitoring regularly. Systems should also be in place for inci-
dent reporting and for supporting staff with security issues, both in and out of
working hours.
378 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
The following actions were taken by the team:
1. all field staff – including drivers and office personnel – were trained
in security
2. security indicators were monitored and reviewed regularly
3. all strikes were observed and the office stayed closed
4. protection by presence was implemented whenever possible, whereby
expatriate staff would travel with national staff to monitor in the IDP
camps
5. a large and diverse team meant that camp management staff could
be rotated in and out of the field to give staff days off and time to
visit family members also living in situations of heightened risk
6. confidential reporting lines and referral systems were in place for
reporting violations.”
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 379
The Camp Management Agency must also make sure that all staff are properly
informed on security guidelines and have received security training. This is not
only important for the security of the staff member but for the security of all col-
leagues working in the same operation. In conflict environments, Camp Manage-
ment Agencies must have a security officer among their core field-based staff.
The Camp Management Agency and all the staff who represent it should actively
and consistently work to establish a good relationship with the displaced com-
munity. This is essential to the safety of Camp Management Agency’s staff, as
it will give access to valuable security information, but also generate accept-
ance and trust. Camp Management Agency staff must uphold the humanitarian
principles of neutrality and impartiality at all times. Camp Management Agency
staff should be sensitive to religious and cultural traditions.
At all times, Camp Management Agency staff should show exemplary be-
haviour, also when working under highly stressful conditions and be aware of
how they are perceived. Rudeness, arrogance, unwillingness to listen, lack of
respect for cultural norms and overall abusive behaviour will have a very negative
impact on the agency’s credibility and affect staff security. All staff must strictly
adhere to the code of conduct, training on which should be organised regularly.
Misconduct of staff must be addressed and disciplined, if necessary.
380 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
Image and Acceptance as an Approach to Security
Using image and acceptance as an approach to security involves
humanitarian agencies spending time trying to learn and understand
what people think about the agency’s presence and programme.
The way humanitarian organisations are seen by the community
or communities in which they work affects not only the security of
staff, but the overall success of programmes. Humanitarian agencies
should first be clear of their own identity and how they would like
to be perceived. Clarity on an agency’s identity includes knowing
the mission statement, principles and values that drive the agency
– and then communicating these messages clearly and transpar-
ently to others.
The next thing is to consider how they are perceived by the communi-
ties in which they are working, and aim to build positive relationships
as an approach to risk reduction. The factors that may influence how
an agency is perceived include:
• mission, principles and values
• origin of the agency (including nationality and associated foreign
policies of that nation)
• programmes and beneficiaries
• funding donors
• national partners
• how resources are being used
• recruitment and dismissal practices
• policies
• how staff are treated
• how the organisation behaves
• whom the organisation is in contact with
• personal behaviour of staff from the organisation.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 381
At times, the authorities insist on fencing a camp or putting in
place other mechanisms to control exit and entry to the camp. At
other times, the fencing can be requested by the community to en-
hance the physical security of the displaced population in the camp.
In most situations it is preferable that the camp is not fenced and
that freedom of movement is upheld.
382 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
checklist for a camp management agency
o The Camp Management Agency carries out context assessments of their
operational environment. These include developing their situational aware-
ness of the political, economic and cultural situation, the actors involved
and their motives.
o Security systems and contingency plans, including evacuation plans, are shared
with other agencies and coordinated to ensure that all staff are covered.
o Camp design and planning takes account of safety, security and protection
issues, especially for the protection of those who may be most vulnerable
to threats and those with specific needs.
o There are trained and professional civilian police deployed in proximity to,
but not inside, the camp.
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 383
o Reporting mechanisms that are accessible and safe are in place, to allow
camp residents to report incidents of crime, violence, human rights abuse
or breaches in security.
o Referral systems for survivors of crime and violence are in place to ensure
adequate care and follow-up.
o Camp residents are consulted and involved in planning for effective safety
and security.
o Standard operating procedures are in place, which set out how the Camp
Management Agency should respond if it becomes aware of the presence
of armed elements in the camp.
o Sources of tension and possible unrest between the camp and the host
population and local community are understood by the Camp Management
Agency.
o Forums and systems are in place for representatives of the camp and host
communities to meet regularly to address and resolve issues.
o The Camp Management Agency staff are aware of the impact of their pres-
ence in the community. They understand and communicate their agency’s
mandate and humanitarian objectives, and behave in ways that promote
openness, respect and goodwill.
o The needs of the host community are taken into consideration in the plan-
ning and implementation of assistance in the camp.
384 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
tools
Christopher Ankerson. What is Good for You? Why Armies Engage in Civil-Military
Cooperation. www.cda-cdai.ca/symposia/2002/ankersen.htm
Jane Barry and Anne Jefferys, 2004. “A bridge too far: aid agencies and the
military in humanitarian response’’. Humanitarian Practice Network.
www.odihpn.org/documents/networkpaper037.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety 385
Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC), 2001. Use of Military or Armed Escorts
for Humanitarian Convoys. Discussion Paper and Non-Binding Guidelines.
www.who.int/hac/network/interagency/GuidelinesonArmedEscorts_Sept2001.pdf
RedR UK, 2007. Safety and Security Review. A Focus for Sharing and Learning in the
Aid Sector. Issue 7. www.redr.org.uk/objects_store/security_review_no7.pdf
RedR UK, 2007. Safety and Security Review. A Focus for Sharing and Learning in the
Aid Sector. Issue 8. www.redr.org.uk/objects_store/security_review_no8.pdf
The Paris Principles: Guidelines on the Recruitment and Use of Children in Armed
Conflict, 2007. www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/IMG/pdf/Paris_Conference_Princ
ples_English_31_January.pdf
386 camp management toolkit | chapter 12 – camp security and staff safety
food
distribution
and non-food
items
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 387
key messages
u People should have access to adequate and appropriate food and non-food
items in a manner that ensures their survival, prevents erosion of their as-
sets, and upholds their dignity.
u Persons with specific needs and groups at risk need to receive priority treat-
ment in a camp setting. Depending on the nature of their vulnerability, fast
access at distribution sites should be ensured, and increased amounts of
items, and special assistance programmes like supplementary feeding cen-
tres, should be advocated for.
388 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
introduction
Food and non-food items (NFIs) are vital to people’s survival, health, well-being
and dignity. In camp settings, where the population is likely to have limited or
no access to outside resources, service providers may need to provide a full
food basket, in addition to the most essential NFIs. Food and non-food items
are valuable commodities in a camp setting and can cause serious security chal-
lenges. The distribution of food and NFIs therefore requires careful planning and
management, to ensure equitable assistance to the displaced population and
the safety and protection of all involved.
Ensuring camp residents’ access to food and proper nutrition is a top prior-
ity, particularly in emergency situations. Displaced people have very little time
and limited possibilities to take adequate amounts of food with them when they
flee. Commonly, prior to flight they have been living in situations where they
have been unable to meet their basic food requirements. Many arrive in camps
already suffering from malnutrition.
Food security is closely linked to other camp sectors like water, sanitation,
health, nutrition and protection. Ensuring that inter-sector linkages are made,
and service providers coordinate smoothly at camp level, is the responsibility
of the Camp Management Agency.
Non-food items are also connected to other camp sectors – especially shelter,
water and environment. Individual households need to be provided with essen-
tial goods to protect them from the climate and maintain their health, privacy
and dignity.
Whether the Camp Management Agency is supervising another agency or
carrying out the delivery directly, distributions require very clear and transparent
processes. They can take place more effectively and smoothly by forming and
cooperating with a camp distribution committee with clear roles and responsi-
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 389
bilities, from within the camp population. Optimally, the committee should be
involved in:
• assisting vulnerable members of the displaced population
• planning the distribution
• explaining the distribution process to the overall camp population
• managing the crowd during the event
• monitoring the distributions (food basket as well as post-distribution moni-
toring).
key issues
390 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
• ensure overall coordination between the distribution agencies, camp resi-
dents and distribution committees, and local authorities
• monitor the camp community’s needs and gaps, with a particular focus on
the needs of persons with specific needs and those at risk
• develop common procedures for carrying out distributions in the camp, and
establish a camp distribution calendar that includes the day, time and any
site and distribution-specific parameters. Harmonising approaches and
cooperating with the camp distribution committees will be seen as more
transparent
• check the warehousing, storage and upkeep of partner stockrooms to make sure
that items intended for the camp population are kept safely and hygienically
• coordinate the security arrangements for distributions with the relevant
authorities
• establish a post-distribution monitoring system to evaluate the effectiveness
and quality of items and food distributed
• update and circulate demographic data on the camp population (changes
in births, deaths, new arrivals or departures, as well as specific emerging
needs) to the distribution agencies.
• advertise NFI and food distribution times, locations or changes in the food
basket to the camp population
• set up camp distribution committees.
• inform partner agencies of any changes that will affect the required
number of commodities. Writing a formal written memo, even in a small
harmonious working environment, is always a good idea. Keep copies of
all official correspondence
• formalise the roles and responsibilities between the Camp Management
Agency and the partner agencies for food and NFI clearly. Write them
down and specify exact parameters of duties. The level of formality of
these written agreements will vary in different contexts and depend on
the stage of development of the camp or emergency, and may involve
preparing a formal Memorandum of Understanding (MoU).
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 391
If possible, the same distribution systems and procedures should
apply equally for food and non-food commodities.
Food needs assessments in new sites should be a joint operation between the
Camp Management Agency, camp residents, authorities and aid agencies, and
usually cover the population’s:
• nutritional status
• potential to increase self-reliance
• vulnerability
• access to cooking fuel
• food preferences.
392 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
distribution systems
There are three types or systems of distribution applied by UNHCR. They are
distributions to:
• Groups of beneficiaries through the group leadership. This option is an
approach frequently applied in the earliest phase of an emergency with
large influxes of people. When registration has not taken place yet, and/or
ration cards have not been issued, this may be the only option. One of the
challenges of this system is that it increases the risk of abuse and can make
some individuals more vulnerable, as leaders may distribute according to
their own preferences.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 393
In order to make sure that a distribution system is soundly set-up and suitable
for the camp population, the Camp Management Agency and the food provid-
ers need to:
• set up a ration card system before the distribution of commodities is to take
place. Most food aid providers will have developed a ration card database
which can be adapted to the local context
• make a predictable (monthly/weekly) distribution cycle. This is especially
critical for food distributions. Having a regular cycle will also make it easier
to follow up on problems that arise during distributions
• announce any distribution well in advance, so that no one misses out
• organise distributions so that only a limited number of beneficiaries will
be present at one distribution site at any one time. This will avoid security
incidents and delays, which can set back the overall distribution schedule
• establish complaints mechanisms, so camp residents can ensure a way
to verify entitlements and services. In case of fraud, theft or abuse, camp
residents must be able to voice their complaints and know that the Camp
Management Agency or service provider will take action
• develop a post-distribution monitoring system. Evaluation of the quality,
sufficiency, effectiveness and timeliness of distributions helps to improve
the overall distribution system and approach.
394 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
camp distribution committees
Establishing camp distribution committees will require a more or less stable environ-
ment but ideally ensures the participation and involvement of the camp population.
Committees should ideally reflect the ratio of men and women in the population, and
all groups in the camp should be represented. All issues related to distribution should
be discussed freely here and brought to the appropriate agency’s attention.
Using camp distribution committees as a link between the agency in charge of dis-
tribution, the Camp Management Agency and the camp population will help to:
• keep unrealistic expectations in check
• ensure overall understanding of procedures and restrictions
• ensure receipt of feedback from the camp population on all issues related
to distribution.
information announcements
Messages informing camp residents on the arrival and distribution of supplies
should contain the basics on who, what, when, where, and how. Pre-distribution
announcements are the responsibility of the distributing agency, though the
Camp Management Agency should monitor and supervise them. Such informa-
tion announcements should:
• reach out to all different groups in the camp using multiple channels of
communication
• particularly involve women and the camp distribution committees in order
to avoid information going out only through the community leaders, who
might have their own political agenda
• use different methodologies and means such as meetings with groups of
beneficiaries (including those at risk), posters and picture messages, infor-
mation boards, radio, megaphone and others
• use the local language and reach out also to those camp residents who are
non-literate
• allow for camp residents to fully understand the messages and give feedback.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 395
Mistakes made during distribution may well lead to disorder,
confusion or violence at the distribution site. Simple things like know-
ing what items (e.g. boxes, buckets, bags) to bring to the collection
site in order to carry away received food can help a lot in keeping
queues down and people calm and orderly.
396 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
• near to rest facilities for distribution workers
• constructed near to vegetation or trees, which provide shade and act as
windbreaks
• provided with chairs or benches for persons unable to stand in line.
In some cases, site access for bulky items like heavy shelter items
may need to be considered and specific suitable locations identified
around the camp.
uu For more information on organisation of a camp distribution system see the Tools
section at the end of this chapter.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 397
3. Have enough staff on standby who can be mobilised at short notice
for loading and off loading of commodities.
4. Hire security staff for the warehouse. They can help make sure
that other staff and stored items are not put at risk. Unfortunately,
theft and fraud by an agency’s own staff or as a result of criminality
within displaced communities is often common in camp settings.
uu For more information on the management of warehouses and storage sites, see
the Tools section of this chapter
398 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
safety at distribution sites/crowd control
Distribution sites can quickly become chaotic, crowded and potentially danger-
ous places to both field staff as well as beneficiaries. In the event of riots or
demonstrations, sometimes the only solution is to evacuate staff and abandon
commodities. Prevent such situations through careful planning. The following
recommendations may help:
• know the local context, existing or emerging tensions between groups within
or surrounding the camp
• identify potential threats that may disrupt the distribution site, through joint
assessments including the displaced population, concerned humanitarian
stakeholders and the local authorities. Mapping out the potential risks in
the lay-out of the site or in the way the distribution is organised can help
identify what changes need to be made before the next distribution
• ask the UN security and/or local law enforcement authority to assess the safety
of distribution sites and make similar recommendations. Remember in most
contexts, security during food and NFI distributions will be the responsibility
of local authorities/local law enforcement agencies. However, in some conflict
situations, local law enforcement agencies will not be viewed as neutral by
camp residents, and other crowd control mechanisms may be necessary. The
Camp Management Agency should have a contingency plan
• place a clear distance between queues and the piles of commodities being
distributed. Lining up trucks or building fences will not deter a crowd set on
reaching commodities in case of riot
• keep waiting time to a minimum, making sure that the distribution takes
place in an efficient manner
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 399
• put in place a distribution circuit through which the beneficiaries have to
pass in order to receive assistance. Clearly mark boundaries of the distribu-
tion site and the queue systems through the use of signs or guide ropes
• show the items that are going to be distributed to the distribution commit-
tee prior to the distribution taking place. This will allow them to verify the
commodities and address any complaints that may arise from the camp
population with more authority
• treat cases of cheating or disorder quickly and fairly. Move offenders away
from the distribution site as quickly as possible.
uu For more information on camp and staff security, see chapter 12.
400 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
• sun and rain-protected resting places reserved particularly for older people,
small children, those with impaired mobility or breastfeeding mothers.
• identify high-risk areas for women (girls) within and surrounding the camp.
When food is insufficient or lacks certain essential traditional ingredients,
people will normally try to supplement their diets. Women venturing out for
complementary food are inevitably more at risk of gender-based violence
(GBV). In such situations, food intervention programmes need to be adjusted
so that the food basket is more in line with food practices of the displaced
population
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 401
food aid
Food rations are usually based on the minimum calorific intake of 2,100 kilocalo-
ries per person/per day. Using these calculations, an average adult will require
560 grams of food each day.
In protracted situations this figure is usually adjusted to suit local conditions
and to take into account the population’s actual nutritional requirements and
ability to access and grow its own food. The requirements of micronutrients
should also be considered.
Remember that pregnant women will need an additional 300 kcal per day as
well as a balanced diet, whereas a breastfeeding woman will need an additional
500 kcal per day in order not to jeopardise her own or her child’s health.
Knowledge of minimum daily food requirements will help a Camp Manage-
ment Agency in the event that it is required to distribute or facilitate the ordering
of food commodities. Note that a full food basket cannot always be sourced or
distributed, and the agreed-upon contents should be discussed with the food
sector lead. Usually, items in a full food basket will contain a combination of
basic food items such as:
• wheat flour, maize meal, bulgur wheat, sorghum or rice (cereals) – 420
grams/day/person
• dried lentils or beans (pulses/legumes) – 50 grams/day/person
• cooking oil (fats) – 25 grams/day/person
• salt – 5 grams/day/person.
402 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
Examples of daily rations for food-aid reliant populations
(from WFP’s Emergency Field Operations Pocketbook)
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 403
Food Basket Monitoring and Post-Distribution Monitoring
At the time of distribution, make sure that the food agencies carry out Food
Basket Monitoring. This consists of selecting a random number of families at
the distribution site, weighing their rations and comparing the results with the
planned ration and the family size mentioned on their ration cards.
After a distribution, a Post-Distribution Monitoring (PDM) survey should be
conducted. This aims to collect information at the household level on the quantity
of food received, the use of food aid, and its acceptability and quality (WFP defini-
tion). PDM is carried out on average two weeks after a monthly distribution.
uu School feeding programmes may also be linked to HIV/AIDS education. See WFP
document in Reading and References at the end of this chapter.
404 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
Exclusive breastfeeding is the healthiest way to feed a baby
under six months old. Babies who are exclusively breastfed receive
no pre-lactates (formula or other milk products), water, tea or comple-
mentary foods. Where the rate of exclusive breastfeeding is typically
low there may be requests by the camp population for milk powder
or other formula substitutes. It is important to work with health and
nutritional service providers to promote and support exclusive breast-
feeding techniques.
Depending on type of shelter and cultural context, shelter items often include
plastic sheeting or tarpaulins. Both tools and materials wear out over time and
follow-up distributions may be necessary. Tools may include:
• hammers
• shovels
• spades
• axes
• nails
• ropes.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 405
In malaria-risk environments, treated mosquito nets should be
provided to each household.
Sick people, those with impaired mobility, older people and chil-
dren will have more difficulty in enduring cold weather conditions and
will require extra layers of clothing to keep warm. Give them priority
where the entire camp cannot be served.
Personal Hygiene
Each person ideally receives once a month:
• 250g of bathing soap
• 200g of laundry soap
• sanitary materials for menstruation for women and girls
• 12 washable nappies/diapers (where they are commonly used) for infants
and children up to the age of two.
406 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
Older people, people who are less mobile, those who are chroni-
cally ill, people with incontinence problems, persons with disabilities
and those living with HIV/AIDS should receive additional quantities of
soap for bathing and washing clothes. (Sphere Handbook, 2004).
Distributions of cooking and eating utensils will depend on the size of each family
as well as the durability, quality and availability of the items.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 407
• information on who will be preparing food in individual households
• whether a stove and fuel are required for heating in colder climates as well
as for cooking
• whether there is sufficient ventilation in housing if stoves are used in-
doors
• the design of stoves in order to lower the risk of fire and take into considera-
tion local cooking practices.
It may be preferable to use fuel that is available locally, rather than transport it
over greater distances. However use caution to ensure that local resources are
not diminished to the point of exhaustion, both for environmental reasons as
well as to keep good relations with the host community.
School Kits
Where school kits are distributed to camp schools and pupils, they mostly in-
clude:
• notebooks
• pencils
• crayons
• rulers
• pencil sharpeners
• back-packs or bags to carry books to and from school.
408 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
uu For more information on school equipment, including a “school in a box”,
see chapter 17.
Gardening Sets
Depending on local horticultural practices, where tools and sets for vegetable
cultivation are distributed, they usually include:
• seeds
• spades
• machetes
• rakes
• watering cans,
• buckets.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 409
checklist for a camp management agency
o Ensure the beneficiary figures are known and that the amount of commodities
available is sufficient to cover the whole group, be it a targeted or a general
distribution.
o Ensure that information concerning the distribution – such as the items, quanti-
ties, target and procedure – is disseminated to the population concerned.
o Ensure that plans are in place to cater for groups with specific needs.
o Ensure that the required monitoring mechanisms are in place, such as on-
site monitoring during distribution, food-basket monitoring (or NFI) and
post-distribution monitoring.
o The food/NFIs are handled properly, and food is not spilled on the ground.
o The distribution area is properly sheltered from sun, rain and wind.
410 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
o There is enough security provided to ensure an orderly distribution.
o The ration card is punched or otherwise marked upon entry of the distribu-
tion site/upon receiving food/NFI.
o All food distributing staff wear gloves – observing hygiene rules – when
handling food items.
o Family group sizes remain constant during the food distribution cycle and
any changes in family size are recorded by the distribution agency.
o A staff member is monitoring the line for persons requiring additional as-
sistance.
o Persons who are not on the list are not given food/NFI items. Swift action
is undertaken to find out why they are not on the beneficiary list.
o Everybody receives the same agreed upon ration and the quantities are
monitored.
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 411
Information Sharing on the Distribution
o All beneficiaries are well-informed of the distribution day, place and time
and on the quantity of items they are to receive.
o Different approaches are used to properly inform the persons with specific
needs (minors/deaf persons/older persons/those who are sick).
o The implementing partner arrives on time in order to make all the set-up
preparations.
o The items are off-loaded and handled in a proper and safe way.
o WFP, UNHCR, USAID, (other donor agency), and the implementing partner
on the ground are there throughout the distribution process.
o All scoops are precise and marked to show the exact quantity.
o The same scoops are used for the different food items.
o If scoops are changed between distributions while food rations remain the
same, this is clearly explained to the beneficiaries.
412 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
tools
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 413
reading and references
ALNAP, ODI, 2003. Manual for the Provision of General Food Distributions during
Emergency Programmes in Malawi. Joint Emergency Food Aid Programme (JEFAP).
www.odi.org.uk/alnap/pdfs/other_studies/JEFAP_manual.pdf
Mariangela Bizzarri, 2007. “Integrating protection into food aid”, Forced Migration
Review. www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR27/14.pdf
Forced Migration Review, Issue 18, 2003. Delivering the Goods. Rethinking
Humanitarian Logistics. www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR18/fmr18full.pdf
Fritz Institute, 2005. From Logistics to Supply Chain Management: The Path
Foreward in the Humanitarian Sector.
www.fritzinstitute.org/PDFs/WhitePaper/FromLogisticsto.pdf
414 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
Francis Mason and Anna Taylor, Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project
(FANTA), 2003. A Review of the Advances and Challenges in Nutrition in Conflicts
and Crises over the Last 20 Years.
www.fantaproject.org/downloads/pdfs/mason_review03.pdf
OXFAM, Emergency Nutrition Network (ENN), 2006. From Food Crisis to Fair
Trade. Livelihoods Analysis, Protection and Support in Emergencies.
www.ennonline.net/fex/27/supplement27.pdf
Timothy Edward Russel, 2005. The Humanitarian Supply Chain: Analysis of the
2004 South East Asia Earthquake and Tsunami. ctl.mit.edu/metadot/index.pl?id=61
60&isa=Item&field_name=item_attachment_file&op=download_file
camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items 415
WFP, UNHCR. Guidelines for Estimating Food and Nutritional Needs in Emergencies.
www.univ-lille1.fr/pfeda/Infos/1999/0327wfpE.htm
WFP, 2006. Getting Started: HIV, Aids and Gender in WFP Programmes.
www.wfp.org/food_aid/doc/GETTING_GENDER7.pdf
416 camp management toolkit | chapter 13 – food distribution and non-food items
water,
sanitation
and hygiene
u Water Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) services meet basic needs; to provide
them in sufficient quantity and quality is urgent for people to survive and
stay in good health. Therefore, they are among the most vital and very first
services provided in a camp.
u Sufficient water needs to be safe for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene.
Good sanitation facilities must be culturally appropriate and safe for use.
Hygiene should be promoted through clear and easily understandable mes-
sages. Water quantity, sanitation and hygiene should be treated as equally
important factors for the prevention of illnesses and epidemics.
Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) services meet basic needs: to provide
them in sufficient quantity and quality is urgent for people to survive and stay
in good health. Therefore, they are among the most vital and very first services
provided in a camp. A continuous lack of water, insufficient latrines or uncon-
trolled open defecation, poorly set up waste disposal or drainage systems are all
risks that may lead to illnesses and epidemics such as diarrhoea and cholera. To
reduce these risks and manage a camp’s WASH sector in line with international
standards is the responsibility – in most camps and camp-like situations – of a
specialised humanitarian organisation, a WASH service provider.
WASH services cannot be reduced to technical aspects only for they should
be implemented with a sound understanding and approach to protection, particu-
larly of women and girls. In most camp situations, women and girls are respon-
sible for cooking, cleaning, washing and fetching water for their households. In
this role, they are often exposed to a higher risk of abuse and sexual violence.
WASH providers and the Camp Management Agency need to take into account
safety aspects, and make sure that latrines and other WASH infrastructure are
placed where they can be protected and allow safe access for women and girls
by day and at night. Although sometimes difficult to promote, participation of
women and girls in the planning, implementation and maintenance of WASH
services is important. Ideally, they should be involved to the maximum extent.
• agreements for use and maintenance are made with the host community,
where water sources outside the camp are being used by the camp popula-
tion
• the camp residents’ and the local sanitation authorities’ technical and cultural
knowledge and expertise are recognised and used
• government WASH regulations are followed and the national law is re-
spected.
WASH service providers operating in camps ideally have strong technical ex-
pertise and good access to materials. Their specific responsibilities and tasks
will, however, vary from context to context and much depends on such factors
as the involvement of the camp population or the availability of already existing
WASH infrastructure inside the camp and the area of displacement. Usually, a
WASH Agency will provide:
• sufficient and timely water supply for drinking, cooking and personal hygiene
according to standards
• regular quality control of water up to technical standards
• items to store and collect water such as vessels, jerry cans or materials for
rain water collection
• hygiene items such as soap and sanitary materials
The WASH service provider’s staff – such as water engineers, technicians and
community mobilisers – will be in contact with the camp population every day,
checking on and repairing WASH infrastructure or sensitising and training people.
It is therefore important that WASH staff, like all other humanitarian staff working
in camps, have a culturally sensitive attitude towards the camp residents and
are particularly respectful of women and girls.
Optimally, the Camp Management Agency should not also have the
role as a service provider of other technical assistance programmes in the
camp, like WASH. Being responsible for both camp management and serv-
ice provision can cause tensions, a lack of clarity and conflict of interest.
However, a general lack of service providers in the camp, or a rather small
number of displaced persons inhabiting a camp may make it necessary
for the Camp Management Agency to take on additional responsibilities.
In a refugee camp in Burundi, the Camp Management Agency who is a
strategic partner to UNHCR, is responsible not only for camp management
but also for WASH service provision, distribution and education.
water supply
One of the first priorities in emergencies and camps is the immediate provision
of adequate amounts of water. It needs to be safe and appropriate for drinking,
cooking and personal hygiene. Although the water quality requires permanent
monitoring with professional technical equipment, providing a sufficient quantity
of water of average quality is better than only a small amount of high quality
water. Often, water quality standards – as outlined by the World Health Organisa-
tion (WHO) – cannot be met in camps and/or sufficient amounts of water cannot
Water fetched from groundwater sources is mostly quite clear and of reasonable
quality due to natural filtration. Boreholes and wells can often be dug inside the
camp, which makes their protection and maintenance as well as water quality
control easier. Ground water sources can be categorised into those that are:
• less than three metres deep and considered shallow, such as simple wells,
and those
• considered deep (more than three metres), such as boreholes.
The table below compares some the UNHCR’s and the Sphere Project’s indicators
in relation to water use and supply:
uu For more information on the standards of water per person see chapter 7.
time (days)
population 1 30 60 90 120 180 360
500 0.0075 0.225 0.45 0.675 0.9 1.35 2.738
1,000 0.0150 0.450 0.90 1.350 1.8 2.70 5.475
5,000 0.075 2.250 4.50 6.750 9.0 13.50 27.380
10,000 0.1500 4.500 9.00 13.500 18.0 27.00 54.750
20,000 0.3000 9.000 18.00 27.000 36.0 54.00 108.600
50,000 0.7500 22.500 45.00 67.500 90.0 135.00 273.750
100,000 1.5000 45.000 90.00 135.000 180.0 270.00 547.500
500,000 7.5000 225.000 450.00 675.000 900.0 1,350.00 2,737.500
1,000,000 15.000 450.000 900.00 1,350.000 1,800.0 2,700.00 5,475.000
Rationing Water
Rationing water supplies is very sensitive but may however be necessary, under
certain circumstances. The dry season, a continuous drought, a breakdown of
infrastructure or restricted access to the camp limiting water supply, may all
be reasons why water would need to be rationed for a certain period. In any
case, the Camp Management Agency together with the WASH provider need to
ensure that:
• water supply to persons with specific needs such as children, pregnant and
breastfeeding mothers, older people, those with disabilities, or those with
impaired mobility is prioritised
• in consultation with the camp population, particularly with women and girls,
a timetable is drawn up when pumps and water taps are open or closed
• any change in or rationing of water supply is transparently communicated
to the camp population, so that they know and understand why water is
scarce and certain restrictions have been established
• the camp residents are sufficiently sensitised about the need to save water
when washing and to limit watering of plants.
uu See WHO step by step fact sheets for cleaning and disinfecting wells and bore
holes in the tools section of this chapter.
uu For more information on environmental issues, see chapter 6.
The range and technical sophistication of WASH facilities in camps varies from
context to context. Generally however, WASH providers will aim to set up this
core infrastructure:
• public or family latrines/toilets including hand washing facilities
sphere/
unhcr
UNHCR
Maximum number of persons per public toilet/latrine 20
Maximum distance from shelter to toilet/latrine (metres) 50
Minimum distance from groundwater sources to toilets/latrines and
30
soakaways (metres)
Minimum distance from bottom of latrine to water table (metres) 1.5
Maximum distance from shelter to container or household refuse pit
15
(metres)
Number of families per 100-litres refuse container 10
uu See UNHCR’s Handbook for Emergencies (pp. 270–272) for technical information
on latrine design.
The Sphere Project sets two key standards for human excreta
disposal in camps. They aim to ensure that people have sufficient
numbers of latrines, sufficiently close to their dwellings to allow them
rapid, safe and acceptable access at all times of the day and night.
Secondly, they have a right to be able to access toilets which are
designed, constructed and maintained in such a way as to be com-
fortable, hygienic and safe to use.
uu For information on Sphere and UNHCR minimum standards on site planning and
sanitation, see chapter 7.
uu For information on emergency sanitation see WHO’s technical note in the Tools
section of this chapter.
Open Defecation
Although in some rural cultures open defecation is still the common practice, the
Camp Management Agency should advocate for camp residents to avoid doing so
in camps as far as possible. Open defecation bears an often uncontrollable risk of
Drainage
Wastewater from latrines and bathing facilities or produced after cooking and
dishwashing carries various micro-organisms. If it is not drained properly it is
likely to result in infections, illnesses and epidemics. Standing wastewater or rain-
water can easily become breeding grounds for insects such as mosquitoes.
The Sphere Project sets two key standards for drainage. People
should have an environment that is acceptably free from risk of wa-
ter erosion and from standing water, including storm water, flood
water, domestic wastewater and wastewater from medical facilities.
Secondly, they should have the means – installations (drainage chan-
nels/soak-aways) and tools – to dispose of domestic wastewater
conveniently and effectively and to protect their shelters and other
family or communal facilities from flooding and erosion.
The Sphere project sets two key standards for solid waste man-
agement, aiming to ensure that people a) have an environment ac-
ceptably free of solid waste contamination, including medical wastes
and b) have the means to dispose of their domestic waste conveniently
and effectively.
There are three main techniques frequently used in camps for the disposal of
solid waste – burial, burning and composting.
• Burial of waste (also called sanitary land-filling or controlled tipping) in
trenches or large pits is relatively simple but caution must be ensured. Proper
drainage is essential to avoid contamination of water sources. When drain-
age is not adequate, trenches may sooner or later become disease-carrying
cesspits. Burial pits need to be closed safely with layers of soil when they are
full; whether under use or already closed. They should always be fenced off
and placed at a safe distance away from shelter and WASH infrastructure.
When setting up a camp’s waste disposal system, the WASH service provider
and the Camp Management Agency should make sure that:
• all material and infrastructure, whether bins, containers, pits or incinerators,
are of solid quality and safe for use
• all sites and places for garbage and waste disposal are fenced off, particularly
to protect children, and to keep animals away
• in cooperation with the WASH committees and the camp population, a daily
work plan and schedule are established for waste disposal and control and
maintenance of sites and pits
uu For information on solid waste disposal see WHO’s technical note in the Tools
section of this chapter.
Burial is generally the best and simplest way to dispose of dead bodies, if cultur-
ally acceptable. When planning a camp, the relevant stakeholders, including the
Camp Management Agency, should assign appropriate sites for graveyards and
the burial of dead bodies at a sufficient distance to shelter and infrastructure,
and where groundwater is fetched. Burial sites should be selected and set up in
close consultation with the displaced community.
uu For more information on disposal of dead bodies see WHO’s technical note in the
Tools section of this chapter.
The Sphere Project sets two key standards for hygiene promotion.
All sections of the affected population should be aware of priority hy-
giene practices that create the greatest risk to health and are able to
change them. They should have adequate information and resources
for the use of water and sanitation facilities to protect their health
and dignity. All facilities and resources provided should reflect the
vulnerabilities, needs and preferences of all sections of the affected
population. Users are to be involved in the management and main-
tenance of hygiene facilities where appropriate.
Vector Control
In tropical countries, malaria and diarrhoea are still the vector-borne diseases
of greatest public health concern as they present a major risk of sickness and
death. Malaria is transmitted by mosquitoes and diarrhoea by flies, but there
are other vectors that are considered particularly dangerous in camps where
people and animals may have to live together in cramped surroundings.
Physical control of vector-borne diseases involves all the measures and interven-
tions outlined above which can be used to:
• set up camps and sites where the physical characteristics and the geology
are appropriate; swamps and wetland are to be avoided
• provide safe drinking water at maintained water points
• put in place and maintain a sound camp drainage system, so that stagnant
water cannot become breeding grounds for mosquitoes
• clean and empty latrines and toilets properly and in a timely manner, so
that flies cannot lay their eggs and breed
• distribute safe and adequate storage facilities for households, such as con-
tainers and vessels
Chemical control of vector-borne diseases is not the best option in camps but
may sometimes be unavoidable. During diarrhoea epidemics space and shelter
spraying may be effective to reduce the number of adult flies. Chemical control
requires specialist technical follow-up. Concerned staff and camp residents
need to be trained accordingly. The WASH provider needs to make sure that suf-
ficient information is available about all chemicals used. Additionally, staff and
camp residents need to be equipped and protected adequately when handling
chemical substances.
• If possible, public WASH facilities should be well lit and safely placed, so
that women and girls do not have to fear to use them in the night. Pathways
to WASH infrastructure should be levelled off, so that persons on crutches
or in wheel chairs can use them.
• Latrines and WASH facilities should consider the particular needs of small
children and physically disabled persons. The WASH provider should design
and construct special latrines and bathing facilities that are appropriate and
allow these groups to use them safely and easily.
• When water for drinking or non-food items for hygiene and cleaning are in
short supply the WASH provider needs to make sure that supply is prioritised
to persons with specific needs and those at risk. Babies, children under five,
breastfeeding mothers and/or older persons will suffer first from a lack of
basics such as water or soap.
o WASH providers have sufficient technical expertise, trained staff and good
quality material available.
o Roles and responsibilities in the WASH sector are clarified and agreed upon
amongst the Camp Management Agency, the WASH provider, the WASH
committees and the local sanitation authorities.
o The camp population is sufficiently informed about who is doing what, where
and when.
o Work plans and data are shared; services, gaps and needs are reported.
o The Camp Management Agency’s and the WASH provider’s staff behave in
culturally appropriate and sensitive ways vis-à-vis the camp population.
Water Supply
o The current water sources (inside and outside the camp) are known and
mapped; alternative water supply has been assessed.
o The level of the groundwater table is known and taken into consideration.
o Water points and sources are easily accessible, safe and protected.
o Short-term and long-term water needs are assessed, and the water supply
is organised accordingly.
o A contamination risk assessment for water and water sources has been
carried out.
o Camp residents have enough water storage facilities such as vessels and
jerry cans.
o Agreements with the host community are made where water sources outside
the camp are being used.
o Possibilities have been assessed whether and how the host community may
benefit from camp WASH services provided.
o Persons with specific needs and those at risk are prioritised when water is
scarce.
o Women and girls have been involved in the design and placement of sanita-
tion facilities.
o Camp residents feel comfortable with the WASH infrastructures and know
how to use and maintain them.
o The soil conditions for on-site disposal of human excreta are assessed.
o Open defecation sites are fenced off and designated at a sufficient distance
from individual shelter, groundwater and public infrastructure.
o The slope of the camp site, the type of soil and the degree of infiltration are
taken into consideration when planning and setting-up the drainage system.
o Tools and material are made available to the camp residents, so that they can
protect their shelters and the infrastructure from flooding and wastewater.
o The camp WASH committees and the camp population are mobilised for
cleaning and maintenance; mutual roles and responsibilities are clear.
o A regular and sound solid waste disposal system is established and monitored.
o Trash sites, bins and containers are safe, and designated according to
standards and indicators.
o Reusable material is collected, and given to those that can make use of it.
o Camp residents report mortalities to the local administration and the Camp
Management Agency.
o Appropriate sites for burial and graveyards are fenced-off and designated
at a safe distance from individual shelter and groundwater.
o Relatives of the deceased are supported with material for grave digging and
burial as well as with burial cloths and shrouds.
o Clear and simple messages and information are given to the camp popula-
tion to promote hygiene.
o If chemicals are used for disinfection, they are known and adequately stored
and used and concerned staff are thoroughly trained in how to do so.
• Best practice guidelines for the on-site decommissioning of emergency and semi-
permanent raised level latrines from Sri Lanka
• Framework for decision-making regarding barracks
• Guidelines for the decommissioning of water & sanitation facilities from Sri
Lanka
• OXFAM. Instruction Manual for Hand Dug Well Equipment
• OXFAM. Water Supply Scheme for Emergencies
• OXFAM. Low Cost Drainage in Emergencies
• OXFAM. Water Treatment in Emergencies
• RedR, Latrine Decommissioning Training Notes (South Asia earthquake)
• Sphere, 2004. Water Supply and Sanitation Initial Needs Assessment Checklist
• WASH and CCCM clusters – Roles and Responsibilities Matrix
• WHO. Cleaning and Disinfecting Water Storage Tanks
• WHO. Cleaning and Disinfecting Wells in Emergencies
• WHO. Cleaning and Disinfecting Boreholes in Emergencies
• WHO. Emergency Sanitation – planning
• WHO. Emergency Sanitation- Technical Options
• WHO. Essential hygiene messages in post-disaster emergencies
• WHO. Disposal of Dead Bodies in Emergency Conditions
• WHO. Minimum water quantity needed for domestic use in emergencies
• WHO. Rehabilitating small scale-piped water distribution systems
• WHO. Solid waste management in emergencies
• WHO. Water, Sanitation and Hygiene promotion
• WHO. Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality
Gender and Water Alliance (GWA), 2003. The Gender and Water Development
Report, 2003: Gender Perspectives on Policies in the Water Sector.
http://wedc.lboro.ac.uk/publications/pdfs/gwa/gwa-gpopitws.pdf
Peter Harvey, Sohrab Baghri and Bob Reed, 2002, Emergency Sanitation:
Assessment and Programme Design , Water Engineering and Development Centre.
www.who.or.id/eng/contents/aceh/wsh/books/es/es.htm
International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies (IFRC), 2006.
Health and Care. Recommended Publications for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene.
Promotion. www.ifrc.org/docs/pubs/health/water/catalogue-2006.pdf
The Sphere Project & World Vision, 2006. The Sphere Pocket Guide.
www.sphereproject.org/component/option,com_docman/task,doc_view/gid,122/
Itemid,203/lang,English/
UNHCR, 2006, Practical Guide to the Systematic Use of Standards and Indicators
in UNHCR Operations. www.unhcr.org/statistics/STATISTICS/40eaa9804.pdf
WHO, 2007. Malaria Elimination. A Field Manual for Low and Moderate Endemic
Countries. www.who.int/malaria/docs/elimination/MalariaElimination_BD.pdf
WHO, Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council, 2005. Sanitation and
Hygiene Promotion. Programming Guidance.
http://esa.un.org/iys/docs/san_lib_docs/Sani_Hygiene_Promo.pdf
u Shelter needs and use change over time, and people need support to main-
tain, upgrade and re-use their shelters. Materials and designs should be
durable and flexible enough to permit user adaptation.
u The need for strong technical support during all programme stages should
not be underestimated. The Camp Management Agency and shelter providers
need to make sure that sufficient staff are available for technical supervision
of shelter construction and monitoring of usage and occupancy.
Shelter is required by people for health, security and dignity. A shelter is more
than just protection from weather conditions for it provides a space to live, store
belongings and maintain privacy. Good shelter programmes enable a family to
have access to work opportunities and promote a sense of security while living
in a temporary community.
At the start of operations, all options for sheltering displaced families should
be investigated. If taking over or upgrading an existing camp, shelter provid-
ers and the Camp Management Agency should take time to assess what has
already been built by the inhabitants of the camp/settlement. Remember that
the physical components of a shelter programme include not only walls and a
roof but also clothing, bedding and cooking sets – collectively known as non-
food items (NFIs).
Integrating the needs of individual family dwellings will determine the scale
and pattern of the camp site. Defining the community’s shelter needs can be
done through focus group discussions and dialogue with the camp and host
communities to settle upon appropriate shelter designs and features. Site plan-
ning and shelter designs also need to take into consideration the delivery and
maintenance of other camp services, such as food and NFI distribution, other
camp infrastructure and external logistics supplies. Overall, it is important to
have a clear site plan before building shelters or distributing materials. Site
planning considerations need to be understood in relation to shelter and how
people will live in the camp.
The way land has been negotiated and the early relationships
that have been developed between the camp population and the host
community will also have an impact on the running and management
of a camp.
key issues
Preparedness/Contingency
When planning or preparing for scenarios of further population influxes into
the camp (including those due to natural increases in the camp population as
a result of births), the Camp Management Agency should develop a “ladder of
options” that will allow increase or decreases in shelter provision depending on
how many new arrivals are received. Planning in this manner will ensure that
adequate reserves of appropriate shelter materials are available when required.
Remember that it is important to consider exit strategies at this stage as well.
Emergency/Transitional Shelter
As the Emergency Shelter Cluster’s Key Things to Know guidance points out, any
shelter provision has the goals of “survival, security and safety, human dignity
and sustainability of social life”. Emergency shelter support must be designed for
rapid implementation. However, camps often last for many years and emergency
shelter programmes should be followed by programmes that support occupants
in achieving stronger and more lasting shelter.
The term “transitional shelter” is commonly used in shelter programmes to
imply that the shelter is moveable, adaptable and expandable. Materials such
as plastic sheeting, tents, or sticks/bamboo may, if appropriate, be re-used
at a later stage in the transition to a more long-lasting – and ideally durable
– dwelling. However “transitional shelter” programmes imply that there is a
vision of what and where the durable shelter solutions will be. This is often not
the case in camps.
• consider that the shelter design selected will depend upon many issues
such as:
– what people can build
– what materials are available
– the anticipated length of displacement
– what type of buildings the host population live in.
Size of Shelters
Living in a camp is a challenge. The noise and associated lack of privacy caused
by living in such close proximity to each other can be very stressful for all mem-
bers of a family. These stresses can be partly offset by ensuring that shelters
have sufficient space for sleeping and dressing, care of infants or ill people, the
storage of food, water and possessions and a communal family gathering space.
Each shelter should have additional space for eating and washing. In longer-term
camps, many families may want extra space for home-based enterprises or to
store tools and supplies.
Sphere shelter and management standard 3 specifies that people should have
sufficient covered space to provide dignified accommodation, undertake essential
household activities and support livelihoods. However, it may not be possible to
meet these guidelines in all situations. Camp Management Agencies need to be
pragmatically aware of social dynamics and be prepared to make exceptions:
• Shelter programmes and non-food items distributions are often conducted
on a family basis. However, family sizes may vary significantly as well as
change over time. This can lead to situations where a single individual can
have the same size shelter as a family of 12.
Note that the standard size of a tent is 16m2 – only large enough
for three people.
Although, both UNHCR and Sphere advocate for “people [to] have sufficient
covered living space to provide dignified accommodation, [where] essential
household activities can be satisfactorily undertaken and livelihood support
activities can be pursued as required,” these indicators are largely dependant
upon climate and other services that are available for camp populations. The
Sphere indicator for shelter is 3.5m2 covered area/person. UNHCR (2007) sug-
gests a range from 3.5m2 to 5.5m2. Sphere further notes that if this target cannot
be attained, or is greater than the typical space used by the affected population,
then considerations should be given to the impact on dignity, heath and privacy
of a reduced covered area.
Different types of shelter programme are listed below. They may need to be
combined when materials are not locally available.
• NFI distribution is one of the most common forms of emergency shelter
intervention. Tool kits may be included in distributions to help people to
build safer structures. Note that cooking sets are often included as shelter
methods of implementation
Efficient on-site shelter monitoring is challenging and requires qualified technical
staff for supervision. The methods that are selected in organising and managing
shelter programmes should involve the displaced communities through focus
Overcrowding and initial poor site planning can make it challenging to maintain
and upgrade shelters at a later stage. However, upgrading of poorly constructed
shelter is a priority for camp maintenance and may fall directly to the Camp
Management Agency to organise.
risks
Risks represent a combination of threats (such as flooding of shelters) with
the exposure to that risk (high where there is no drainage). Exposure may be
increased by factors such as poor site selection (for example if a site is located
in a flood plain).
It is important to maintain and update shelter data (house registration and num-
bering; distributions; repairs; cost estimates for upgrades and other planning
data) that can be shared with others. This information can be cross-referenced
in the event of a health outbreak or to treat specific problems associated with
pests that may develop in certain sections of the camp.
Rain/Flooding
The best way to avoid risk of flooding is through good site selection and planning
Often shelters are not waterproofed prior to the rainy season. As much as pos-
sible, organise plastic sheeting distributions in the months before the rains are
due. Additionally, much flooding prevention is connected to maintenance of
drainage ditches and irrigation channels. If a site survey prior to the rainy season
indicates that shelters fall within flood risk areas, it may be necessary to move
them. If there is no other option elevated platforms should be considered.
Fire
Fire can be a significant cause of injury, death and loss of property in a camp
setting. Plans must be in place to ensure prevention and preparedness. As much
as possible, these plans must be shared with the camp population so that people
know what to do in case of fire. Existing committees can be formed or appointed
to be responsible for fire prevention, preparedness and fire response.
prevention
1. sites should have regular firebreaks
2. shelters should ideally be spaced at a minimum of twice their
height apart
3. prohibit open fires or bare flames inside shelters unless in a
well-contained area – please note that national policies on this
may vary
4. regulate when cooking fires are allowed in dry seasons
5. ensure candles – if allowed in the camp – are placed in lamps or
in jars
6. remind camp residents to never leave a candle lit while sleeping
or when they leave the shelter
7. provide sensitisation training on the risks associated with smok-
ing inside or near shelters
8. ensure stoves do not touch or adjoin flammable walls
9. ensure chimneys project through a solid wall or through a fire-
proof plate
10. ensure electric light bulbs are at least 20 cm from tent canvas
or other flammable materials
11. regularly inspect electrical wiring.
preparedness
1. provide fire stations with buckets (with small holes to reduce risk
of theft); sand, fire beaters and fire extinguishers
2. note that spraying water will only cause kerosene fires to
spread
3. provide a firebell to alert other camp residents to large fire out-
breaks
4. set up community fire committees to train camp residents on
preventing and dealing with fires
5. enforce fire breaks and keep them free of debris, and ensure fire
stations are equipped to help deal with fires.
uu
Earthquake
If in doubt about the seismic resistance of shelters in a camp, an engineer should
be employed to assess the structures and suggest improvements. Where earth-
quake or aftershock risk is high consider hiring an engineer to assess the safety of
existing buildings before using them as collective centres. Generally lightweight
and well-braced structures are less likely to cause injury. Wherever possible, steep
slopes should be avoided as they are prone to landslides. Remember that:
• Where earthquake risk is high, people should be encouraged to store heavy ob-
jects and jars nearer the ground where they cannot fall on people’s heads.
• When an earthquake occurs people need to be trained not to immediately
run outside buildings as slates and glass might fall from above.
Snowy Weather
Snow can cause shelters to collapse; displaced persons (via the camp shelter
committee if it exists) need to be prepared for heavy snow falls prior to onset
of winter:
Hot Climates
In hot climates shade and ventilation are essential. Use of materials such as
thatch, banana leaves or reflective paint on roofs of shelters should be encour-
infrastructure services
Numbering Shelters
Numbering shelters helps to:
• clarify who is registered as being in the camp
• identify families
• trace camp residents, especially if residents are linked to the number of the
house in which they live. Data can be held in a secure spreadsheet or even
a GIS system
People may tap into the electricity supply. This has cost implications for the
supplier, but more critically can lead to safety issues. Thus, the responsible
agency needs to:
• ensure that a professional electrician has checked the wiring to reduce risk
of electrical shocks and or fire
• check domestic wiring arrangements and ensure that bulbs are not too close
to flammable materials such as thatch roofs
• monitor if any families in the camp have acquired their own generator/elec-
tricity source. If necessary awareness campaigns on safe usage – such as
safe storage and refilling of fuel and venting of exhaust gases – would need
to be carried out.
Household Energy
The need for fuelwood around camps often leads to significant protection issues
in searching for wood; health issues due to indoor smoke and environmental
issues due to the impact of fuel wood collection.
There is rarely a single solution to household energy needs and a programme
is usually required as part of camp management that combines support for;
building stoves with flues, using suitable pots with lids, collecting fuel, drying
fuel and sustainably sourcing supplies from the region. Ideally, fuel should be
a major consideration in the size of the camp as well as location of the camp
during the set-up phase.
Gas
Piped gas is seldom provided to camps although there are examples of collective
centres where existing gas supplies are used. Where piped gas is used, profes-
sional technicians need to check installations. Gas is more frequently used in
canisters for cooking. If cooking fuel is used in a camp canisters must be stored
outside of shelters to avoid fumes. Additional security measures may need to
be put in place to prevent theft.
Housing Allocation
This needs to be carefully considered where persons with specific needs or groups
at risk live in camps. Whenever possible, personal choices should be respected
in determining sites for these persons and groups. However, segregation might
also increase vulnerabilities through the creation of a “vulnerable ghetto”.
o The shelter response per family is decided, taking account of the number of
people in each family.
o Programmes are planned which enable people to live in dignity and to provide
care and protection to their families.
o There is a water and sanitation plan for the camp including water supply,
site drainage, hygiene promotion and solid waste disposal.
o Site selection has taken place to ensure that the camp is located away from
security and safety threats such as conflict areas or landslides.
o Potential risks to lives, health and security through inadequate shelter have
been assessed.
o The effect of general living arrangements and the social organisation of the
displaced population on the protection and care of vulnerable persons, are
taken into account.
o The more vulnerable people, and those with specific needs, are being sup-
ported to construct or upgrade their shelters, and transport shelter materials
from distribution sites.
Contingency
o Potential further disasters such as fire are planned for.
o There is a plan in place and sufficient materials to deal with new population
influxes and other scenarios.
o Discussions have taken place on more durable shelter plans between camp
management, local authorities, and residents.
Management
o There is an active shelter organisation in the camp and they have sufficient
resources, skills and capacities to support shelter needs.
o The different needs and activities of women and men, children and persons
with specific needs around the shelter, have been taken into considera-
tion.
o The shelter provision in the camp is in line with local practices and norms.
Other Considerations
o The environmental impact of shelter, fuel, sanitation and waste disposal is
assessed and planned for.
Maintenance
o The issues or improvements that have the highest net worth to inhabitants
are assessed.
o People are supported to maintain their shelters through the most appropri-
ate means.
o The Camp Management Agency advocates for solutions in the event of any
administrative reasons why people cannot upgrade their shelters.
o Camp residents have access to tools and materials to upgrade their shelters.
Centre on Housing Rights and Evictions (COHRE). The Pinheiro Principles – United
Nations Principles on Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced
Persons. www.cohre.org/store/attachments/Pinheiro%20Principles.pdf
MSF, Shelter Centre, 2006. Shade Nets: Use and Deployment in Humanitarian
Relief Environments. www.sheltercentre.org/shelterlibrary/items/pdf/Shade_Nets_
Field_Booklet.pdf
Multi-agency, 2007. Housing and Property Restitution for Refugees and Displaced
Persons: Implementing the “Pinheiro Principles”, Handbook.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/010/aI131e/aI131e00.pdf
OCHA, 2004, Tents – A Guide to the Use and Logistics of Family Tents in Human-
itarian Relief. http://ochaonline.un.org/OchaLinkClick.aspx?link=ocha&DocId=1002112
OCHA, IFRC, CARE, 2008. Timber. A Guide to the Planning, Use, Procurement and
Logistics of Timber as a Construction Material in Humanitarian Operations
www.humanitariantimber.org/files/download/TIMBER_Draft_1.0_Jan_08_A5.pdf
UNEP, 2007. After the Tsunami. Sustainable Building Guidelines for South-East Asia.
http://postconflict.unep.ch/publications/dmb_bb_tsunami.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 485
key messages
u The health status of a camp population is often fragile and many are vulnerable to
a complex array of threats and risk factors for disease and death. Health service
providers in coordination with the Camp Management Agency should ensure
that appropriate health care services, including active case finding and health
education, are available to all camp residents to mitigate their vulnerabilities.
u For health care services to be effective, the camp population must be involved
in key decisions from the start and remain an essential part of the overall
programme for delivery and evaluation of health services. Health services
should be provided ‘with’– and not ‘for’ – the population.
u While the Camp Management Agency is often not a health specialist, concrete
steps can be taken in collaboration with health cluster/service providers in
the camp to limit the impact of epidemics and promote health education.
The quality of camp management can be a major determinant of life and
death to a camp population.
486 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
introduction
Good health can be challenging to maintain or achieve in a camp setting but can
be accomplished with multi-sector interventions. The activities include:
• improving the environment and living conditions of the camp population by
decreasing overcrowding
• proper excreta disposal
• ensuring adequate food and water supplies
• vector control
• providing adequate shelter
• health education and training on key messages.
The health sector contributes to the goal of reducing mortality, reducing morbid-
ity and increasing quality of life via the implementation of preventative measures
and appropriate case management of diseases. This entails:
• putting a surveillance system is in place and. if data suggests the occurrence
of an outbreak, ensuring there is an early and adequate response
• ensuring coordination and planning mechanisms are in place so that infor-
mation is shared and translated into effective and timely decision-making
and action planning
• implementing a basic health system, which is rapidly staffed and provided
with supplies to ensure early and adequate treatment of the main diseases
• providing health education regarding prevention of disease and maintenance
of good health to all persons living or working in the camp.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 487
The various stages of camp life – often referred to as the ‘cycle of displacement’
or the ‘camp life cycle’ – begins at the onset of displacement and lasts until a
durable solution is implemented. The emergency phase is associated with the
onset of displacement that forces individuals to seek refuge outside of their home
areas or countries. The emergency phase can be characterised by:
• high mortality rates – over 1 death/10,000 population/day
• absence of health services in the camp or the health infrastructure is over-
whelmed and inadequate
• inadequate response from the local or national authorities
• breakdown of any regular coordination mechanisms.
The ideal is not always feasible in the emergency phase of a camp environment
and there are often significant constraints to delivering basic services. However,
every possible effort should be made to implement best practices, even with
limitations in staffing, material resources, support systems, security, funding and
coordination. Emergency services are specific to each camp environment, and
services challenging to sustain in the long-term are often justified until mortality
rates are brought under control.
The second phase, or post emergency phase, is marked by greater stability.
Mortality rates have lowered to less than 1 death/10,000 population/day and
minimum standards for basic needs such as food, water and shelter have usu-
ally been met. This phase is a chance to expand and improve health services
established during the emergency phase, and to develop and see the benefits
of, health education programmes.
In the third, and final stage, durable solutions are identified, and camp
inhabitants leave the camp. At this stage issues around information manage-
ment such as information campaigns, referrals and the confidentiality of medical
records need consideration. Likewise the handover/decommissioning of health
care facilities in the camp, and an assessment of health care provision in areas
of return and/or resettlement is required. The health care needs of the camp
population during camp closure and the returns/resettlement process need to
be planned, especially for those with impaired mobility and other specific health
care needs.
This chapter will present health care issues that a Camp Management Agency
needs to be aware of in order to support the coordination of the health sector
and monitor interventions of health service providers as required in the various
phases of a camp life cycle.
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key issues
The primary roles and responsibilities of the lead health agency are:
• coordinating with local health authorities in all aspects of the health services
within the camp
• facilitating cooperation among all health service providers to ensure ap-
propriate implementation and monitoring of health services agreed in co-
ordination meetings
• collecting information from the health service providers and generating
reports on relevant health issues
• disseminating information on health issues to other relevant sectors and
agencies
• coordinating with the Camp Management Agency.
Both agencies are responsible for ensuring that the level and quality of health
services provided by all health agencies adhere to locally or internationally ac-
cepted standards and medical ethics.
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Local health authorities must be contacted and involved from
the outset of medical programmes in a camp. Their cooperation in
establishing or supporting health structures is key to successful and
sustainable programmes.
The following sections of this chapter will highlight key terminology and aspects
of health strategies and services in a camp and explain important points for su-
pervising and coordinating health services. Additional roles and responsibilities
of the Camp Management Agency/lead health agency are included.
490 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
Coordination between Local Health Authorities
and Health Relief Agencies
Local health officials may be resistant to assessment findings or health
interventions which reflect poorly on the government or the nation. The
Camp Management Agency should advocate for necessary interven-
tions and appropriate standards while maintaining a functional working
relationship with the authorities.
assessments
An initial assessment coordinated by the lead health agency in cooperation with
the Camp Management Agency will identify health needs, services available and
gaps. The results of the assessment will inform implementation strategies includ-
ing whether to support established services or if new services are required.
It is important that the assessment team be experienced, as objective as
possible and independent of political or other influences. Ideally, the initial as-
sessment should be completed within three days of forming a camp or within
three days of arrival at an already established camp. If there is time to plan for
a camp set-up, and persons arrive in a moderate and manageable stream, then
health screening for each person can constitute an initial assessment.
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The Presence and Activities of UN, Government and Non-Governmental
Actors in the Health Sector
The initial assessment should give an overview of who is present in the camp,
what services are offered or planned to be offered by each organisation, what
is their operational capacity and what areas their services will cover. In very
large camps health agencies may offer the same services in different zones of
the camp. This overview is essential in order to maximise resources available
and prevent overlapping services. Existing health services within or outside the
camp should be explored and their ability to provide health care to the camp
population identified. This includes identifying and ensuring access to a referral
hospital, a referral laboratory for specimen analysis and already established
medical services. The team should identify the qualified health personnel avail-
able from the local health authorities and health relief agencies already present
within the camp as well as camp residents with health qualifications. Their level
of training should also be assessed.
Methods
The above data should be collected quickly and simply in the initial assessment
in order to produce a reliable snapshot of the population. Examples of assess-
ment methods are interviews with the local health authorities, interviews with
the camp population, collection of morbidity and mortality data from medical
facilities, interviews with informal health providers (e.g. traditional birth attend-
ants) and direct observation – such as counting graves to determine mortality
rates and visiting existing health facilities.
uu For an example of an initial health assessment see the Reading and References
section.
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Initial assessments are done rapidly and are used to inform emergency action.
A follow-up assessment is required within one to three weeks and will provide
more detailed information to maintain an organised, coordinated health response
to the camp population. In addition, thematic assessments can be conducted
at this time, such as assessing the prevalence of micronutrient deficiencies or
immunisation rates among children. Surveys using a representative sample
methodology should be implemented at this stage. Relief activities in the initial
days (e.g. measles vaccination, food and water interventions) should not wait
for a comprehensive assessment. These follow-up assessments can be carried
out in coordination with the below activities.
Take care when choosing key informants. The most accessible key
informants, such as camp elders and leaders, may overlook health
concerns of important health service users. Child mortality is a key
concern and women and adolescents are usually children’s primary
caregivers. They should be consulted in assessments. Further, per-
sons with specific needs and groups at risk, such as minorities and
persons with disabilities, may have challenges to access health care
and should be included as key informants.
vaccinations
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Measles outbreaks can still occur in a population with high levels
of vaccine coverage. The current measles vaccine, under normal con-
ditions, covers 85% of children when administered at nine months of
age. A significant number of people are still susceptible to measles
and vulnerable to further outbreak due to the extreme infectiousness
of the disease. The aim is to ensure coverage of 100% of children
aged six months to 14 years of age.
Ideally, all children from six months to 14 years of age should be vaccinated
regardless of previous vaccination status. This non-selective vaccination strategy
has the following advantages:
• A second dose of the measles vaccine does not have adverse effects and
can improve the immunological response.
• The vaccination campaign can cover the population rapidly while checking
individual vaccine cards is time consuming.
• There is less possibility of error (e.g. cards may be read incorrectly or sibling
cards may be switched).
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Vaccination under six months of age is not recommended as there is a risk of
interfering with maternal antibodies. Measles vaccination programmes in stable
situations vaccinate only to age five, but due to the high risk environment in camp
situations the recommendation extends to children aged 14. Mass measles immu-
nisation campaigns should be coupled but not delayed by Vitamin A distribution
to children aged six months through 14 years. Vitamin A supplementation has
been shown to markedly reduce measles-associated mortality.
Measles vaccination can occur on arrival in the camp. However, if this is not
possible because the population is settled or is overwhelming reception cen-
tres, then a mass immunisation campaign is required. This campaign has the
following elements:
• Information and education campaign: Camp populations should be informed
about location of vaccination posts, information about the vaccine, risks
involved and the importance of receiving the vaccine.
• Training of immunisation teams: Some team members do not have to be
qualified health workers as comprehensive training can prepare them for
the campaign.
• Immunisation posts: There should be one or two vaccination posts per
10,000 people. Distance to vaccination posts is a potential obstacle to
immunisation and multiple posts dispersed within the camp are preferable
to a centralised facility.
• Outreach activities: Community health workers can move through the camp
during the campaign and refer children to the immunisation posts.
• Vaccination cards: These are issued to every child. If a child is 6-8 months
old it should be clearly indicated on the card, and explained to the caregiver,
that a second vaccine should be given at the age of nine months.
• Reporting: A daily record should be made of the numbers vaccinated per
day (and per site) and the number of doses used.
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uu For an example of a measles surveillance vaccination form
see the Tools section.
uu For more information on maintaining a cold chain, see the Reading and Refer-
ences section.
It has been established that one immunisation team with two vaccinators can
vaccinate approximately 500–700 people per hour. The following is an example
of staffing needs for a mass vaccination campaign:
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Other Vaccines for Epidemic-Prone Diseases
Unlike the measles vaccine, all other mass vaccination campaigns should be
initiated only after confirmation of an epidemic-prone disease in the camp and
an epidemic threshold (a point at which an outbreak is declared and mass vac-
cination can be considered) has been reached. The lead health agency should
confer with local health authorities, officials and experts in communicable
disease when considering whether to start a mass immunisation vaccination
campaign for epidemic-prone diseases, as the methodology for vaccination
differs according to context. Some important vaccine preventable epidemic-
prone diseases include:
• Bacterial meningitis – caused by the pathogen Neisseria meningitidis and
commonly referred to as meningococcal meningitis. Clinical features include
a sudden onset with fever, intense headache, stiff neck and occasional vomit-
ing and irritability. As the infection is usually transmitted person-to-person
via aerosols in crowded situations the epidemic threshold is lower in a camp
situation. The priority group for vaccination is children aged between two
and ten.
• Yellow fever causes very serious epidemics with high mortality rates. The
virus is spread to humans via mosquito vectors. Clinical features include a
sudden onset of fever, headache and backache, muscle pain, nausea and
vomiting and red eyes. These clinical symptoms appear in the acute phase
and can be confused with many other diseases. A period of remission follows
and then a toxic phase where the patient presents with jaundice (yellowing
of the skin) two weeks after onset of the first symptoms. There may also be
bleeding from the gums, nose, in the stool and vomit. A vaccine can be given
to everyone in the camp from the age of two months and gives immunity for
at least ten years.
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Routine Immunisation: Expanded Programme of Immunisation (EPI)
In the post-emergency phase, a complete EPI programme should be an integral
part of the longer term health care programmes. The standard EPI programme
consists of measles, diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough) and tetanus toxoid
(DPT), oral polio (OPV) and Bacille Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccines. All children
under five should receive necessary immunisations for their relevant age groups.
This programme should not be started unless the population is expected to re-
main stable (tentatively after six months but still depending on the context), the
human and material resources are adequate for implementation, (e.g. cold chain)
and a plan exists for integration into the national immunisation programme.
Routine immunisations should be offered via fixed immunisation points such as
a hospital, health centre, health posts, feeding centres or screening/registration
centres. Each of these points should check vaccination status via vaccination
cards and vaccinate children on the spot if vaccine facilities are available, or
refer to an immunisation point. Outreach activities via community health workers
should also check vaccination status and refer to immunisation points.
nutrition
In a displaced population inadequate or threatened food security often leads
to an increased risk of malnutrition, which is a factor for increased morbidity
and mortality. Malnutrition can be caused from deficiencies in macronutrients
(nutrients that provide energy) and deficiencies in micronutrients (such as vi-
tamins and minerals). Often, camp populations are vulnerable to nutritional
deficiencies due to livelihoods lost, food supplies interrupted, long journeys
to the camp and infectious disease outbreaks. Persons arriving at the camp
may already have high levels of malnutrition. Causes of malnutrition are often
complex and cross-sectoral. The Camp Management Agency needs to monitor
whether food and nutritional programmes are coordinated with health and
other vital sectors such as water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH), education and
livelihoods. UNICEF is the global lead for nutrition and should be consulted by
the Camp Management Agency or lead health agency for advice or additional
expertise. WFP is the lead agency on food, responsible for both the general as
well as supplementary feeding rations.
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Food security is a concept that refers to the ability of a household
to feed its members, enabling them to live full and active lives.
Nutritional Requirements
When calculating energy requirements and designing food rations in a camp, 2,100
kcal/person/day is the initial planning figure in the emergency phase. An increase
in the kilocalories/person/day of general rations should be considered if:
• there are a disproportionate number of adult men, for adult men require
more kilocalories per day to maintain optimal nutritional status
• there is widespread illness, epidemics, general malnutrition and/or a crude
mortality rate (CMR) > 1. (CMR is defined as deaths per 10,000 per day)
• there are increased activity levels among the entire population (e.g. when a
food-for-work programme is implemented in the camp and labour-intensive
work is undertaken)
• the average temperature is below 20˚C.
There are two categories of malnutrition – acute and chronic. Chronic mal-
nutrition is associated with malnutrition over a long period of time and is not
associated with high rates of mortality. Acute malnutrition is the category that
contributes to high morbidity and mortality rates in a camp and is thus, what
should be assessed during the emergency phase. Severe acute malnutrition can
present itself in different forms:
• Marasmus: this is characterised by severe wasting of fat and muscle, which
the body breaks down for energy. This is the most common form of protein
energy malnutrition in an emergency.
• Kwashiorkor: this is characterised primarily by oedema (swelling due to an
accumulation of fluid in intercellular spaces of the body usually beginning
in the feet and legs) and sometimes accompanied by changes in hair colour
to greyish or reddish. Clinical features also include apathetic and irritable
demeanour and a lack of appetite.
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• Marasmic Kwashiorkor: this is characterised by a combination of severe
wasting and oedema.
Vitamins and minerals are also needed for adequate functioning of the body
and protection against disease. Vitamins B, C, A, D and minerals such as iron,
sodium, iodine, zinc, magnesium and potassium are the major nutrients the body
needs in order to function properly. Micronutrient deficiencies can lead to an
increased risk of mortality, morbidity, blindness, adverse birth outcomes and
susceptibility to infection. With food distributions in camps it is imperative to
verify that persons are provided with appropriate micronutrients. The general
food ration should provide required micronutrients, which is normally achieved
by adding some fortified food commodities (e.g. iodised salt, fortified grains).
However, it may still be necessary to provide micronutrient supplementation
through the health system (e.g. iron tablets for pregnant women and vitamin
A for children).
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Additional measurements to be collected as deemed necessary are:
• Mid Upper Arm Circumference. MUAC is a rapid, simple measurement of the
left arm circumference at the mid-point between the elbow and shoulder. It
can be a predictor of the immediate risk of death from malnutrition. However,
this measurement has a high risk of error and it should be part of a two-step
screening process. If a child falls below a certain cut-off circumference, then
s/he is referred to a WFH measuring post where a second measurement is
taken for inclusion in a selective feeding programme.
• Body Mass Index. BMI measurements can be used in adolescents (persons
> 137 cm) and non-pregnant adults to determine malnutrition. Adults and
adolescents are usually at less risk than young children from malnutrition,
but in specific contexts it may be necessary to include this age group. The
formula is calculated as [weight/(height x height)] = BMI.
Below are the cut-off points used to define acute malnutrition for different in-
dicators.
There are no specific rules for repeated nutritional surveys, but it is recommended
in the emergency phase that a nutritional survey be repeated as often as neces-
sary and as resources allow, as food supply systems may be weak, there may be
influxes of more people and a greater risk of epidemics and elevated mortality
rates. Additional surveys can expand the indicators to include assessment such
as of micronutrient deficiencies or measles vaccination status according to the
priorities of the evolving situation.
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Capturing Representative Samples
A displaced population fled an insecure area in East Africa. Those who
arrived first established a self-settled camp and new arrivals settled in
ever-widening circles around its periphery. There was no systematic
population count or organisation of households and the camp popu-
lation fluctuated on a daily basis. A cluster sampling technique was
implemented for a nutrition survey, but only started measuring children
from the centre of the camp. Those households on the periphery of the
camp had spent longer in their journey to the camp, which included
longer periods without proper food or basic health services. The results
of the nutritional survey were reviewed by the lead health agency and
malnutrition levels were low. No complementary nutritional programmes
were implemented. However, there were needs among the newly ar-
rived population which were not measured. Were the most vulnerable
and at highest risk for malnutrition properly represented in the survey?
What questions could the Camp Management Agency have asked to the
nutritional survey team before making programmatic decisions? Could
corroborative data from health facilities have raised alarms? Survey
results are relevant and useful only if sampling procedures are stand-
ardised and properly applied to ensure that the individuals measured
are representative of the whole population and that the results are
comparative over time.
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malnutrition can then be effective. Persons with specific needs (e.g. pregnant
women) may be included in supplementary and therapeutic feeding programmes
even if they do not qualify as acutely malnourished.
Selective feeding programmes can be implemented in two ways: feeding at
health centres or feeding programmes or ‘take home’ rations for supplementary
feeding. In case of the latter, rations are increased to take into account sharing
at household level.
Below is a decision chart for the implementation of selective feeding pro-
grammes. Please note that this decision chart should be used as a guide and
should be adapted to local camp situations.
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Aggravating factors include a general food ration below the mean
energy requirement, crude mortality rate greater than 1/10,000
population/day, epidemic of measles or other, high incidence of res-
piratory or diarrhoeal diseases.
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protocols and teach staff appropriate methodologies for therapeutic
feeding centres. Supporting existing services, instead of setting up
parallel systems, increased the long-term capacity of the government
health staff to treat severe malnutrition.
The following activities can reduce malnutrition amongst infants and children:
• Community Health Workers (CHWs) should identify vulnerable households
with infants, young children or pregnant women.
• Priority registration for food distribution should be negotiated for persons
with specific needs and groups at risk.
• Sheltered breastfeeding stations should be organised near registration and
distribution points.
• Women can be recruited to provide encouragement and practical assistance
on feeding practices to households with infants and small children.
• Those responsible for unaccompanied children need to be identified: they
should receive appropriate food supplementation (e.g. breastmilk substitutes
for orphaned infants).
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structure of health care services
The structure of health care services in a camp should offer active case finding,
early diagnosis and appropriate treatment of the priority diseases. It is essential
to coordinate with and support established health structures. However, in most
camp situations the high number of patients using the services (especially during
the emergency phase) may overwhelm the local governmental or private health
services, even when supported. Therefore, it may be necessary to implement
a new health structure. Regardless of the strategy, health services in a camp
structured according to the following four-tier model has proven successful in
various conditions.
• Outreach activities: Community health workers and trained birth attendants
provide outreach activities. Their duties include home visiting; identification
and referral of sick persons and malnourished children; identification of
pregnant women for referral to reproductive health services; basic health
education; mortality data-gathering for the health information system.
• Peripheral facilities: Health posts should provide basic consultations, basic
curative care (no injectable medications and a limited essential drug list),
oral rehydration therapy (ORT), dressings for wounds, a locked pharmacy,
simple sterilisation facilities and data collection.
• Central facility: This should provide a 24-hour service with in-patient and
out-patient services. Basic laboratory services may be available, but this is
not the priority in the emergency phase.
• Referral Hospital: The health system within the camp must be able to refer
patients to hospitals for advanced services. A referral hospital should provide
emergency surgical and obstetric care, laboratory and x-ray services and treat-
ment of severe diseases. Only in very specific cases, when a referral hospital
is not available or overwhelmed (e.g. by many war-wounded surgical cases),
should a camp/field hospital be established. Normally only a small number
of patients will require referral. Therefore a local referral hospital should be
supported instead of setting up a parallel structure within the camp.
506 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
In the emergency phase, it is not a priority to establish a laboratory in the camp.
The key priority is to identify an established referral laboratory where specimens
collected for outbreak investigation (e.g. shigellosis and cholera) may be sent.
Most patients presenting to camp health facilities in the emergency phase can
be treated based on a clinical diagnosis derived from protocols. Before blood
transfusion services commence within the camp a laboratory that tests all blood
for HIV must be established.
Human Resources
Staff salaries and incentives should be addressed from the outset of recruitment.
In principle, all staff working on a daily basis with clearly identified responsibili-
ties and defined working hours should receive salaries or incentives. The Camp
Management Agency should support the lead health agency in coordinating all
health actors in the camp ensuring all are adhering to the same standards.
When recruiting staff for health services, the order of preference for selec-
tion is: camp population/IDPs/refugees; experienced nationals from the local
host community; outsiders. Most camp situations will require a mixture of these
sources, but it is important to remember that health services are being devel-
oped ‘with’ and not ‘for’ the camp population. Women are an important part
of the health system within the camp, and they should be encouraged to apply
for health care jobs. Health services dominated by men may discourage use or
acceptance by the primary users – women.
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The table below indicates minimum staffing requirements – as set out in the
Sphere Standards – for different tiers of the health system.
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Qualified health workers, as specified in the above chart, are defined as formally-
trained clinical providers, such as a physician, nurse, clinical officer or medical
assistant. However, in a camp setting it may be difficult to recruit formally-trained
clinical staff for health care services. Staff without formal clinical training may
be able to perform certain clinical duties with additional support and careful
supervision. There also may be camp residents who have received formal train-
ing from their home countries or places of origin, but their qualifications are not
recognised by the local health authorities. In these cases, it is important for the
health agencies and the Camp Management Agency to discuss with national
health authorities the possibility of employing such individuals in clinical jobs
if necessary.
Training
It is essential that if a mix of health staff recruited among the camp population
and local government are working together in a health facility, initial training
should be done to clarify case definitions and appropriate protocols for case
management. Even if local health authorities’ case definitions and protocols are
utilised, it is a good time for refresher training for local staff and a chance to be
clear that all staff are carrying out responsibilities in the same way.
Training all health workers and non-health workers assisting in health care in
proper universal precautions is essential when managing health systems within a
camp. Health agencies should ensure that all clinical staff have logistical supplies
(e.g. sharps disposal containers, appropriate quantities of disposable needles
and syringes) to facilitate practicing universal precautions. The basic concepts
of universal precautions are:
• All workers should wash hands thoroughly with soap and water, especially
after contact with body fluids or wounds.
• Protective gloves and clothing should be used when there is a risk of contact
with blood or other potentially infected body fluids.
• Safe handling and disposing of waste material, needles and other sharp
instruments, as well as properly cleaning and disinfecting medical instru-
ments between patients.
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Sufficient Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) facilities and
adequate equipment for universal precautions are essential in all
health facilities, even small health posts.
uu For more information regarding “New Emergency Kit” and UNFPA Reproductive
Health Kits, see the Tools section.
uu For more on WHO’s Model List of Essential Medicine for Adults and Children see
the Tools section.
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health information systems (his) –
Monitoring and Surveillance of Communicable
Diseases and Health Care Services
Health information systems (HIS) should be implemented as soon as health care
services are initiated. There are three methods of data collection:
• routine reporting of consultations on a weekly or monthly basis, including
an alert system to report epidemic-prone diseases
• outbreak investigations – collected on an ad hoc basis when an outbreak
is suspected
• surveys – implemented when routine reporting is delayed or for specific
data collection (e.g. nutrition or vaccination household surveys).
As soon as health care systems are in place and consultations performed, rou-
tine reporting should be established. Case definitions should be developed for
each health event or disease and all health workers should be trained on the
definitions, especially the epidemic-prone diseases. Case definitions and the
HIS should follow the definitions and systems of the host country. If these are
inadequate or not available, these systems need to be formulated in cooperation
with the local health authorities.
uu For more on standard WHO case definitions, see the Tools section.
In routine reporting from health centres, health workers provide data on the
number of consultations (morbidity) and deaths (mortality) from diseases disag-
gregated for age (under five and over five) and sex. All levels of a health system,
including the central health facility, health post, or field hospital should con-
tribute data. Community health workers active in the camp should also submit
mortality figures, but not morbidity figures because they refer these cases to the
appropriate health facility. Mortality figures from the community health workers
contribute to the health post statistics from their respective zones.
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uu For examples of weekly morbidity and mortality surveillance forms, see the Tools
section.
At the end of each week or month, data collected from each health facility in
the camp should be compiled by the lead health agency and disseminated to all
relevant actors as well as the Camp Management Agency. This data will influ-
ence health strategies for the following week or month and should include the
following minimal elements:
• Crude Mortality Rate = (total number of deaths during time period/total
population) x (10,000/number of days in the time period).
• Under Five Mortality Rate = (total number of deaths of under-fives during time
period/total number of children under five years of age) x (10,000/number
of days in time period).
• Cause-specific mortality rate = total number of deaths from a specific cause
during a time period/total population during the same time period.
• Incidence Rate Definition: The number of new cases of a disease that occur
during a specified period of time in a population at risk of developing the
disease.
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• Incidence Rate = (Number of new cases due to a specific disease in time
period/population at risk of developing disease) x (1,000 persons/number
of months in a time period).
• Health Facility Utilisation Rate = (total number of visits to health facilities
in one week/total population) x 52 weeks.
• Number of Consultations per Clinician per Day = (total number of consulta-
tions (new and repeat)/number of full time equivalent clinicians in health
facility)/number of days health facility is open per week.
When collecting health data ensure patient confidentiality. All information regard-
ing the patient, her/his history, condition, treatment and prognosis is discussed
only between the patient, the health provider and the supervisors. No staff
member should share patient information with others not directly involved in
patient care without the patient’s permission. In the emergency phase, train-
ing health care workers on the confidentiality of patients and their data should
be completed. Practically, this is often not the case. It is the responsibility of
the Camp Management Agency and/or the lead health agency to ensure that
all health staff undergo proper training on confidentiality issues during the
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post-emergency phase if it has not already been done in the emergency phase.
Health care workers should also be provided with appropriate logistical support
to maintain confidentiality – such as cupboards with locks, registration books
with appropriate covers, rooms available for private consultations.
Outbreak Investigation
Reports and alerts of outbreaks are usually frequent in camp environments,
but each and every report should be followed up by the lead health agency or
a designated outbreak response team. Diagnosis must be confirmed either by
laboratory testing or by clinical presentation, depending on the disease and
context.
Epidemics often follow a pattern. Cases are fewer at the beginning of an outbreak,
crescendo to a peak and then fade. However this is not always the case. Once an
outbreak is declared, the lead health agency should graph daily or weekly cases
of the disease. This graph uses the ‘number of cases’ on the vertical axis and the
time in ‘days’ or ‘weeks’ on the horizontal axis. Interpreting the curve should be
done cautiously, but it can give an indication of the future of the epidemic and
enable resources to be mobilised appropriately. The implications of the epide-
miological curve should be explained to all health actors in the camp.
Outbreak Response
The lead health agency in coordination with the Camp Management Agency
should initiate epidemic contingency plans when an outbreak is declared. Health
service providers must be ready to react to epidemics and the lead health agency
should have contingency plans in place before an outbreak occurs in order to
prevent high morbidity and mortality rates. A contingency plan should include
verifying stocks of vaccines and materials (e.g. intravenous fluids, specific antimi-
crobials [medication for treating bacterial infections], etc) as well as maintaining
an updated map of all actors in the camp and their available material and human
resources. Training for active/passive case finding and appropriate reporting
mechanisms should be continually reinforced. Standard protocols for prevention,
diagnosis and treatment must be made available to all health staff regarding the
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priority communicable diseases in the camp and specifically the epidemic-prone
diseases. These protocols should be harmonised with the local health authorities
or adapted from WHO guidelines and agreed by all health actors.
Many communicable diseases surface in camp situations such as typhus,
relapsing fever, tuberculosis, typhoid fever, yellow fever, meningococcal menin-
gitis and hepatitis. As the cause-specific mortality rates of these diseases during
the emergency phase are usually minimal, a response is indicated if an alert
threshold has been reached. In the post-emergency phase, health services to
respond to the above communicable diseases may be implemented as appro-
priate. The following is a synopsis of the priority communicable diseases to be
addressed during the emergency phase and their appropriate case management
and outbreak response.
Diarrhoeal Diseases
Diarrhoeal diseases are a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in a camp
environment. In camp situations, diarrhoeal diseases have accounted for more
than 40% of deaths in the acute phase of the emergency.
The Camp Management Agency should ensure: Prevention methods such
as clean water, adequate latrine coverage, distribution of soap, education on
personal hygiene, promotion of food safety and breastfeeding should be imple-
mented as soon as possible. Uncomplicated, non-bloody diarrhoea can normally
be managed with appropriate rehydration methods, but in a camp environment it
is important to always train staff and monitor for the epidemic-prone diarrhoeal
diseases – shigellosis and cholera.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 515
The Camp Management Agency should ensure that if Sd1 is suspected, the health
worker should first verify blood in a stool specimen and then report to the lead
health agency or outbreak team using the outbreak reporting form. Proper labora-
tory confirmation and antimicrobial sensitivity tests should be completed. This may
require a referral laboratory as the tests are complicated. However, this should
not delay treatment or control activities. If the supply of effective antimicrobials is
limited, then treatment to high-risk patients should be the priority. These are:
• children under five years of age, especially infants – a child younger than two
• severely malnourished children and children who have had measles in the
previous six weeks
• older children and adults who are obviously malnourished
• patients who are severely dehydrated, have had a convulsions, or are seri-
ously ill when first seen
• all adults 50 years of age or older.
uu For more information on Shigelaa Dysenteriae Type 1, see the Reading and Refer-
ences section.
The Camp Management Agency should ensure that all health staff are trained
to suspect cholera when:
• a patient over five years of age develops severe dehydration from acute
watery diarrhoea (usually with vomiting)
• any patient over two years of age has acute watery diarrhoea in an area
where there is an outbreak of cholera.
516 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
Cholera is asymptomatic in 90% of cases, but these asymptomatic carriers
actively pass the bacteria in stools. About 20% of those who are infected with
V. cholerae develop the acute, watery diarrhoea and of these about 10–20%
develop severe watery diarrhoea with vomiting. The number of cases can rise
rapidly because the incubation period is extremely short (two hours to five days).
One confirmed case of cholera indicates an outbreak and cholera treatment
centres for case management should be established.
Case management for cholera includes treatment of dehydration via oral rehydra-
tion salts and/or intravenous fluids. The use of antimicrobials is not essential for
the treatment of cholera and should only be used for severe cases or when bed
occupancy or stocks of intravenous fluids are expected to reach critical levels.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 517
• Signs of malnutrition should be assessed. Malnutrition increases the risk of
death from pneumonia.
• Severely malnourished children must be referred to in-patient care at a
referral hospital.
• Management of pneumonia consists of antimicrobial therapy, but choice of
antimicrobial depends on national protocols and available drugs.
• If protocols or drugs are not available from the local health authorities or the
Ministry of Health, then oral cotrimoxazole can be used for most cases. For
severe pneumonia, injectable antimicrobials can be used such as penicillin,
ampicillin or chloramphenicol.
• Supportive measures, such as oral fluids to prevent dehydration, continued
feeding to avoid malnutrition, measures to reduce fever and protection from
cold are essential.
uu For WHO examples of diagnosis and management clinical protocols for respira-
tory infections and diarrhoea, see the Tools section .
Measles
Measles is a highly communicable viral infection spread person-to-person via
respiratory droplets which damages the immune system. Deaths most frequently
occur from complications of co-morbidities (accompanying but unrelated dis-
eases) such as pneumonia, diarrhoea and malnutrition.
The Camp Management Agency should ensure that health workers are edu-
cated regarding the initial symptoms in order to facilitate early referral and case
management. They should know that initial signs and symptoms are high fever,
cough, red eyes, runny nose and Koplik spots (small white spots on the inner lin-
ing of the cheeks and lips). A red, blotchy rash may also appear behind the ears
and on the hairline spreading to the entire body. All persons found with these
initial signs and symptoms should be referred to the closest health facility for
symptomatic management and should have their nutritional status monitored
for possible enrolment in selective feeding programmes. It is not necessary
however to isolate cases in an emergency situation.
Malaria
Four species of the parasitic disease termed ‘malaria’ develop in humans, but
Plasmodium falciparum is of prime public health importance, especially when
managing a camp in sub-Saharan Africa. WHO estimates that 300 million malaria
cases occur every year with more than a million deaths of which 90% occur in
518 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
sub-Saharan Africa.The disease is transmitted by the bite of the female Anopheles
mosquito, which mainly attack during the night. Simplified case definitions to
be used in an emergency are:
• Uncomplicated malaria: person with fever or history of fever in the past 48
hours, with or without symptoms of headache, back pain, chills, nausea,
vomiting, diarrhoea or muscle pain where other obvious causes of fever
have been excluded. In a high malaria risk area or season, all children under
five with fever or history of fever should be classified as having malaria. In
a low malaria risk area or season, children with fever or history of fever are
classified as having malaria and given an anti-malarial only if they have
no runny nose (a sign of ARI), no measles or other obvious cause of fever
such as pneumonia or a sore throat. In the low-risk areas, parasitological
confirmation is recommended.
• Severe malaria: fever and symptoms of uncomplicated malaria but with
associated neurological signs such as disorientation, convulsions, loss of
consciousness and/or severe anaemia, jaundice, spontaneous bleeding,
pulmonary oedema and/or shock.
uu For more information on malaria in emergencies, see the Reading and References
section.
The Camp Management Agency should recognise that in the emergency phase
of a camp, laboratory diagnosis for malaria is usually not feasible and diagnosis
and treatment should be based on clinical symptoms coupled with knowledge
of the risk of malaria in the camp area. As soon as laboratory services can be
established, diagnosis should be confirmed – unless there is a malaria epidemic
in which case clinical diagnosis is acceptable. Rapid diagnostic tests, although
expensive, can be useful during the emergency phase to confirm malaria cases
in a low malaria risk area or season before appropriate laboratory services can
be established.
Effective treatment for malaria should be implemented with current knowl-
edge of the drug resistance patterns in the camp area. In camp situations where
mortality from malaria is high, drug combinations with artemesinin (ACT) are
recommended. These combination drugs are increasingly used as first-line treat-
ments in many countries and are rapidly effective in most areas. If the local
health authorities do not use ACT as a first-line treatment and no recent efficacy
studies on their recommended first-line drug have been conducted, then ACT is
recommended. Coordination with the local health authorities is imperative and
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 519
may require lengthy discussions in order to implement ACT in a camp situation.
If there are high treatment failure rates and high case fatality rates for malaria it
is recommended that the lead health agency and/or Camp Management Agency
together with the Sector/Cluster Lead advocate for change in the drug regime
with the local health authorities.
uu For information on anti-malarial drug resistance and testing protocols, see the
Tools section.
uu See WHO examples of treatment guidelines for diarrhoea, respiratory tract infec-
tions, measles, fever and other communicable and non-communicable diseases
in the Tools section.
520 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
• contaminated needles (needle stick injuries, injections)
• transfusion of infected blood or blood products
• mother-to-child transmission during pregnancy, labour and delivery or
through breastfeeding.
The Camp Management Agency should ensure that the response to HIV/AIDS in
a crisis is multi-sectoral. The lead health agency in cooperation with the Camp
Management Agency should supervise and ensure a minimum set of interventions
are initiated by health service agencies in the camp to mitigate the transmission
of HIV. Beyond the context of the immediate crisis HIV/AIDS influences the life
and situations of this person and their social network for years to come.
In accordance with UNAIDS guidelines, the HIV response from the health sector
should include the following minimum interventions:
• providing a safe blood supply (by having HIV testing of blood before transfu-
sion) and avoiding all non-essential blood transfusions
• adhering to universal precautions
• providing basic HIV education materials
• providing good quality condoms, preferably free of charge via appropriate
channels as identified during the rapid initial assessment
• offering syndromic sexually-transmitted infection (STI) treatment (syndro-
mic approach treats STIs according to signs and symptoms, requiring no
laboratory confirmation).
• managing the consequences of gender-based violence
• ensuring safe maternal deliveries.
HIV services during the post-emergency phase should expand to more com-
prehensive interventions related to preventing HIV transmission, as well as
providing support, care and treatment to those living with HIV/AIDS and their
families. These should include services or strategies to prevent sexual violence;
provide post-exposure prophylaxis; provide information-education-communication
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 521
materials for high-risk groups; voluntary counseling and testing; and services
for preventing mother-to-child transmission of HIV. Palliative and home-based
support and care should be provided for people living with AIDS. Other care
and treatment interventions for people living with HIV include prophylaxis and
treatment of opportunistic infections and antiretroviral therapy.
reproductive health
Reproductive Health (RH) services should be provided in a camp environment as
an integral part of primary health care services. Providing appropriate services
can overcome the complications of pregnancy and delivery which are the leading
causes of death and disease among refugee/IDP women of child-bearing age. A
RH response in the emergency phase of a camp is necessary.
522 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
including emergency contraception as appropriate via the health facilities
(small quantities are available in the WHO ‘New Emergency Kit’).
• Community leaders, pregnant women, birth attendants and community health
workers should start community education on indications for referral.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 523
psychiatric illnesses may have similar signs or symptoms as above and may
indirectly benefit from preventative psychosocial interventions, but usually
require a more medical approach to their illness. Psychosocial interventions are
not directed primarily towards those with psychiatric diagnoses, but for those
not able to cope with the recent events or the new situation in which they live.
For those with pre-existing mental disorders, access to care should be provided
and relevant treatment continued. People with severe mental disorders previously
living in institutions should have strategies initiated which provide protection
for their basic needs.
Mental health and psychosocial support can expand during the post-emergency
phase and it is recommended that:
• health service providers advocate for appropriate government mental health
policy and legislation
• a broad range of care for emergency-related and pre-existing mental dis-
orders be developed through general health care and community-based
mental health services
• the sustainability of newly-established mental health services is ensured
• local, indigenous and traditional health systems are investigated and health
service providers collaborate with them as appropriate
• collaborative relationships with local health systems are continued and
augmented as appropriate
• health service providers ensure that people normally requiring care in psy-
chiatric institutions can access community-based care and appropriate
alternative living arrangements while in the camp.
524 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
health education
All persons in the camp should have access to health information that allows
them to protect and promote their own health status and that of their children.
Women, men, adolescents and children should understand how their bodies work
and how they can maintain good health in an unfamiliar environment. Dissemina-
tion of health information is usually done via health education programmes and
should be initiated with the first activities in a camp. Although health education
is primarily disseminated via community-based outreach programmes, every
contact the health system has with an individual should be an opportunity for
health information dissemination. The following should be remembered:
• Health education in the camp should be context specific and take into account
the health-seeking behaviors of the population as well as their personal
health beliefs.
• The messages and materials should be formulated in local languages with
options for non-literate populations.
• Information provided should concentrate on the priority diseases within the
camp, major health risks for these diseases, the availability and location of
health services and promotion of behaviors that protect and promote good
health.
• Education on feeding and care practices of infants and children should be
implemented as this is critical in preventing malnutrition and diseases.
• The lead health agency/Camp Management Agency should coordinate health
education messages to ensure that all health service providers in the camp
are providing consistent and accurate messages.
• Health service providers should conduct regular assessments of the ef-
fectiveness of the health messages to the target audience and those who
implement them.
• Health messages can be expanded during the post-emergency phase to in-
clude messages coinciding with comprehensive health services implemented
in the camp.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 525
An IDP camp in Northern Uganda experienced a cholera outbreak.
The Camp Management Agency advised people not to draw water from
the river because of defecation upstream and confirmed faecal con-
tamination of river water. However, the camp residents continued to
collect water from the river, as the quantity of water from chlorinated
boreholes was not enough. Community health workers were trained to
educate the population regarding the contamination of the river water
and began health education outreach activities. The population con-
tinued to collect water from the river and while the Camp Management
Agency was distracted with an outbreak in another camp, the CHWs
began beating and humiliating people collecting river water. Health
education in a camp environment can lead to unintended consequences
if the Camp Management Agency or health agencies do not properly
supervise outreach activities.
526 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
population scattering to geographically diverse areas and will require a more
detailed plan of action.
Health screening should take place before departure but may be difficult in camps
where return is spontaneous. When screening is possible, information campaigns
should have clear objectives. Health screening can be misinterpreted as a way
to prevent persons from leaving the camp or to gather confidential health data
for reporting to areas of return. Objectives for health screening include:
• education, referral and correct management of groups with specific needs
such as the malnourished
• recognising the need to remain in treatment, the consequences of deciding
to return and the programmes that may be available to them during or on
return (e.g. special vehicles to take them to their area of return or feeding
programmes to assist them on return)
• identification of persons who should be referred to specific health services
in their area of return. A referral letter should be issued to each person
identified in the language of their area of return
• identification of children who need referral for immunisations (measles or
EPI if the camp has initiated this programme).
Ensuring the confidentiality of medical records and ensuring that any outdated or
unwanted documentation is destroyed must be considered during camp closure.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 527
checklist for a camp management agency
o The Camp Management Agency ensures that all health service providers
within the camp have a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) with the lo-
cal health authorities outlining roles and responsibilities for health services
implementation, exit strategies and the extent of assistance from already
existing health facilities.
o Health services are coordinated between agencies and with local health
authorities via information sharing and regular meetings.
Assessments
o A rapid health assessment is completed within three days of the arrival of the first
camp residents. Those conducting the assessment have appropriate training and
relevant experience and have no political or other compromising affiliations.
o The results of the rapid health assessment are used to inform a health
response.
Immunisations
o A well-monitored mass measles vaccination campaign is organised together
with agencies and national authorities for all children aged six months to
14 in the camp.
528 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
Nutrition
o A nutrition survey of children aged six months- 59 months is initiated to
quantify the degree of acute malnutrition in the camp population. Additional
nutrition surveys are implemented at regular intervals to monitor changes
in the malnutrition rates.
o All persons in the camp are food secure and able to meet their energy and
micronutrient requirements. If not, general or selective feeding programmes
are initiated. The general food ration should provide all camp residents with
adequate energy and micronutrients. The supplementary food ration is to
provide vulnerable groups and those with specific needs with additional
support.
o All health service providers implement health policies, use clinical definitions
and diagnostic protocols and prescribe essential medicines in line with local
health authority guidelines or, if not deemed appropriate, with international
standards.
o The overall supply and logistic systems to health service providers in the
camp is supported. If resources are inadequate there is advocacy for as-
sistance via the CCCM/Health Cluster.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 529
Health Information Systems (HIS)
o The establishment of effective health information management and coor-
dination systems with all health service providers in the camp is ensured.
o The training of all health agencies is ensured using agreed guidelines for
clinical definitions, diagnoses and treatment of communicable diseases.
o Services are expanded for those living with HIV/AIDS in the post-emergency
phase to include support, care and possibly treatment as well as developing
a comprehensive information campaign targeted towards prevention of HIV
transmission and awareness of HIV services.
Reproductive Health
o An organisation or individual is identified as focal point for the reproductive
health response in the camp.
530 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
o The consequences of sexual violence are prevented and managed – spe-
cifically ensuring that a medical response to survivors of sexual violence is
available and the camp population know about it.
Health Education
o Health agencies are assisted to assess the health situation and target popu-
lation to identify the most important problems to address through health
education communication strategies.
o The most appropriate channels and tools for communicating are used with
the target population.
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 531
tools
• Example of a 3 W form for Camp Management Agencies
• Example of an initial rapid health assessment form
• Example of camp data collection format including health care (TSST)
• Examples of diagnosis and clinical management protocols for respiratory infec-
tions and diarrhoea
• Example of Expanded Programme for Immunisation Schedule
• Examples of morbidity and mortality surveillance forms
• Examples of treatment guidelines for diarrhoea , respiratory tract infections,
measles, fever and other communicable and non-communicable diseases
• Field guide to designing a health communication strategy.
http://www.jhuccp.org/pubs/fg/02/
• Information involving requirements and how to request a UNFPA Reproductive
Health Kits available at http://www.unfpa.org/procurement/
• Information on anti-malarial drug resistance and testing protocols.
http://www.who.int/malaria/resistance.html
• Information regarding “New Emergency Kit”
http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/ems/healthkit/en/
• Sample outbreak investigation form
• Standard WHO case definitions
• WHO Model List of Essential Medicine for Adults and Children
• Z score reference values of WFH by sex
532 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
Inter-Agency Standing Committee, 2007. IASC Guidelines on Mental Health and
Psychosocial support in Emergency Settings. Chapter 6: Health Services.
http://www.humanitarianinfo.org/iasc/content/products/docs/Guidelines%20IASC%
20Mental%20Health%20Psychosocial.pdf
William J, Moss et. al, 2006. “Child Health in Complex Emergencies”, Bulletin
of the WHO, 84 (1) : http://whqlibdoc.who.int/bulletin/2006/Vol84-No1/bulletin_
2006_84(1)_58-64.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 533
UNAIDS, 2005. Strategies to support the HIV-related needs of refugees and host
populations. : http://whqlibdoc.who.int/unaids/2005/9291734500_eng.pdf
UNHCR, 2006. Drug management manual 2006. Policies, Guidelines, UNHCR List
of Essential Drugs. http://www.unhcr.org/publ/PUBL/43cf66132.pdf
UNICEF, 2007. The State of the World’s Children 2008: Child’s Health in Complex
Emergencies; Chapter 18. http://www.unicef.org/sowc08/docs/sowc08.pdf
WHO, 2004. Immunisation in Practice: a practical resource guide for health workers.
http://aim.path.org/en/vaccines/hepb/resources/implement/l-training.html
534 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
WHO, 1998. Safe vaccine handling, cold chain and immunisations: A manual for
the Newly Independent States.
http://www.who.int/vaccines-documents/DocsPDF/www9825.pdf
WHO, 2004. Guiding principles of feeding infants and young children during
emergencies. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2004/9241546069.pdf
WHO, 2000. Reproductive health during conflict and displacement: a guide for
programme managers. : http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2001/WHO_RHR_00.13.pdf
WHO, 2005. Guidelines for the control of Epidemics due to Shigella Dysenteriae Type
1. http://www.who.int/entity/csr/resources/publications/cholera/whocdr954.pdf
WHO, 2004. Cholera Outbreak: Assessing the outbreak response and improving
preparedness. Geneva. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/2004/WHO_CDS_CPE_ZFk_
2004.4_eng.pdf
camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education 535
WHO, 2005. Malaria Control in Complex Emergencies: An inter-agency field
handbook. http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/924159389X_eng.pdf
WHO, 2007. Tuberculosis Care and Control in Refugee and Displaced Populations:
An interagency field manual. (Second Edition).
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241595421_eng.pdf
536 camp management toolkit | chapter 16 – health care and health education
education
u The Camp Management Agency and the education service provider need to
support the establishment and enhancement of community initiatives such
as parent-teacher associations or education committees. These groups
should be included in planning, programming and evaluating education
needs in the camp as well as participating in maintenance work connected
with education facilities.
Education is vital to the development of children and youth as it affects their daily
routines, social relationships and future opportunities. Access to education is a
fundamental right of every child. Education is also critical in protecting displaced
children and youth, and enabling them to contribute to the sustainable peace
and recovery of their societies upon return, resettlement or integration.
When conflicts and natural disasters hit, one of the unfortunate outcomes
is that damage to infrastructure and services and/or the need to flee to a safer
location can leave gaps in a child’s education. Schools are often destroyed or
closed because of insecurity. Even if a school is able to operate, many crisis-af-
fected families do not have the resources to buy books or pay school fees. Simply
walking to class may endanger a student’s life in some tension-prone areas,
especially if combatants choose to target schools or educational facilities.
In most cases, children and young people affected by conflicts or natural disas-
ters will have lost out on some of their education. In order to minimise this loss
and to avoid pupils having to repeat classes or exams, it is essential to provide
access to education as soon as possible. To ensure that adequate education is
provided, the Camp Management Agency should work together with:
• parents
• community leaders
• student and youth leaders
• teachers
• education NGOs or the education service provider
• UNHCR, Cluster or other Lead Agency
• UNICEF
• Ministry of Education and/or local authorities.
uu For more information on standards and indicators in education see the INEE
Minimum Standards in Emergency Education in the Tools section.
These issues mostly arise where a host government already cannot provide
adequate educational coverage for its own population.
Prior to the arrival of external actors, displaced communities may already
have organised educational activities that could be built upon if appropriate.
It is important that the Camp Management Agency and the education provider
support and promote such community initiatives and participation.
UN agencies (such as UNICEF and UNHCR) and the local Ministry of Educa-
tion are likely to play a major role in providing technical support to an educa-
tion service provider. Some of the early support they usually provide is: early
needs assessments; policy guidance; assistance with school facilities and sup-
plies; agreeing and adjusting the curriculum; identifying and training teachers;
covering the recurrent costs of teacher salaries and ensuring certification and
accreditation.
school environment
Where the displaced population shares a language with the host community,
camp children should be admitted into local schools and education systems in
order to avoid segregation. If conditions are crowded, it may be necessary for
schools to operate on several shifts a day and to extend buildings with additional
temporary classrooms.
In many situations, particularly those involving refugees when language and
curriculum are different from those of the displaced population, the alternative
option will be to establish schools in camps or in local school buildings outside
of normal school hours. The Camp Management Agency together with the edu-
cation provider should identify a space within the camp compound to construct
schools and training facilities. This space should be centrally located in order
to provide access for all children – including those with disabilities and/or with
impaired mobility – and to minimise security risks.
Building school recreational fields, kitchen and feeding centres, or fencing may
not be part of early construction priorities, but should be planned for and es-
tablished as soon as possible.
Health:
• working with the health service provider or local clinic/health centre to
provide treatment and health-related information to children in schools
• holding vaccination campaigns and days at schools to ensure maximum
coverage
• where health services cannot be provided at schools, trying to see if school
children and teachers can get priority treatment at clinics or health centres
in the camp, so they miss as little schooling as possible
Religious Institutions:
• working with religious schools and their schedules to harmonise school
hours so that government or camp schools and the religious schools are not
in competition. It is important for both parents and students to value and
support having a religious as well as standardised government curriculum
available to all students.
community involvement
Participation of the camp community is key to all aspects of educational pro-
gramme planning. Existing community support structures like parent-teacher
associations, education committees or other similar initiatives can significantly
contribute to:
Often, displaced people go to great lengths to have their children continue with
their schooling. Even in emergencies, community initiatives often exist. The more
groups participate in education activities, the more people should assume re-
sponsibility for planning, maintenance, monitoring and care. Setting up a regular
schedule will keep the work fairly distributed between all groups and make sure
that no damage to property and functioning is blamed on any one group.
While cooperating with the education provider, the Camp Management
Agency may be involved in monitoring of education programmes in a camp. Moni-
tors should be recruited from the camp population and include men and women
of all ages. Monitoring whether vulnerable children receive adequate treatment
at schools or whether the attendance of girls is satisfactory can be sensitive, and
requires proper training in observation and interviewing techniques.
curriculum
A school curriculum should have a holistic approach to development and learning,
and should include academic learning, life skills and culture, and a psychosocial
focus as well as sports and environmental components.
Providing education programmes for children according to their home coun-
try’s curriculum, and in their national language, (when this is appropriate) is
essential for both refugee and IDP children. Providing appropriate education can
be particularly challenging in refugee situations and where displaced children
cannot be integrated into the local school system. Where integration into the
school system of the host community is not possible, refugee children should
receive a camp education programme following the curriculum of their home
country in order to facilitate reintegration after return. Special consideration
may however, be given to use of the host country’s curriculum if the situation of
displacement is particularly protracted and local integration is likely to be the
most viable solution to displacement.
The curriculum may need to be adjusted when bridging courses or acceler-
Youth Education
Youth programmes are critical for young people and in turn for their communities.
It is essential to offer youth a meaningful learning environment with formal and
non-formal education, numeracy skills and vocational training; and not only in
situations of displacement. Despite primary education remaining a priority in
camp education programmes, a Camp Management Agency should be proac-
tive in advocating for the establishment of education and training facilities for
youngsters above the age of 12 such as:
• secondary schools
• youth education centres
• vocational training centres
• sports clubs and play groups.
Adult Education
Often in camp situations, a percentage of the adult population is non-literate.
Women may have been left behind in the education system prior to displacement.
The Camp Management Agency should be aware that child and adult learners
need different approaches. Adult learning programmes requires specific method-
ologies and techniques that are best implemented by specialised humanitarian
agencies or government institutions. If basic literacy and numeracy classes for
adults are established, it is recommended that topics also include:
• human rights
• hygiene and sanitation
• gender awareness
• peace building
• environment awareness.
Both literacy and numeracy materials are available in many languages and coun-
tries, and can often be ordered. Special consideration should be given to the time
of day each class is offered to accommodate the schedules of women. Offering
accompanying childcare assistance may make them more able to participate.
Recreational Activities
Playgrounds and other facilities for recreation should be constructed as part of
the school premises, ensuring sufficient and safe spaces for games and play.
Sports events and games are also a good opportunity for displaced and host
children to meet and compete together.
teachers
Wherever possible, teachers should be paid or compensated for their work. Not
only is their contribution essential for the development of the displaced com-
munity’s children but also efforts must be made to ensure they are not forced
to look for other paid employment. Teaching at primary schools for displaced
children is a full-time job under often harsh and stressful conditions. Thus, com-
pensating teachers for the time they cannot spend in other income generation
or household activities is essential. How, when and how much teachers are
compensated needs to be part of a coordinated and agreed cross-sectoral ap-
proach to issues of payment and compensation.
Teacher Training
In many camp situations, it is challenging to identify a sufficient number of quali-
fied teachers, so including capable volunteers with no official qualifications might
be necessary. Even if teachers are officially qualified, they may never have ben-
efited from updated learning methodologies or refresher courses on curriculum
content. Moreover, they may not have been exposed to teaching bridging courses
or accelerated learning programmes and thus may be unfamiliar or uncomfort-
able with any associated modifications to the curriculum in order to accommodate
the situation of displaced children and youth. Some teachers may also require
instruction on teaching over-age students and classes that encompass students
of multiple ages. Therefore, providing training to teachers will improve the quality
and techniques of instruction and boost teacher motivation.
In all cases, both teachers and children need to have a better understanding of
how displacement can affect children. Teachers recruited from among the dis-
placed population may also suffer from psychological trauma and may require
special attention and counselling. Teaching training must include:
• the negative psychosocial effects of displacement
• psychological trauma
• post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
uu For more information on children affected by psychological trauma see the newly-
developed IRC Psychosocial Teacher Training Guide in the Tools section – also
available in Arabic.
Codes of Conduct
Camps are usually stressful environments for displaced persons, including teachers
and other school staff. Misbehaviour and abuse of power may occur frequently.
As with all other camp staff, paid and unpaid, a code of conduct must therefore
be introduced to all personnel involved in education – whether school directors,
teachers, classroom assistants, other support staff, administrators or monitors.
Codes of conduct must be drawn up in close cooperation with the displaced
community and the local authorities and introduced through proper training or
sensitisation, so that everybody involved clearly understands agreed aims and
regulations.
uu See the INEE teacher’s code of conduct in the Tools section of this chapter.
o Quality and effectiveness of the camp school system are frequently monitored
and evaluated.
o School premises and buildings are located and built according to interna-
tional guidelines and technical standards.
Certificates
o Certificates are made available to validate the academic achievement of
children.
o Assessments with disaggregated data on gender and age are made on:
• what children aspire to in the future
• what they do after school hours
• what they like to do when they have spare time
• what they like about school
• why they might sometimes miss school
• what they think makes a good teacher
• what they would change about the school if they could
o Children’s safety and security is monitored on routes to and from school and
whilst at school.
o The curriculum has a holistic approach to the needs of the child; including
their mental, emotional, social and physical well-being and development.
o Teachers are trained in the psychosocial issues which can impact the educa-
tion of displaced children.
o A code of conduct is agreed and signed by all actors involved in the running
of camp schools.
School Enrolment
o The proportions of displaced children attending school is assessed and
known by age and sex.
o The reasons why children drop out of school or do not attend are assessed
and evaluated.
Community Participation
o Parents and the displaced community are actively involved in the education
programmes and education committees.
• IRC, 2006. Creating Healing Classrooms. Guide for Teachers and Teacher
Educators. http://www.theirc.org/resources/hci-teachers-guide.pdf
Lyndsay Bird, 2005. “Getting education out of the box”, Forced Migration Review.
www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR22/FMR2210.pdf
Forced Migration Review, 2006. Education and conflict: research, policy and
practice. http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/EducationSupplement/full.pdf
Patrice Manengere, 2008. L’éducation dans les Camps des Refugies en République
Unie de Tanzanie, Ministère de l’Education nationale, Burundi. http://www.ineesite.
org/uploads/documents/store/doc_1_Manengere_Note_sur_l%E9ducation_dans_les_
camps_des_r%E9fugi%E9s.doc
Carl Triplehorn, Save the Children, 2001. Education: Care & Protection of Children
in Emergencies, A Field Guide. www.savethechildren.org/publications/technical-
resources/emergencies-protection/EducationFieldGuide.pdf
UNESCO. 2007. Education for All by 2015: Will we make it? EFA Global Monitoring
Report 2008. http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0015/001547/154743e.pdf
Rebecca Winthrop and Jackie Kirk. “Teacher development and student well-being.”
Forced Migration Review. http://www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR22/FMR2209.pdf
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (WCRWC), 2004. Global
Survey on Education in Emergencies.
http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Ed_Emerg.pdf
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children (WCRWC), 2006. Right
to Education during Displacement – a Resource for Organizations Working with
Refugees and Internally Displaced Persons. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/
db900SID/LTIO-6SBPF2/$FILE/wcrwc-education-jul2006.pdf?OpenElement
u In the absence of, or working in coordination with a food security and liveli-
hoods agency, the Camp Management Agency should assess existing skills
and possibilities for livelihoods for camp residents within and outside the
camp. Employment of the camp population in projects around the camp, like
the clearing of a newly selected site through food-for-work or cash-for-work
activities, can be one such possibility.
u Camp residents should have access to local markets. Market places should
also be established within the camp where regular commercial exchange
can take place between camp residents and with host communities. Safe
access for all should be promoted by the Camp Management Agency, and
a camp committee appointed to take care of planning and daily running of
the market place.
Displaced people, who have suffered direct losses of their productive, economic,
financial, and social assets, through natural disaster or conflict, have the right
to protect, recover, improve and develop their livelihoods. In a camp setting,
where communities are largely dependent on the assistance and services
of others to fulfil their basic needs and rights, this is particularly important.
Livelihoods contribute to food security, prevent dependency, reduce vulner-
ability, enhance self-reliance and can develop or build a set of specific skills
during displacement which may have a positive impact on their well-being
and future opportunities.
A Camp Management Agency can help to improve the population’s overall
standard of living and support positive livelihoods strategies by identifying
and coordinating with relevant agencies to provide skills training, agricultural
support, where appropriate, and income generating projects. These should be
based on a participatory analysis of the social, economic and environmental
context of the camp population and the local community.
It is the role of a Camp Management Agency to work to prevent negative
coping strategies amongst the camp population. These may involve prostitution,
theft or gaining access to free goods through corruption or manipulation.
The development of livelihood opportunities can also impact positively on
the security within a camp. Employment and the constructive focus which can
arise from it can help reduce boredom, frustration and levels of criminal activity
and violence. It may also help to combat protection risks related to alcohol or
substance abuse, and cases of gender-based violence (GBV). To work, to engage
even in small-scale activities, and to access food independently, has a positive
impact on dignity and self-respect.
Positive livelihood programmes and strategies that enhance food security and
are commonly facilitated in a camp setting include:
• Garden cultivation or small-scale agriculture: this may be developed through
the distribution of seeds and tools, through supporting food processing or
through training.
• Fishing, poultry or small livestock breeding: this could be supported through
providing fishing equipment or livestock.
• Markets and trade with others in the camp or the host population: this could
require provision of infrastructure, adequate security measures or food or
The strategies people choose as being most viable will depend on their own
skills, culture, capacities, resources and social mechanisms as well as on host
community regulations, camp policies, the security situation and the opportuni-
ties made available and promoted.
key issues
Assessment
Even when there is no specialised livelihood agency, the Camp Management
Agency can seek to enhance the livelihood strategies of camp residents. The
basis for such activities is a thorough and participatory assessment of needs, re-
sources, capacities, skills and socio-economic and political/legal background.
uu See UNHCR’s Tool for Participatory Assessment in Operations on the Toolkit CD.
Market Knowledge
The Camp Management Agency needs to develop its understanding of local
markets and economic systems in order to support viable market exchange
and monitor and advocate for viable and safe access to markets for the camp
population. It is important for members of the camp population, including groups
with specific needs, to have both physical and economic access to the market,
and for basic food items and other essential commodities to be available at
affordable prices.
The Camp Management Agency in close collaboration with the camp population,
should allocate sufficient space for a central market place(s) for buying and sell-
ing. This space may need to be enlarged in the future and all security risks and
protection needs must be carefully assessed. At the market basic infrastructure
should include:
• shelter for protection from the weather
The safety and security of the market place is important. It should be easy and
safe to get to during day and night, in particular for women and girls. The market
place as well as access roads should be well lit during hours of darkness, and
located in an easily accessible place for both camp residents and the local popu-
lation to reach, so as to encourage social and economic exchange.
uu For more information, see the second chapter of The Sphere Handbook.
employment opportunities
Camp Management Agencies should be mindful of the need to create employment
opportunities whenever possible, perhaps by developing infrastructure using
an approach which creates jobs for the local population. Wherever feasible,
and in order to share employment opportunities and promote skills sharing,
camp residents and local community residents should both be employed. All
other service providers active in the camp should be encouraged by the Camp
Management Agency to adopt the same policy.
Remember:
• Methods of payment/compensation as well as salary levels should be coor-
dinated and harmonised between all employing agencies.
• Preference should be given to households with vulnerable members and
households with no other breadwinner.
• Employment of men and women should ideally reflect the ratio of men to
women in the camp: this should be the goal for every agency.
• Recruitment and remuneration policies must be fair, clear and transparent.
Often in camps and camp-like settings, bars and little pubs are
highly frequented. When workers receive cash many will abuse al-
cohol. This raises serious protection concerns if men misuse family
income for drinking or other drugs, leaving insufficient resources to
buy household food or other items. The Camp Management Agency
and the livelihoods provider need to monitor the situation and advo-
cate for men to be aware of their responsibilities towards dependent
women and children.
trade
When camps are located in remote areas, local markets are difficult – and some-
times impossible – for the camp population to access, making it difficult for the
camp population to trade. This may also be due to lack of security in the sur-
rounding area, police harassment, lack of legal status, lack of identity documents
and/or local government policies. Where contacts and local trade are restricted,
the camp market will become an even more essential place for commercial
and social exchange. Where inputs from outside markets are restricted, it will,
however, become more difficult for displaced people to manage a profitable
business within the camp. Food security initiatives or livelihoods schemes may
offer support in such cases.
Where it is feasible, the promotion of economic relationships between the
camp community and the local communities can take place in many ways. Forums
for coordination and cooperation can bring together host community representa-
tives and camp market committee members to discuss business opportunities
and access to local markets. Such discussions need to take into consideration
the level of poverty of the local host population and the economic development
of the host area, as well as the assets and needs of the camp population.
Monitoring fluctuations in the market place (e.g. after food distributions) will
help the Camp Management Agency to keep informed about any inflation in prices,
uu For more information see the Guidance notes in the Sphere Handbook,
pp.131–133.
Skills training can have a variety of forms. Some of the possibilities include:
• apprenticeship with qualified displaced trainers
• on-the-job training
• seminars and workshops
• training events.
uu For more information, see UNHCR’s Handbook for Self-reliance, Annex 1.13.1.
grants
Income generation programmes may include a grant scheme, frequently accom-
panied by training in skills of literacy, numeracy and business. A grant scheme
is different from microfinance as there is no repayment required. Grants can
be allocated either in kind or cash, depending on both the availability of the
required inputs on the local market and the people for whom they are intended.
Grant schemes are especially relevant for supporting the livelihoods of the more
vulnerable segments of the camp population and for small-scale inputs to peo-
ples’ livelihoods in situations of limited market access. At times, those who have
successfully used a grant will later receive a loan.
microfinance schemes
Income generating programmes may involve microfinance services that are ac-
companied by appropriate training such as literacy or business management.
Micro finance helps poor women and men access the capital necessary to engage
in self-employment and contribute to their own development.
One way of easing this transitional period and involving camp residents following
an emergency, while at the same time enhancing their livelihoods, is through
employment in the camp’s care, maintenance and development as discussed
previously. Other possibilities include:
• establishing a livelihoods committee or interest/support groups with specific
skills to offer
• establishing a camp market committee, responsible for planning, develop-
ment and management of the marketplace, including issues related to waste
disposal and food hygiene
• developing forums and focus groups to discuss food security and income
generating opportunities and other business-related issues with the camp
population and the host community
• considering the different strategies men, women and adolescents could
pursue to enhance their livelihoods.
female participation
It is important to ensure that women participate equally, and in culturally ap-
propriate ways, in agriculture, skills training and income-generation activities. It
may be necessary to raise awareness of the need for female participation on an
on-going basis and take action to facilitate their participation. Due to women’s
traditional and often time-consuming daily household chores, it is often necessary
to time training and other employment initiatives carefully. This can be done by
establishing day-care centres or other alternative child-care arrangements to
ensure continuing female participation. In some cultures female participation may
depend upon a male or female relative being permitted to accompany her.
o The site location for the camp was selected with livelihoods opportunities
and access to markets in mind.
o The assessment was participatory in nature and involved women and rep-
resentation from groups with specific needs.
o Priorities for the protection of assets and for livelihoods promotion, support
and development have been identified.
o The Camp Management Agency works to advocate for and identify livelihoods
programmes which can support the development of positive livelihoods
strategies.
o The participation of the camp population and the host community is central in
planning, implementing, monitoring and evaluating livelihoods initiatives.
o The Camp Management Agency advocates for access for the camp popula-
tion to essential resources – such as land, grazing and water – which could
support livelihoods.
o The Camp Management Agency prioritises local labour in camp care, main-
tenance and development projects and encourages service providers to do
the same.
o Where appropriate, trade links are established between camp residents and
the local community.
o Groups with specific needs and women are encouraged and supported to
be economically active.
o Microfinance schemes are used where a demand for financial services exists
and clients have the capacity to repay.
• A sample MoU used in Sierra Leone between the Camp Management Agency
and a local skills training provider.
In this example, the agreement applies to the equipment, which was purchased
by the Camp Management Agency. It also outlines the terms of reference for the
use of the skills training centre within the camp and the incentives paid to the
skills training teachers by the Camp Management Agency.
Valerie Guarnieri, FAO, 2003. Food aid and Livelihoods: Challenges and
Opportunities in Complex Emergencies. Food and Agriculture Organisation.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/meeting/009/ae518e.pdf
Barry Sesnan, Graham Wood, Marina L. Anselme and Ann Avery, 2004. “Skills
training for youth”, Forced Migration Review.
www.fmreview.org/FMRpdfs/FMR20/FMR2016.pdf
Marc Vincent and Birgitte Refslund Sorensen, (eds.) 2001. Caught Between
Borders: Response Strategies of the Internally Displaced.
Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. “We Want to Work”.
Providing Livelihood Opportunities for Refugees in Thailand.
http://www.womenscommission.org/pdf/Th_deleg.pdf
Helen Young et. al. Feinstein International Center, 2007. Sharpening the
Strategic Focus of Livelihoods Programming in the Darfur Region.
http://fic.tufts.edu/downloads/DarfurLivelihoods.pdf
The Camp Management Project began in Sierra Leone in late 2002, as a response
to frustration with the inadequate quality of assistance and protection in many of
the country’s camps for displaced persons. The general management of camps
was often poor as many of the agencies undertaking camp management had little
funding and limited experience and expertise. In IDP camps the situation was
particularly critical. Adding to momentum for change was the ground-breaking
Save the Children-UK/UNHCR report which documented cases of aid workers
sexually abusing and coercing people in camps through their control of humani-
tarian assistance and differential power relationships.1
As a response to the global concerns generated by this evidence of unprin-
cipled humanitarianism, an Inter-Agency Working Group on Camp Management
in Sierra Leone was established in October 2002 with the aim to enhance camp
management practice through mapping the roles and responsibilities of camp
managers/camp management teams, reviewing lessons learned and identify-
ing good practice. The Working Group consisted of representatives from the
International Rescue Committee (IRC), the Sierra Leone Government’s National
Commission on Social Action (NaCSA), the Sierra Leone office of the UN Office
for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Sierra Leone field office
of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and the Norwegian Refugee
Council (NRC). The project was designed and implemented in close cooperation
and dialogue with the camp residents and host populations.
In early 2003, the Inter-Agency Working Group in Sierra Leone decided
to globalize this innovative camp management initiative. A Camp Management
Toolkit Editorial Group, with representatives from the Danish Refugee Council
(DRC), IRC, NRC, OCHA’s Geneva-based Internal Displacement Unit and UNHCR
was established. The agencies collaborated to produce a second draft version
of the Camp Management Toolkit in 2004.
In response to the independent Humanitarian Response Review (HRR) of
the global humanitarian system, published in 20052 the Cluster Approach was
initiated. The Camp Coordination and Camp Management (CCCM) Cluster was
one of the eleven clusters/sectors established at the global level. The Camp
Management Project and the global CCCM Cluster support each other and aim
for a common understanding of how camp management and coordination should
be implemented. The Camp Management Toolkit is actively used, promoted and
distributed by the CCCM Cluster and its partner organisations.
1. www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D27-4E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D
SE%20A%2057%20465.pdf
2. www.reliefweb.int/library/documents/2005/ocha-gen-02sep.pdf
The table on the next page gives an overview of the eleven (11) clusters/sectors
and designated global cluster leads at the global level.
To date the CCCM Cluster has been activated in several responses both in complex
emergencies and natural disasters. The table below presents an overview of
countries where the CCCM Cluster has been officially implemented or functioned
according to the principles of the cluster approach, since 2005.
As of 2008 it is expected that the cluster will be activated in many more humani-
tarian responses as the cluster approach continues to be rolled out.
Over the past two years, the CCCM Cluster carried out a series of capacity build-
ing activities, resulting in an increased awareness amongst partners of camp
management/coordination and in increased capacity and qualified staff. Amongst
these are:
• Training of Trainers (ToT) – Camp Management: two events in Addis Ababa
and Manila
• Global Camp Coordination training: Ankara
• Regional CCCM trainings: Panama, Mali, Egypt
• National Camp Management trainings: Sudan, Amman (Iraq operation),
Uganda, Sri Lanka, Timor- Leste.
A joint training strategy has been developed for the CCCM Cluster, with the
aim of outlining the training options available, which are designed to meet the
needs of different stakeholders, and to provide guidance on how training can
be requested, and reporting requirements. The various training options offered
by the CCCM Cluster Working Group – as outlined in the strategy document,
are at three levels:
1. Camp Coordination: training for the staff of cluster leads (UNHCR, IOM or
other designated agency leading CCCM Cluster).
2. Camp Coordination and Camp Management: training for diverse field person-
nel including UNHCR/IOM staff, government officials, NGO staff and in some
cases staff of other agencies involved in humanitarian activities in camps.
main references
For further general information about the background to the adoption
of the cluster approach and its progress, visit:
www.humanitarianreform.org and www.icva.ch/doc00001560.html,