FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
EEL101
TRANSFORMERS

| Lect. 24
| (12th Nov. 2010)
TRANSFORMERS

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT-
PHASOR DIAGRAM,
PERFORMANCE
PRACTICAL TRANSFORMER -
CONSTRUCTION
PHASOR DIAGRAM
E1=V1

E2=V2

Φm
Practical Transformer on
No-Load
ƒ An ideal transformer at no load draws zero
current from the supply
ƒ but a practical transformer does draw some
current called
“ no – load current” through its primary
winding for two reasons.
Phasor Diagram of Practical
Transformer on No-Load.
Complete Phasor Diagram on No-Load.
Equivalent Circuit of Practical
Transformer on No-Load.
Practical Transformer On
Load
 Practical
ATransformer
practical transformer is different from the
ideal transformer in the following ways:

ƒ It requires finite mmf for production of

core flux.
ƒ The core material is not lossless but has
hysteresis and eddy current losses.
ƒ The flux produced by one winding does not
link completely the other winding i.e.
there is some leakage present in the
windings.
ƒ Windings have non – zero resistances.
Analysis of a Practical
Transformer on Load
ƒ If an impedance ZL is connected to the
secondary terminals of a practical transformer,
a current i2 (instantaneous value) circulates in
the secondary winding.
ƒ In order to neutralize the secondary mmf (in
the process of maintaining the core flux
constant) additional current (over and above
the no load current) will be drawn by the
primary.
ƒ This component of the primary current
represented by I2’ is called the load
component.
Reason (a) :
ƒ As the core permeability is not
infinite, some mmf has to be impressed
on the core of the transformer to produce
the flux.
ƒ The transformer primary therefore draws
a current component Im called the
magnetizing current in phase with the
flux phasor.
ƒ Magnitude of this current depends on the
core permeability and the direction of
its rms phasor is 90 degrees lagging
behind the applied voltage V1.
Reason (b)
ƒ The second reason for finite no load current is
to supply the core losses (i.e. hysteresis
and eddy current losses) .
ƒ The magnetizing component Im being at
quadrature with applied voltage cannot
provide any power to the transformer, and
hence an additional current component Ic in
phase with the applied voltage will have to
flow in the primary to take care of the core
losses (or the no load losses ).
ƒ This component is called the core loss
component or working component or
energy component
Effect of Resistances of
windings:
ƒ Primary and secondary currents I1 and I2
produce voltage drops I1R1 and I2R2

where R1 and R2 are the ac resistances or

primary and secondary windings respectively.
Contd..,
ƒ Bulk of the flux Φm links with both primary
and secondary windings and is called
mutual flux or working flux.
ƒ The electrical power transfer from
primary to secondary is mainly due to Φm.
ƒ In addition there are fluxes which link only
one particular winding produced by its
current.
ƒ .
Effect of Leakage Fluxes:

Schematic of Mutual and Leakage fluxes in

a Transformer.
ƒ So far, the winding resistances have
neither been considered nor are they
effective in producing appreciable voltage
drops because of very small primary
current (I0) and zero secondary current
which prevail under no load condition.

ƒ Similarly the effect of leakage flux is also

insignificant for the above analysis.

ƒ Thus the primary and secondary voltages

are equal to the primary and secondary
induced emf’s respectively.
ƒ The magnitude of this current gets adjusted
to satisfy the mmf balance equation
I’2 N1 = I2 N2
thus counterbalancing the effect of secondary
mmf.

ƒ The total primary current is now the phasor

sum of the no load component (Io) and the
load component (I’2) and is given by
I1 = Io + I’2
ƒ So far, the winding resistances have
neither been considered nor are they
effective in producing appreciable voltage
drops because of very small primary
current (I0) and zero secondary current
which prevail under no load condition.

ƒ Similarly the effect of leakage flux is also

insignificant for the above analysis.

ƒ Thus the primary and secondary voltages

are equal to the primary and secondary
induced emf’s respectively.
ƒ The magnitude of this current gets adjusted
to satisfy the mmf balance equation
I’2 N1 = I2 N2
thus counterbalancing the effect of secondary
mmf.

ƒ The total primary current is now the phasor

sum of the no load component (Io) and the
load component (I’2) and is given by
I1 = Io + I’2
ƒ In case of an idealized transformer the
primary and secondary voltages e1 and e2
produced by the mutual flux Φm were
equal to the primary applied voltage v1
and secondary terminal voltage v2
respectively.

ƒ But in actual case e1 is less than v1 and v2

is less than e2 due to two factors, namely
ƒ winding resistances and
ƒ leakage fluxes.
LEAKAGE FLUX
| The portion of the primary flux Φ11 produced by
primary current and linking the primary winding
only is called the primary leakage flux
| whereas the portion of the secondary flux Φ22
produced by secondary current and linking only
the secondary winding alone is called secondary
leakage flux
Contd..,
ƒ The mutual flux is produced by the
difference of primary and secondary mmf’s
whereas the leakage fluxes are produced
by the mmf of respective sides
individually.
ƒ The resultant mmf producing the mutual
flux therefore is much less than the mmf’s
producing the leakage fluxes.
ƒ The mutual flux in the core remains
constant irrespective of increase in load,
whereas the leakage fluxes increase with
winding currents
Contd..,
ƒ Since all currents and voltages are
considered sinusoidal (in time) all the
fluxes Φm, Φ11 and Φ12 will also be
sinusoidal

ƒ Hence, in addition to the main induced

emf’s due to Φm there will also be induced
emf’s due to Φ11 in primary and Φ12 in
secondary winding.
ƒ The term i1 R1 is the resistive drop
whereas the term N1 d Φl1/dt represented
by e11 is a drop in voltage due to primary
leakage flux.

ƒ The corresponding primary flux linkage

(due to leakage flux) per ampere of
primary current will also be constant and is
defined as the primary leakage
inductance, Ll1

Ll1 = N1 d Φl1/dt
The voltage balance equation on primary side
can be now written as

v1 = i1 R1 + Ll1 d i1/dt + e1

Under steady state sinusoidal operation at a

frequency ω rad/s the above equation will take
a phasor form

V1 = i1 R1 + j (ω Ll1) I1 + E1
Defining ω Ll1 as the primary leakage
reactance x11 at supply frequency ω, we can
write

V1 = (R1 + j x11) I1 + E1
Voltage balance on the primary side can be
written as

v1 = i1 R1 + N1 d Φl1/dt + N1 dΦm/dt

The third term is the induced voltage e1 of

the ideal transformer, caused by the
mutual flux Φm, and can be written as

e1 = N1 d Φm/dt = v1 – i1R1 – N1 d
Φl1/dt
ƒ Similarly on the secondary side
ƒ the net voltage available at the
terminals is not the same as the induced
voltage, e2= N2 d Φm/dt, but reduced due
to the effect of the secondary winding
resistance R2 and the secondary leakage
flux Φl2.

ƒ Corresponding reactance x12 can be

defined. Steady state equation on the
secondary side can be written as

V2 = E2 - (R2 + j x12) I2
¾ The voltage drops due to resistances and
leakage reactances are proportional to
currents, the elements R1,Xl1 and R2 , Xl2
would be the series elements.
¾ The rest of the circuit showing turnsN1and
N2 transform the voltage E1 to E2 in
proportion to number of turns.
¾ The no load current has been ignored in
previous fig. A more exact equivalent circuit
that incorporates the no load circuit is shown
in the next slide.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
Steady state equations on primary and
secondary side can be written as
V1 = (R1 + j Xl1) I1 + E1
V2 = E2 - (R2 + j Xl2) I2
The above two equations suggest an
equivalent circuit for the transformer as
shown in fig.
EXACT EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
¾ In the above circuit the dotted box is an
ideal transformer which transforms currents
and voltages strictly as per the turns ratio
and does not take any magnetizing current.
It is core loss free and windings are
resistance free.
¾ Quantities R1, Xl1 , R2 , Xl2 ,Rc , Xm are
called the equivalent circuit parameters of a
transformer.
¾ For ease of analysis it is required to
represent the voltages, currents and circuit
parameters of one side of the transformer to
the other side by suitable fictitious values.
Such values are called referred values.
REFERRING CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES
¾ Currents and voltages are transformed
according to turns ratio. A current I2 in
secondary calls for an equivalent current I2’
to be drawn in primary so as to
counterbalance the secondary mmf.
I2’ N1 = I2 N2
or I2’ = I2 [N2/N1] = I2 /a
¾ Where ‘a’ represents the turns ratio N2/N1
and I2’ is called the secondary current
referred to primary.
Likewise a voltage V2 on the secondary side
will be equivalent to V2’ on the primary side
as given by
V2’/ V2= N1/N2
Or V2’ = V2 [N1/N2] = a V2
From the equations in previous slide and in
present it can be observed that volt-ampere
balance is established i.e. V2'.I2' = V2.I2
REFERRING IMPEDANCES:
An impedance Z2 present on the secondary
side as shown in figure will become Z2’
when referred or transferred to primary side
such that the voltage drops are related
according to turn ratio as
(I2'Z2' )/(I2Z2) = N1/N2 Î Z2' = (N1/N2) (I2'/I2)Z2
Î(N1/N2) (N1/N2) Z2 = a2 Z2
¾ Similarly if we compare the real and
imaginary parts of the Z2’ and a2Z2, then we
get R2' = a2R2
Xl2' = a2 Xl2
give the values of secondary resistance and
leakage reactance referred to primary side.
¾ On the same lines the quantities I1, V1, R1
Xl1 etc. of primary side can be referred to
secondary.
I1' = aI1 , V1' = V1/a, Z1' = Z1/a2
Where ‘a’ is still N1/N2
¾ By referring all the secondary quantities to
primary side the equivalent circuit of
transformer can be redrawn as shown in
below figure. Here the load impedance ZL
has been transferred to the primary side
with its referred value as ZL' = a2ZL
¾ Likewise , if all the primary quantities
including the shunt branch are referred to
secondary side will result in circuit shown
below
¾ In order to make calculations simpler without
losing appreciable accuracy the results of
the shunt branch compromising Rc and Xm
can be shifted to either primary or
secondary terminals due to relatively high
values of these parameters in most
transformers compared to the series
parameters.
¾ It results in following two L-networks
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A
PRACTICAL
TRANSFORMER ON
LOAD
• Start with the secondary terminal
voltage V2', and the current I2' whose
phasor position and magnitudes are
decided by the load impedance.

• Follow the following steps

•Step 1 : Use E2' = V2' + I2‘R’2 + j I’2 Xl2' =
E1
•Step 2 : Use Ic = E1/Rc
•Step 3 : Use Im = -j E1/Xm
•Step 4 : Use I0 = Im + Ic
•Step 5 : Use I1 = I2' + I0
•Step 6 : Use V1 = E1 + I1R1 + jI1 x11
PHASOR DIAGRAM

V1

θ1
E2’=E1 jI1xl1

Ic
jI2’xl2’
V’2 I1R1
Im I0 I2’ I2’R2’
I1
θ2
Phasor Diagram of Practical Transformer
on Load. (Neglecting I0)
• From the phasor diagram input and
output power factor angles θ1 (i.e.
between V1 and I1 ) and θ2 (between V2'
, and I2 ' ) can be identified.

• θ1 is greater than θ2 for the particular

load considered.

• However the difference between θ1 and

θ2 is not significant for a well designed
transformer.
PERFORMANCE CALCULATIONS
• Knowing the equivalent circuit
parameters of a given transformer it
should be possible to calculate its
performance when used in a practical
system.
• The parameters can be determined by
conducting certain tests on the
transformer
• The parameters can also be calculated at
the design state using the design details
such as core dimensions, winding details,
properties of materials used in core and
windings.
Two important performance indices of a
transformer are

•Efficiency
•Voltage regulation.

•These are defined normally in

percentages
• Since the losses are dissipated as heat
they decide the temperature rise of the
transformer which should not exceed a
particular limit dictated by the type of
insulation used.

• By using proper cooling methods the

temperature rise can be controlled.
LOSSES
Mainly the following two types of losses
can be identified and easily calculated:

•COPPER LOSS (Pcu)

•CORE LOSS OR IRON LOSS (Pc)

COPPER LOSS (Pcu)

• These are resistance losses due to current

flowing in the primary and secondary
windings, calculated at the operating
temperature of the windings.

• These losses vary with load, being

proportional to the square of load current.
CORE LOSS OR IRON LOSS (Pc)
• This is the sum of the hysteresis and
eddy current losses observed in the
core, which tends to heat the core.

• Since most of the transformers are

operated at constant voltage and
frequency, the core flux which is
proportional to (voltage / frequency)
would also be constant.

• At a constant flux density and

frequency the core loss would be
constant.
 Contd..,
• Thus this loss could be taken to be
independent of load and is therefore known
as constant loss.

• This is normally measured as the input

power on no load at the operating
voltage and frequency, since the copper loss
can be neglected due to low input current
at no load.
Contd..,

• Using the core loss curve supplied by the

manufacturers of core material the loss
per unit weight for the operating flux
density and frequency can be determined
from which the total core loss of the
transformer can be calculated knowing
the weight of core.
Contd..,

Thus , efficiency can be now written as

V2 I2 cosθ2
η = ----------------------------------------
V2 I2 cosθ2 + I22 R2eq +
Pc

Where,R2eq is the equivalent total

resistance referred to secondary,
and Pc is the constant iron loss.
Variation of efficiency with output power Pout is
a bell shaped curve as shown
 The maximum efficiency ηmax occurs
at a current I2 when

dη/dI2 = 0

Solving the equation for efficieny, condition is

met when
Pc = I22 R2eq

So maximum efficiency occurs at a load

when copper loss equals core loss,; i.e. to
say when variable loss equals constant
loss
Additional Losses in a
Transformer
Though we have considered only copper and core
losses in efficiency calculations, the following
additional losses may be significant in large
transformers, and should be considered in
efficiency calculations:

• I2R Loss due to no Load Current.

• Eddy Current Loss in Conductors Due to
Leakage Fields.
• Stray Eddy Current Losses in core Clamps,
Bolts, Tank etc.
I2R Loss due to no Load Current:
• By ignoring the shunt branch of the
equivalent circuit ,we neglect the
contribution of no load current in copper
loss.
• Magnetizing current in well designed and
well constructed transformer is between 1 to
5 % of the full load current.
• Depending on the relative magnitude of this
additional loss this may be accounted.
• Similarly I2R loss due to current supplying
core losses has to be accounted.
• Suitable additional current has to be drawn
from the mains to supply the core losses
which results in additional I2R losses.
 Eddy Current Loss in
Conductors Due to Leakage
Fields:
• This is caused by the eddy currents in
individual conductors resulting from stray
magnetic fields associated with leakage flux.
Stray Eddy Current Losses
in core Clamps, Bolts, Tank
etc.
• Core clamps and bolts are used in the
fabrication of core.

• The container used to house the

transformer is an iron tank.

• These parts are under the stray

magnetic fields, which cause eddy
current losses to be accounted for.
Contd..,
• For the same load current the input
voltage is dependent on the load power
factor.

• For a fixed V2 and I2, V1' decreases as the

PF becomes more leading.

• Thus the drop in voltage from no load to

full load is pronounced at lagging PF loads,
while at some leading PF loads there may
be a rise in voltage from no load to full
load.

It b t d th t l dV V’
 Output power
Percentage efficiency = ------------------------------------------ x 100
Output power + losses

Percentage Voltage Regulation (VR) is defined

as percentage rise in voltage at the output
when the rated load is thrown off
( No load sec. voltage – Full load sec voltage ) x 100
%VR = --------------------------------------------------------------------
Full load sec. voltage
LOSSES AND EFFICIENCY:
• The efficiency will not be same at different
loading conditions but is dictated by the
load impedance.
• The transformer would be supplying power
at lagging, leading or unity power factor as
per the nature of the load.
• A knowledge of efficiency at different loads
is very essential as it suggests the
corresponding input power to be supplied
and the magnitude of losses.
• Since the losses are dissipated as heat
they decide the temperature rise of the
transformer which should not exceed a
particular limit dictated by the type of
insulation used.

• By using proper cooling methods the

temperature rise can be controlled.
Contd..,

• Using the core loss curve supplied by the

manufacturers of core material the loss
per unit weight for the operating flux
density and frequency can be determined
from which the total core loss of the
transformer can be calculated knowing
the weight of core.
Contd..,

Thus , efficiency can be now written as

V2 I2 cosθ2
η = ----------------------------------------
V2 I2 cosθ2 + I22 R2eq +
Pc

Where,R2eq is the equivalent total

resistance referred to secondary,
and Pc is the constant iron loss.
 The maximum efficiency ηmax occurs
at a current I2 when

dη/dI2 = 0

Solving the equation for efficieny, condition is

met when
Pc = I22 R2eq

So maximum efficiency occurs at a load

when copper loss equals core loss,; i.e. to
say when variable loss equals constant
loss
Additional Losses in a
Transformer
Though we have considered only copper and core
losses in efficiency calculations, the following
additional losses may be significant in large
transformers, and should be considered in
efficiency calculations:

• I2R Loss due to no Load Current.

• Eddy Current Loss in Conductors Due to
Leakage Fields.
• Stray Eddy Current Losses in core Clamps,
Bolts, Tank etc.
I2R Loss due to no Load Current:
• By ignoring the shunt branch of the
equivalent circuit ,we neglect the
contribution of no load current in copper
loss.
• Magnetizing current in well designed and
well constructed transformer is between 1 to
5 % of the full load current.
• Depending on the relative magnitude of this
additional loss this may be accounted.
• Similarly I2R loss due to current supplying
core losses has to be accounted.
• Suitable additional current has to be drawn
from the mains to supply the core losses
which results in additional I2R losses.
 Eddy Current Loss in
Conductors Due to Leakage
Fields:
• This is caused by the eddy currents in
individual conductors resulting from stray
magnetic fields associated with leakage flux.
Stray Eddy Current Losses
in core Clamps, Bolts, Tank
etc.
• Core clamps and bolts are used in the
fabrication of core.

• The container used to house the

transformer is an iron tank.

• These parts are under the stray

magnetic fields, which cause eddy
current losses to be accounted for.
VOLTAGE REGULATION:
• Voltage regulation gives a measure of
change in the level of input voltage to
maintain the secondary voltage constant
at different load.
• It is desirable to have low voltage
regulation so that the output voltage
variation from no load to full load for a
constant input voltage is small.
• VR can be determined by Eq. ckt and
Phasor Diagram
• VR depends on load and its PF
Phasor Diagrams of a Transformer at (a)UPF
(b) Lagging PF (c) Leading PF.
• For a secondary current I2 at a phase angle θ2 the
referred primary voltage V1' is given by

V1' = V2 + I2 (cosθ2 – jsinθ2) (R2eq + j X2eq)

Voltage regulation V.R. is given by

|V’1| - |V2|
V.R. = ----------------
|V2|
Voltage Regulation at lagging
PF load:
Hence, from the definition of VR and from the phasor diagram
at lagging PF,

|V’1| - |V2|
V.R. = ----------------
|V2|
ob – oa
V.R. = ---------------
oa

ab
= ---------
oa

I2.R2eq.cos θ2 + I2.X1eq.sin θ2
= --------------------------------------------
V2
Contd..,
• For the same load current the input
voltage is dependent on the load power
factor.

• For a fixed V2 and I2, V1' decreases as the

PF becomes more leading.

• Thus the drop in voltage from no load to

full load is pronounced at lagging PF loads,
while at some leading PF loads there may
be a rise in voltage from no load to full
load.

It b t d th t l dV V’
 TRANSFORMERS

PERFORMANCE, P.U. SYSTEM

TESTING
PHASOR DIAGRAM OF A
PRACTICAL
TRANSFORMER ON
LOAD
EQ.CIRCUIT (REF. TO PRY)
EQ.CIRCUIT REF TO SEC
• Start with the secondary terminal
voltage V2', and the current I2' whose
phasor position and magnitudes are
decided by the load impedance.

• Follow the following steps

PHASOR DIAGRAM

V1

θ1
E2’=E1 jI1xl1

Ic
jI2’xl2’
V’2 I1R1
Im I0 I2’ I2’R2’
I1
θ2
APPROX. EQ. CIRCUIT (REF. TO
PRY)
APPROX. PHASOR DIAGRAM

V1’

jI2
θ2 V2 Xeq

I2 Req
I2= I1’

Req= R2+R1’ Xeq= xl2+xl1’

APPROX. EQ. CIRCUIT
(REF. TO SEC)
Phasor Diagram of Practical Transformer
on Load. (Neglecting I0)
• From the phasor diagram input and
output power factor angles θ1 (i.e.
between V1 and I1 ) and θ2 (between V2'
, and I2 ' ) can be identified.

• θ1 is greater than θ2 for the particular

load considered.

• However the difference between θ1 and

θ2 is not significant for a well designed
transformer.
TRANSFORMERS

TESTING
 TESTING OF
TRANSFORMERS
• After a transformer is manufactured it is
subjected to different tests to ensure
expected performance.
• Testing a Transformer is an important
procedure to ensure reliability to consumers.
• These tests would also help in the
determination of parameters from which
the performance such as voltage regulation
and efficiency can be predicted.
• Detailed tests to be conducted on a
transformer are specified in standards such
as IS: 2026, IEC 76 , BS.171 (IS – Indian
Standard, IEC – International
Electrotechnical Commission, BS – British
St d d)
Various tests on a
Transformer:
¾ Ratio and Polarity test
¾ Measurement of winding resistance
¾ Zero output tests
¾ No load test – measurement of no-load loss
and current.
¾ Short circuit test – measurement of
impedance, parameters and load losses
¾ Back to back test
¾ Measurement of insulation resistance
¾ Dielectric tests
¾ Temperature rise test
¾ Impulse voltage test
¾ Noise level test.
• Tests 1 to 5 are known as “ routine tests”
to which all transformers are subjected to.

• Tests 6 to 9 are called “type tests” to be

conducted by the manufacturer if insisted
by the purchaser as per their agreement.

• Type tests are also carried out whenever

the manufacturer makes design changes in
material, assembly or cooling system.
• Tests 1 to 3 are conducted in the
laboratories since they augment the
theoretical analysis discussed earlier and
help in the calculation of electrical
performance of a given transformer.

• These tests are also helpful in the

determination of equivalent circuit
parameters and losses to facilitate
prediction of performance as detailed
below.
1. Ratio and Polarity
test :

Ratio and Polarity Test

Contd…,
• This test ensures that the turns ratio of the
winding is correct and the standard
permitted tolerance for such ratio is 0.5% of
the declared no load ratio.

• In Figure A1A2 and a1a2 are primary and

secondary terminals respectively.

• If the voltages are low, Ratio test can be

conducted by applying the rated voltage
across A1A2 and measuring the induced
voltage across a1a2 on open circuit.
Contd…,
• For high voltage transformers with large
voltage ratios, error may be introduced
since different instruments on each side
have to be used (calibration errors).
• In such a case a standard transformer
with the same nominal ratio may be used
and connected as shown in Figure (next
slide) with the HV windings of both
connected in parallel.
• The voltmeter connected across the LV
side would read deviation from the
standard voltage.
• Actual LV voltage of test transformer
can thus be determined.
Ratio and Polarity Test for High Voltage
Transformers
2. Measurement of Winding
Resistance : ammeter voltmeter method
• Standard d.c.
can be used by taking reading on either side.
• Very low value of d.c voltage has to be
applied ( since resistances are low) so that
the winding currents do not exceed the rated
values.
• More accurate low resistance bridges –
Wheatstone or Kelvin double bridge – can
be used to directly measure the resistance.
• Well calibrated digital micro- ohmmeters to directly
measure the resistance can also be used.
• The above tests give the Cold Resistance of the
windings.
• The cold temperature TC has to be maintained. The
resistance R(h) at the hot temperature Th at which the
transformer operates on load can be calculated using
the formulae:
R(h) = R(c) (Th + 273) / (Tc + 273 ) for Copper

• The hot temperature can also be directly measured by

the above methods after the windings are brought to
this steady temperature through continuous loading.
Zero Output Tests :

• No-Load test

• Short Circuit Test

• Back to Back Test (Sumpner’s

Test)
 No-Load test
• This test is also called Open circuit (o.c.)
test as it is conducted with the secondary
winding open circuited .
• With the secondary winding kept open,
rated voltage is applied on the LV
side, through a single phase supply using
a variac.
• The voltage, current and power are
measured in the primary circuit.
• Normally LV side is used as primary
since the supply voltage required would
be of low value.
Circuit for Open Circuit test on
Transformer
Contd…,
• The magnetizing current, core loss, and the
equivalent circuit parameters Rc, Xm can be
determined from this test.

• Let Vo, Io and Wo be the readings of the

voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter
respectively.

• Since the input current is very small I2R loss

of primary is generally neglected and the
input power Wo can be taken as the core
loss of the transformer at rated voltage.
Phasor Diagram of Practical
Transformer on No-Load.
 Equivalent Circuit of Practical
Transformer on No-Load.(O.C Test)
Calculations from OC test:
Short Circuit test:
• This test is conducted with the
secondary short circuited.

• Normally HV side is used as primary

with LV side shorted, as it causes lower
short circuit current to be supplied
from the mains due to relatively higher
voltage at primary.
Connection Diagram:

Circuit Diagram for Short Circuit test.

Contd…,
• The a.c. resistance, leakage reactance
and copper losses can be determined
from this test.
• Let Vsc, Isc, Wsc be the readings of the
volt meter, ammeter and wattmeter
respectively.
 Equivalent Circuit of
Transformer under Short
circuit test.
PHASOR DIAGRAM UNDER SC TEST

Vsc

j Isc Xeq

Isc Req Isc

 Contd…,
• The input voltage required to drive nominal
current under short circuit condition is
small since the impedance mainly consists
of resistances and leakage reactance's.

• At these low voltages core has low flux

density and is unsaturated, resulting in
negligible core loss and high Xm.

• While conducting this test gradually

increase the input voltage from zero to see
that the current is not exceeded though
a 50% overload for short duration is not
d
Calculations from SC test
Comparison of OC and SC
tests:
4.Direct Load Test.
• For small transformers direct load test
can also be conducted to ascertain its
performance with load.

• Here primary winding is connected

across the corresponding rated voltage
source, while a variable load bank is
connected across the secondary
winding.
Contd…,

• Voltage, Current and Power at Input and

Output terminals are monitored at
different loads from which the required
performance figures can be worked out.

• It would be interesting to compare the

predicted performance figures (using
equivalent circuit) with the measured ones.
5. Temperature Rise Test:
• In transformers temperature rise of
windings due to continuous loading is
important .

• The steady temperature should be within

the limit decided by the insulation and
the cooling system.

• By conducting S.C. test, Back to Back test

or direct load test, windings are made to
carry rated current for a sufficiently long
duration to attain steady state
temperature.
Contd…,
• This rise in winding temperature can be
calculated by measuring the resistance
under cold (ambient) and hot (loaded)
conditions using the formula.

Rh / Rc = (234.5 + Th ) / (234.5 + Tc ) (2.36)

where Rh and Rc are the hot and cold

resistances respectively.
6. Insulation Tests :

• Meggers are used to measure the

insulation resistance between
windings, between copper and core, and
between the core clamping and bolts.
 TRANSFORMERS

TRANSFORMER LOSS MEASUREMENT

IEEE STD C57.123-2010
IEEE GUIDE FOR TRANSFORMER
LOSS MEASUREMENT
2
COPYRIGHT © 2010 IEEE.
 REFERENCES

IEEE Std C57.12.00™-2006, IEEE Standard for

General Requirements for Liquid-Immersed
Distribution,
Power, and Regulating Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.90TM, IEEE Standard Test Code
for Liquid-Immersed Distribution, Power, and
Regulating Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.12.91TM, IEEE Standard Test Code
for Dry-Type Distribution and Power Transformers.
IEEE Std C57.15TM, IEEE Standard Requirements,
Terminology, and Test Code for Step-Voltage
Regulators
TRANSFORMER NO-LOAD LOSSES:
•No-load losses (also referred to as excitation losses, core losses, and iron
losses) are a very small part of the power rating of the transformer,
usually less than 1%.
•No-load losses are the losses in a transformer when it is energized but
not supplying load.
•They include losses due to magnetization of the core, dielectric losses in
the insulation, and winding losses due to the flow of the exciting current
and any circulating currents in parallel conductors.
CONNECTIONS FOR NO-LOAD LOSS TEST
OF A SINGLE-PHASE TRANSFORMER
STUDY OF EXCITATION
PHENOMENON
| By conducting certain variants of O.C. test we
may study important excitation phenomenon
relating to input current waveforms, flux
patterns and core losses.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR B-H LOOP
PROCEDURE.
| B-H loop can be obtained by feeding a signal
proportional to H (or excitation current) and B (or
flux) across X and Y plates respectively.
| The current signal is obtained through a low
resistance shunt
| flux signal is obtained by integrating the
secondary voltage.
EXCITATION CURRENT.
| The excitation current can also be directly
viewed on the CRO screen with this
arrangement.
| It would be interesting to observe rich third
harmonic content in this waveform due to non
linearity
SEPERATION OF CORE LOSSES
| By conducting the above test at different
frequencies (say at 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60 Hz) by
keeping the ratio V/f constant and monitoring
input power the hysteresis and eddy current
losses can be separated.
| At constant V/f, magnitudes of flux and B would
be constant
| P c = Ph + Pe

| = K1 f + K2 f2
( K1 and K2 are constants)

| or Pc/f = K1 + K2 f
VARIATION OF PC/F WITH
FREQUENCY

Slope=K2

Pc/f

K1

frequency
| From this test it can also be observed that
| waveforms of magnetizing current will be non-
sinusoidal with rich third harmonics and
| core flux will be sinusoidal.
A MODERN VARIANT OF THIS TEST
| Use Virtual Instrumentation and Labview.
| Sense v, i using voltage and current sensors.

| Process the signals through Labview

| Interface with a PC to view the waveforms and

BH loop on a PC screen
| (Ref. to B Tech Project of IITD)
TRANSFORMERS

AUTO, MULTI CIRCUIT ,

AUTO TRANSFORMER
TAP CHANGING,
MULTI CIRCUIT TRANSFORMER
TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
AND MULTI CIRCUIT TRANSFORMERS

¾ Autotransformers and tap changing

transformers facilitate a variable voltage to
be obtained on the secondary, with fixed
primary.
¾ As per definition ,it is a transformer in which
at least two windings have a common part.
¾ An autotransformer has only one winding on
the core,
¾ A tapping point provided on the winding can
be moved to get a variable secondary
voltage with a fixed primary voltage applied
across the entire winding.
¾ If N1 is the total turns out of which N2 turns
are tapped to obtain the secondary voltage
V2, we may write
V2 / V1 = N2 / N1
I2 / I1 = N1 / N2
¾ By connecting a fixed impedance on the
secondary, effective input impedance can be
varied by moving the tapping point, since
the effective impedance is
Z1 = Z2 (N1/N2)2

¾ OBSERVE: The current carried by the

winding is not the same in all the sections
CURRENT IN DIFF SECTIONS
| Segment AP carries the total primary current
I 1,
| Segment PB carries only the differential
current (I2-I1).
| But the entire winding has to be designed to
carry the full current I1, as the segment
carrying this current varies as P is moved.
¾ Autotransformers, also known as Variacs
are extensively used in
¾ laboratories and industries

¾ to get variable voltages, currents and

impedances.
SAVING IN VOLUME OF COPPER BY USING
AUTO TRANSFORMER

¾ For the same output and voltage ratio, the

auto transformer requires less copper than
an ordinary double wound transformer.
¾ The cross section of the conductor in a
winding is proportional to the current carried
and the length of the conductor is
proportional to the number of turns.
¾ Therefore the volume and the weight of
copper used will be proportional to the
product of current and turns i.e. ampere
turns of the winding.
¾ Thus, the ratio
Weight of copper in auto transformer
---------------------------------------------------
Weight of copper in ordinary transformer
= [((N1 – N2)I1+(I2 – I1)N2)]/(N1I1+ N2I2)
= 1 – (2 N2I1) / (N1I1 + N2I2)
= 1 – (2 N2 / N1) / (1 + N2I2 / (N1I1))
= 1 – (2 a ) / (1 + 1)=1-a
where a=N2 / N1 and N2I2 = N1I1
¾ Thus one can say that appreciable saving is
obtained only when the value of “a” differs
little from 1 i.e. when large portion of
winding is common.
¾ Normally autotransformers have windings
wound on toroidal cores made of CRGO
strips. The tapping point moves in a rotary
manner on the winding.
¾ A 3-phase autotransformer has three such
units placed in a co-axial manner such that
a common handle moves the tapping point
symmetrical on all the windings.
TAP CHANGING TRANSFORMERS
|A tap changing transformer (shown in fig)
has tapping provided on primary or
secondary winding such that variable
voltage could be obtained by changing the
tapping point appropriately.
| The system for changing the tapping point
could either be manual or automatic.
|A knob is used in a manual system while the
automatic systems use electronic switches,
relays, or contractors operated by relay
contacts.
| Special motors called “Stepper Motors” are
also used to automatically move the knobs
| Tap changing is a well known practice in 3-
phase Power System transformers.
| Both off – load and on – load tap changers
are used to get the desired output voltage at
varying loads.
MULTI CIRCUIT TRANSFORMERS
| Multi circuit transformers (shown in fig) have
more than two windings.
| In a 3 – winding transformer the third winding
is called the “Tertiary”

| Inpower plants, the tertiary

windings are used to supply
power for local consumption,
while primary and secondary
are connected to generator Fig .Multi circuit transformer

and HV transmission line respectively

¾ Sometimes tertiary windings are used to
eliminate third harmonic effects by providing
circuits for third harmonic currents through
delta connected tertiary winding.
¾ By connecting capacitors to tertiary, the
system power factor and voltage regulation
can be improved.
IN ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS…
¾ A transformer with one primary and two or
more secondary windings is normally used
to supply power to electronic circuits
¾ A multi circuit transformer with two identical
secondary windings are used such that one
winding supplies 120 V, while 240 V is
obtained with two windings in series.
¾ For analysis of a three winding transformer
leakage impedances of both secondary and
tertiary windings have to be referred to
primary turns and connected appropriately.
¾ The input (primary) current would be the
sum of secondary and tertiary currents.
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
¾ An equivalent circuit is
shown in figure where
magnetizing branch is
neglected. Z1, Z2’, Z3’
are leakage
impedances referred to
primary turns.
CONSTRUCTION OF
TRANSFORMERS
PARTS
| (a) Core
| (b) Windings and Insulation system
| (c) Cooling arrangement
| (d) Enclosure and terminal box.
VARIATION IN THE CONSTRUCTION
FEATURE
| Core material and its shape
| Winding material (Copper, Aluminium) and class
of insulation and the nature of windings.
| Cooling method – air cooled (dry type) or oil
cooled.
CORE AND SHELL TYPE
| Transformers are classified as “Core” type and
“Shell” type transformers.
| In the core type, the windings are wound on two
legs of a rectangular core whereas the single
phase shell type transformers has a two legged
core with the windings placed on the central leg.
WINDINGS..
| (a) Spiral Type
| (b) Crossover Type

| (c) Helical type

| (d) Continuous disc type

ENCLOSURE AND COOLING
ARRANGEMENT:

| Heat generated due to the heavy losses in the

core and winding has to be dissipated quickly so
that the excessive temperatures are not reached,
which may rupture the insulation.
| The assembly of core with windings is bolted and
then placed in a tank fabricated from mild steel
plates.
COOLING.
| The tank is filled with mineral oil
(petroleum based) having good insulating
and thermal properties.
| Oil ducts are provided in the coil to
facilitate free flow of oil for cooling.
| Cooling improved by the use of radiators
welded to the tank surface.
| Effective radiating surface for dissipating
the generated heat is thus increased.
Tanks could also be filled with elliptical
tubes for circulation of oil.
COOLING
| cooling methods consisting of natural
forced cooling by air and oil are used
depending on the quantum of heat to be
dissipated.
| Insulation and cooling of
transformers is specified by IS: 335-1972.
Small transformers are naturally cooled
and do not require any special enclosure
for heat dissipation.
| Many transformers operate without any
special enclosure.