Comparison of different modulation techniques
JITENDER KUMAR
LOVELY PROFESSIONAL UNIVERSITY
ABSTRACT
In this paper, a technical review in different Methods of
modulation in analog communication. We compare these
methods by efficiency, power transmission, bandwidth,
noise factor.
I. INTRODUCTION
In electronics, modulation is the process of varying one or
more properties of a high frequency periodic waveform,
called the carrier signal, with respect to a modulating
signal. This is done in a similar fashion as a musician may
modulate a tone (a periodic waveform) from a musical
instrument by varying its volume, timing and pitch. The
three key parameters of a periodic waveform are its
amplitude ("volume"), its phase ("timing") and its
frequency ("pitch"), all of which can be modified in
accordance with a low frequency signal to obtain the
modulated signal. Typically a high-frequency sinusoid
waveform is used as carrier signal, but a square wave pulse
train may also occur.
In telecommunications, modulation is the process of
conveying a message signal, for example a digital bit
Stream or an analog audio signal inside another signal that
can be physically transmitted.
Modulation of a sine waveform is used to transform a
baseband message signal to a pass band signal, for
example a radio-frequency signal (RF signal). In Radio
communications, cable TV systems or the public switched
telephone network for instance, electrical signals can only
be transferred over a limited pass band frequency spectrum,
with specific (non-zero) lower and upper cutoff
Frequencies. Modulating a sine wave carrier makes it
possible to keep the frequency content of the transferred
signal as close as possible to the centre
RC6803A11
10802024
frequency (typically the carrier frequency) of the passband.
When coupled with demodulation, this technique can be
used to, among other things, transmit a signal through a
channel which may be opaque to the baseband frequency
range (for instance when sending a telephone signal
through a fiber-optic strand). In music synthesizers,
modulation may be used to synthesise waveforms with a
desired overtone spectrum. In this case the carrier
frequency is typically in the same order or much lower than
the modulating waveform. See for example frequency
modulation synthesis or ring modulation.
A device that performs modulation is known as a
modulator and a device that performs the inverse operation
of modulation is known as a demodulator (sometimes
detector or demod). A device that can do both operations is
a modem (short for "Modulator-Demodulator").
II. AIM:
The aim of digital modulation is to transfer a digital bit
stream over an analog pass band channel, for example over
the public switched telephone network (where a band pass
filter limits the frequency range to between 300 and 3400
Hz), or over a limited radio frequency band.
The aim of analog modulation is to transfer an analog
baseband (or lowpass) signal, for example an audio signal
or TV signal, over an analog passband channel, for
example a limited radio frequency band or a cable TV
network channel.
Analog and digital modulation facilitate frequency division
multiplexing (FDM), where several low pass information
signals are transferred simultaneously over the same shared
physical medium, using separate passband channels.
The aim of digital baseband modulation methods, also
known as line coding, is to transfer a digital bit stream over
a baseband channel, typically a non-filtered copper wire
such as a serial bus or a wired local area network.
The aim of pulse modulation methods is to transfer a
narrowband analog signal, for example a phone call over a
wideband baseband channel or, in some of the schemes, as
a bit stream over another digital transmission system.
III. ANALOG MODULATION METHODS:
In analog modulation, the modulation is applied
continuously in response to the analog information signal.
Common analog modulation techniques are:
1. Amplitude modulation (AM) (here the amplitude of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal)
2. Frequency modulation (FM) (here the frequency of the
carrier signal is varied in accordance to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal)
3. Phase modulation (PM) (here the phase shift of
the carrier signal is varied in accordance to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal).
A. ANALOG MODULATION METHOD:
Figure: Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude modulation is the simplest of the three to
understand. The transmitter just uses the information
signal, Vm (t) to vary the amplitude of the carrier, Vco to
produce a modulated signal, VAM (t). Here are the three
signals in mathematical form:
• Information: Vm(t)
• Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin (2 f c t +  )
• AM: VAM(t) = { Vco + Vm(t) }sin (2 fc t + )
Here, we see that the amplitude term has been replaced
with the combination of the original amplitude plus the
information signal. The amount of modulation
depends on the amplitude of the information signal. This
is usually expressed as a ratio of the maximum information
signal to the amplitude of the carrier. We define:
MODULATION INDEX:
m = MAX (Vm (t))/ Vco.
If the information signal is also a simple sine wave the
modulation index has a simple form:
m = Vmo/Vco
The interpretation of the modulation index, m, may be
expressed as: The fraction (percentage if multiplied by 100)
of the carrier amplitude that it varies by. If m = 0.5, the
carrier amplitude varies by 50 % above and below its
original value. If m= 1.0 then it varies by 100%.
Here is a typical AM signal, showing the parts. Note that
the information modulates the envelope of the carrier
signal.
This is the simplest form of modulation where the
amplitude of the carrier wave is modulated by the analog
signal known as the modulating signal.
A signal to be modulated, a carrier and the modulated
signal are shown in Fig. 2.5.3. Let the modulating
waveform is given by em(t) = Em cos (2πfmt) and the
carrier signal is given by ec(t) = Ec cos (2πfct + Φc). Then
the equation of the modulated signal is given by
s (t) = (Ec + Em cos 2πfmt) cos 2πfct
MODULATION INDEX:
The modulation index, represented by m, is given by
m = (Emax - Emin)/ (Emax + Emin) = Em / Ec,
Where Emax = Ec + Em,
Emin = Ec - Em, and s (t) = Ec (1 + m cos 2πfmt) cos
2πfct,
The envelope of the modulated signal is represented by
1+m em (t) for m < 1. The envelope of the modulated
signal for different modulation index is shown in Fig. 2.5.4.
Loss of information occurs when m > 1.
EXAMPLE: AM RADIO
AM radio is the most common example of this type of
modulation. The frequency band used for AM radio is
about 550 to 1720 kHz. This is the range of carrier
frequencies available. The information transmitted is music
and talk which falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio
spectrum ranges up to 20 kHz, but AM radio limits the
upper modulating frequency to 5 kHz. This results in a
maximum bandwidth of 10 kHz. Therefore, the FCC can
assign stations frequencies that are 10 kHz apart without
fear of overlap (in reality, there still can be some overlap
because the spectrum doesn't just end at the side-band, it
actual kind of tapers off slowly. These "tails" can overlap if
the signal is strong enough. You can make you receiver
more selective by changing from the "distant" to the "local"
setting to eliminate this at the expense of sensitivity). So if
we fill up the AM band, assigning stations every 10 kHz,
there are 107 available transmitter frequencies.
The practice of limiting the upper frequency to 5 kHz
removes some of the original information (that which falls
in the 5-20 kHz) range. Since the ability to exactly
reproduce the signal is called fidelity, there is a loss of
fidelity in AM broadcasts. This is one of the reasons that
AM radio doesn't sound that good (compared to FM radio,
as we will see later). Talk radio is relatively unaffected
because conversation has very little of its signal above 5
kHz anyway. This might explain why talk radio is much
more common on AM than FM.
FREQUENCY MODULATION
In case of frequency modulation, the modulating signal em
(t) is used to vary the carrier frequency. The change is
frequency is proportional to the modulating voltage kem
(t), where k is a constant known as frequency deviation
constant, expressed in Hz/V. The instantaneous frequency
of the modulated signal can be represented by fi (t) =
fc+kem (t), where fc is the carrier frequency.
For sinusoidal modulation
Em (t) = Em cos 2πfmt and
fi (t) = fc + k em(t)
= fc + k Em cos 2πfmt
= fc + Δf cos 2πfmt
Therefore,
s (t) = Ec cos θ(t)
= Ec cos (2πfct + 2πΔf ∫cos 2πfmt dt)
= Ec cos (2πfct + (Δf/fm) sin 2πfmt)

SUMMARY:
• A carrier is used to make the wavelength smaller for MODULATION INDEX:
practical transmission and to permit multiplexing. The modulation index, denoted by β, is given by β = (Δf /
• The spectrum is used to measure bandwidth (the range fm)
of frequencies) and the efficiency (the power in the
Or s(t) = Ec cos (2πfct + β sin 2πfmt)
side-bands compared to the total power)
• Bandwidth can be predicted using BW = 2 fm where fm
= the maximum modulating frequency C. PHASE MODULATION:
• Efficiency depends only on the modulating index,
m (the fraction of the carrier you modulate by)
• AM is limited to 33% efficiency because the
modulation index cannot be increased to > 1.0
without introducing distortion in the receiver.

B. FM MODULATION :

In case of phase modulation the modulated signal can be

represented by
s (t) = Ac cos[wct + Φ(t)]
The angle (wct + Φ (t)) undergoes a modulation around the
angle
θ = wct. The signal is therefore an angular-velocity
modulated signal.When the phase is directly proportional to
the modulating signal, i.e, Φ(t) = np m(t), we call it phase
modulation, where np is the phase modulation index. The
instantaneous frequency of a phase modulated signal is
given by
S (t) = Ec cos (Wct + k’m(t)), where k’ is a constant.
IV. DIFFERENCE IN FM AND AM:
A low-frequency message signal (top) may be carried by an
AM or FM radio wave.
AM is amplitude Modulation, and FM is Frequency
Modulation. With both AM and FM, a carrier wave must
be broadcasted. And it is just that a carrier wave for the
information. A greyhound bus for the information you are
trying to tune in. (music, etc.). The carrier wave is at a
particular frequency, which is singled out as you tune in
your radio station. All other frequencies are filtered out.
SIMPLIFIED-DEEXPLATION
The difference is how the "information" rides on that
carrier frequency. And the names give it away. In AM or
Amplitude Modulation, the information is added to the
amplitude of the carrier signal. When your receiver
receives the signal, it does an analog sample of the wave to
determine it's average strength, then demodulates the
differences in the amplitude to pull out the original
information. This is the worst and most inaccurate way of
demodulation, for the signal strength is continuously
changing, with the analog demodulator always working
"behind the times". This is why it took so many years for
the occurance of AM Stereo. It's hard enough to accurately
pull one stream of info out of the carrier wave. Try pulling
two distinct signals out of one carrier wave that is
Amplitude modulated. How in the world do you do that???
(But they do have AM stereo now, yet not very popular)
The reason it came first, is it is very easy to mix
amplitudes, and no complicated circuitry was required in
the old days to pull in the correct carrier wave. They
couldn't do frequency modulation at first cause uncle sam
wouldn't let commercial businesses transmit on high
enough frequencies to pull out the original information.
Also since AM carrier waves have relatively low
frequencies, they can travel quite a distance.
In Frequency Modulation, the information is added to the
frequency of the carrier wave. The amplitude of the
incoming signal is a mute point as long as it is strong
enough where your receiver can lock onto the carrier wave.
Carrier frequencies in high ranges were released for
commercial use, so they could transmit in the MegaHertz
range. Since all information needed in the hearing range is
commonly in the 20 to 20KiloHertz range, it was easy to
pull the signal in. The information didn't cause enough of a
difference in the signal to cause the tuner to filter it out.
And since the original carrier frequency is known, and
locked in, it was extremely easy to pull out the original
information. In fact, you could add 6 or 8 different
information signals if you wanted to Complex but
achievable. Since the demodulation is so accurate, this
gives it better clarity, and the ability to modulate 2 separate
signals for stereo. However, since the carrier frequency is
so high, it bounces off obstacles instead of going through
them, thus reducing range.
AM PERFORMENCE
Bandwidth
Now that the tools are in place, we can begin to make some
evaluations of the performance of AM signals. The first
example is bandwidth.
The bandwidth of a signal is always of significance for
many reasons, but predominately, it determines how many
channels (or stations) are available in a specific band. We
saw that there could be a maximum of 107 AM radio
stations. If you improved the fidelity of AM radio by
making the upper modulating frequency 10 kHz, you
would double the signal bandwidth, and as a result only be
allowed 53 radio stations. If you tried to increase the AM
band, you would lose some other band, like amateur radio.
The bandwidth of AM signals can be easily predicted using
the now familiar formula: BW = 2 fm.
Efficiency
Since we are ultimately only concerned with the
information and not the carrier, we don't want to waste a lot
of energy in the carrier signal. You can define a measure of
efficiency as follows:
Efficiency = PSB / PTOT
Where: PSB = the power in all the side-bands
PTOT = the total transmitted power (includes carrier and
side-bands)
The more strongly you modulate the more power in put
into the side-bands. We have already seen that the
modulation index, m is the measure of how strongly you
modulate. It may be interpreted at the fraction of the carrier
amplitude that you modulate by. If m = 0.5, you vary the
carrier by up to 50 % of its original value. It stands to
reason, then, that if the modulation index is increased, that
the efficiency will increase also. Then it would also stand
to reason that you should use the largest value of
modulation index, m , as possible. But we have not
addressed the meaning modulating by more than 100% (m=
1.0).
It is possible to modulate by more than 100%. Here is a
representative signal using m = 2.0:
The parameters are: carrier = 65 Hz, modulation = single
tone at 5 Hz, m = 2.0
By all appearances, this is very successful. The efficiency
looks to be about 0.67 (67 %). In fact, there is no problem
at all when transmitting this signal. But there will be
trouble in your receiver. The process of demodulation
usually involves detecting the envelope of the AM signal.
This may easily be accomplished by using a low-frequency
filter (like a capacitor) which will remove the quickly
oscillating carrier signal, leaving only the slowly-varying
amplitude. But in this case, the envelope no longer matches
what was put in: recall, we started with a simple single
tone.
This is what we started with:
But after demodulation in the receiver, we have this:
What you see is the addition of a higher frequency
component (a harmonic) to the original signal. Since we
did not get back what was put in, this is known as
distortion. The conclusion is that efficiency may be
increased by increasing the value of the modulation index,
m, but if you use a value > 1.0 there will be distortion
introduced in the receiver. Unless you are listening to
Metallica, this is generally undesirable. Therefore, the
efficiency of AM transmission is limited by the restraint to
keep m < 1.0. The numeric value of efficiency when m =
1.0 is about 33 %. We conclude that AM has a maximum
practical efficiency of about 33 % due to the limitations
placed on modulation index. If you try to improve the
efficiency by raising m, you will introduce distortion when
the signal is demodulated in the receiver.
(A) FM PERFORMANCE:
Bandwidth: The modulated signal will contain frequency
components fc+ fm, fc+ 2fm, and so on. It can be best
approximated based on Carson’s Rule, when β is
small.
BT = 2(β +1)Bm,
where β = Δf / B = nf Am / 2πB
Or BT = 2Δf + 2B.
Peak deviation = Δf = (1/2π) nf Am Hz,
where Am is the maximum value of m(t)
It may be noted that FM requires greater bandwidth than
AM. In Fig. 2.5.13 the bandwidth is shown to be 10 times
that of the base band signal.
Power: As the amplitude remains constant, total average
power is equal to that of the unmodulated carrier power.
So, the power = Ac2/2. Although Am increases the
bandwidth, it does not affect power. Therefore, the
transmission power for FM is less compared to AM at the
expense of higher bandwidth.
AM - Amplitude Modulation:
Advantages:
1. Simple to design.
Disadvantages:
2. Noise spikes on transmission medium interfere with
the carrier signal.
3. Loss of connection is read as 0s.
FM - Frequency Modulation:
Advantages:
4. Immunity to noise on transmission medium.
5. Always a signal present. Loss of signal easily detected
6. Immune to AM noise riding on it`s carrier frequency.
Affected much less by static caused by adverse
weather
Disadvantages:
1. Requires 2 frequencies
2. Detection circuit needs to recognize both frequencies
when signal is lost.
3. Requires wider bandwidth for transmission.
4. Between AM and FM, which one gives better noise
immunity?
FM is more immune to noise than AM, since the power of
transmission is independent of the modulation index.
Is amplitude modulation is preferable or frequency
modulation is preferable why?
Both have pros and cons but it depends on the application.
AM radio travels further and is much less expensive,
however it is subject to noise from a variety of sources. FM
radio is much less subject to noise and is good for both
voice and data but is much more expensive to generate and
require more processing at the receiving end and has a
shorter transmit distance. Both have their place in the world
of radio. Your amateur radio operator’s use AM and your
cell phone uses a digital signal transposed to an FM carrier.
a. PHASE MODULATION Vs FREQUENCY
MODULATION:
The difference between FM & PM in a digital oscillator is
that FM is added to the frequency before the phase
integration, while PM is added to the phase after the phase
integration. Phase integration is when the old phase for the
oscillator is added to the current frequency (in radians per
sample) to get the new phase for the oscillator. The
equivalent PM modulator to obtain the same waveform as
FM is the integral of the FM modulator. Since the integral
of sine waves are inverted cosine waves this is no problem.
In modulators with multiple partials, the equivalent PM
modulator will have different relative partial amplitudes.
For example, the integral of a square wave is a triangle
wave; they have the same harmonic content, but the
relative partial amplitudes are different. These differences
make no difference since we are not trying to exactly
recreate FM, but real (or nonreal) instruments.
The reason PM is better is because in PM and FM there can
be non-zero energy produced at 0 Hz, which in FM will
produce a shift in pitch if the FM wave is used again as a
modulator, however in PM the DC component will only
produce a phase shift. Another reason PM is better is that
the modulation index (which determines the number of
sidebands produced and which in normal FM is calculated
as the modulator amplitude divided by frequency of
modulator) is not dependant on the frequency of the
modulator, it is always equal to the amplitude of the
modulator in radians. The benefit of solving the DC
frequency shift problem, is that cascaded carrier-modulator
pairs and feedback modulation are possible. The simpler
calculation of modulation index makes it easier to have
voices keep the same harmonic structure throughout all
pitches.
The relationship between the two types of angle modulated
signal depicted in Fig. 2.5.14. Let m(t) be derived as an
integral of the modulated signal em(t), so that
m (t) =k’’ ∫ e(t)),
Then with k = k’k’’, we get s(t) = Ec cos (Wct + k ∫ e(t)).
The instantaneous angular frequency of s(t) is
2πfi (t) = d/dt [2πfct + k ∫ e(t)]
Or fi(t) = fc + (1/2π)ke(t)]
The waveform is therefore modulated in frequency.
In summary, these two together are referred to as angle
modulation and modulated signals have similar
characteristics. In this process, since the frequency or phase
of the carrier wave is being modulated by the signal and the
modulation lies near the base band, the external noise or
electromagnetic interference cannot affect much the
modulated signal at the receiving end. Analog data to
Analog signal modulation techniques at a glance are shown
in Fig. .
Let us return to equation:
e (t) = EP sin( t + )
As previously mentioned, it is possible to vary both
(FM) and (PM) in the above equation. Each term is
part of the argument of the sine wave. So, what is the
difference between varying one versus the other? A simple
answer is that there is no difference, as either one will
change the sine wave’s frequency. However, closer
inspection and the employment of more mathematical rigor
reveal that there are some subtle differences between the
two forms of angle modulation. However, due to the
complex mathematics involved these differences will not
be discussed here. Practically speaking, it is possible to
obtain FM from PM, as depicted in Figure 4-2; but most
present-day FM systems do not generate FM by this
method. This process of generating FM is known as
indirect FM.
FIG: A frequency-modulated waveform and the
modulating wave.
FIGURE: A phase-modulated wave and the modulating
wave
(a) THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FM AND
PM
One way to tell the difference between FM and PM is to
observe the following:
If the instantaneous frequency of the signal is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the input signal, it is FM.
On the other hand, if the instantaneous phase of the signal
is proportional to the amplitude of the
input signal, it is PM. This last statement, although correct,
is unclear because the term instantaneous phase is
undefined at present. Another way of expressing this last
statement is to say that for PM, the transmitter output
frequency is at the rest frequency when the input signal is
at either its most positive or most negative voltage. The
subtle difference between FM and PM is not really very
important, for the vast majority of wireless angle
modulation transmitters use FM. That being the case, our
comments will focus almost entirely on FM from this point
on. Several different forms of PM will be discussed later in
much more detail
Advantage of PM:
1. Only 1 frequency used
2. Easy to detect loss of carrier
Disadvantages of PM:
1. Complex circuitry required to generate and detect
phase changes.
Advantages of FM:
1. Immunity to noise on transmission medium.
2. Always a signal present. Loss of signal easily detected
3. Immune to AM noise riding on it`s carrier frequency.
Modulate signal
Affected much less by static caused by adverse
d Signal
weather
Disadvantages of FM:
1. Requires 2 frequencies Frequenc Constant A function of the
y (or message signal
2. Detection circuit needs to recognize both frequencies
when signal is lost. Phase) of

3. Requires wider bandwidth for transmission Modulate

d Signal

VI. COMPARISON OF ALL METHODS: Informati The The frequency (or

on is amplitude of phase) of the signal
Now we take example of Modulation Techniques for the signal
Mobile Radio. carried
over
Cellular systems transmit information signals (audio
signals or digital data signals) that are generally Linear Non linear
Baseband signals occupying a band that is located around Linearity (adding two (adding two signals
zero frequency. An audio signal, for example, of the signals and and then modulating
Occupies frequencies that are generally occupy the then them is not the same
Modulati
spectrum from 0 Hz to around 4 kHz. Digital data may as modulating the
on modulating
have different rates (and therefore occupy different them gives two signals and then
frequency bands) ranging from few kbits/s to several same result addition the
Mbits/s. Such signals occupy bandwidths from few kHz to as
few MHz depending on the method of transmission. modulated signals)
Regardless of whether we are talking about the modulating
transmission of speech or digital data, these signals cannot the two
be transmitted directly as they contain frequency signals and
components that have very low frequencies that are not then
suitable for transmission over the air in addition to the fact addition the
that all similar signals of the same nature occupy the same modulated
frequency band and therefore would interfere with signals)
eachother if all of them are transmitted as they are.
Therefore, modulation is needed to shift the frequencyof Directly Rapid Improvement
the signal from being around zero (baseband signal) to proportional in quality once a
Quality
some high frequency (passband signal). to SNR or minimum SNR or
of
(SIR) SIR is reached (called
This makes the signal suitable for transmission over the air Receptio FM Threshold)
as a radio signal and allows the use of different frequency n
bands for transmission of different signals.
The process of bringing the modulated signal back from the Low High
high frequency used during transmission back to the Noise (Burst and (Burst and impulse
original baseband frequency range is called demodulation. Immunit Impulse noise have little effect
y noise
on phase/frequency
directly
(Effect of of modulated signal
Burst and affect
if it has sufficiently
AM FM (or PM) amplitude of
Impulse high power and
received
Feature Noise)
signal therefore mostly do
not appear in
Limited Widely Usage which
Usage directly demodulated signal)
Spread of appears in
Usage
demodulated
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of the
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message
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nce in channels
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with rapidly
Fading affects amplitude of
Channels amplitude of modulated varying
amplitude
modulated signal which is
responses.
signal which constant, so reception
is related to is Receiver
monitors the
message indirectly affected)
pilot tone
signal, so
and
reception is
adjusts
directly
receiver gain
affected)
according to
Bandwid Constant – Variable – relatively No needed
th of relatively high
(because
low
Modulate (Can be modified by amplitude of
d Signal (Only modifying the signal is
affected by constant
modulation index)
bandwidth amplitude or
of pilot tone to
message compensate
signal) for
fluctuations
in
amplitude)

Transmit Variable Constant

ted
(Depends on (Is independent of
Power
message message signal)
signal)

Can No Yes Type of Inefficient Efficient

Performa RF
(No tradeoff (Bandwidth and (Linear (Type C with
nce Power
can be done) quality of Received Type A or efficiency > 70%.
be signal Amplifie Type AB Nonlinearity
Improve rs Used with
Can be traded off. of power amplifier
d
Each doubling of Efficiency < has no effect)
(Tradeoff 40%)
bandwidth gives
between
approximately 6 dB
Bandwid Battery Low High
Improvement in Life of
th and (because of (because of high
reception quality.
Performa This is one of the Handhel low efficiency of power
nce) most important d efficiency of
amplifiers used)
features that Devices power

make FM preferred amplifiers

over AM in many used)

systems including
cellular systems)

Use of Needed No needed

In‐Band
(to improve (because amplitude of
Pilot
performance signal is constant)
Tone in fading
Capture Does not Exists System Low High
Effect exist Complex
(because of rapid
ity
improvement in
reception quality as
SNR improves)

Performa Relatively Relatively bad

nce in good
low
SNR

Resistanc Low High CONCLUSION:

e to Co‐
(All signals (Capture effect In conclusion we say that all these methods have important
Channel existing at allows it to receive for different tasks. Every method has its importance.
the same the
Interfere If we use one method in mobile communication then
nce reception strong signal and another method for other purpose, each has its own
frequency reject the weak properties such as band width, power transmission power,
band appear cochannel efficiency etc. which are used in its applications.
in
interferes
demodulated
ACKNOWLEGEMENT
signal with
same I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all the
persons involved in the process of preparing this term
amplitude
paper.
ratios as
received) Firstly I would like to thank Mr. SAHITAY ROY, to give
me topic for my term paper under his valuable support and
guidance throughout the term paper. His constant
Bandwid Low High
appreciation of the work and support helped me immensely
th Usage
(very (Bandwidth in the successful completion of my topic.
bandwidth inefficient. But high
It would be unfair on my part if don’t express my thanks to
efficient)
bandwidth must be the following persons who provided me with all possible
used to obtain records and helped me in every possible manner in carrying
out the various studies I required in completing my term
capture effect and
paper.
immunity to noise
advantages of FM
REFERENCES
[1]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics
[2].http://www.radioelectronics.com/info\showone.php.htm
[3]. http://www.google.co.in/search?
hl=en&q=APPLICATIONS+OF+
+antennas+IN+MOBILE+COMMUNICATION&btnG=Se
arch&meta=&aq=f&aqi=&aql=&oq=&gs_rfai=
[4]. http://rs1.scribd.com/lip.html#273498365
[5].http://www.google.co.in//Frequency%20(Fm)%20and
%20Phase%20(Pm)
%20Modulations.htm#http://rs1.scribd.com/lip.html