OFFSHORE DRILLING

 During 1998 in the United States, the

American Petroleum Institute reported that
the average offshore oil well was drilled to
10,845 ft (3306 m) at an average cost of
$585/ft. Offshore drilling operations and
equipment are similar to those on land.
 The major difference is a top drive and
the platform upon which the rig is
mounted.
 1.Top Drive

 The drilling rig on an offshore rig is similar

to a drilling rig on land. A major difference is
the top drive used on an offshore drilling rig
(fig.1). A top drive is a power swivel located
below the traveling block that drives the drill
string. It is either a large electrical or hydraul
ic motor that generates more than 1000 hor
sepower.
It is hung from the hook
on the traveling block an
d turns a shaft into which
the drillstring is screwed.
The top drive
moves up and down verti
cal rails to prevent it from
swaying with any motion
from waves.

Fig.1 top drive

 Drillpipe is added to the drillstring three joi
nts at a time when using a top drive. The top
drive saves time during making a connection
. Slips are still used in the master bushing o
n a stationary rotary table to prevent the drill
string from falling down the well.
 2.Offshore Crews

 There are usually three crews on an

offshore rig (fig.2), two working on the rig
and one off duty ashore. An onshore and
an offshore crew are rotated once every
two weeks. The crews work 12 hours from
11 a.m. to 11p.m. and 11 p.m. to 11 a.m.
 An offshore crew can ha
ve a driller, assistant drill
er, derrickman, roughne
cks, motorman, diesel en
gine operator, pump ope
rator, mud man, crane o
perator, and roustabouts
.

Fig.2 Fixed production platform

 The driller handles the rotary controls dra
wworks and pumps, while the assistant drille
r handles the pipe and racking system and t
he iron roughnecks. The assistant driller can
also relieve the driller when necessary. The
crane operator operates the crane used to lif
t equipment and supplies from supply ships
and barges onto the offshore rig.
 The crane operator is also usually the
head roustabout charge of the roustabouts
who handle the supplies and equipment. A
tool pusher and company man will also be
aboard. On some offshore rigs, a pit
watcher can be responsible for the drilling
mud and circulating equipment. There are
often rig mechanics and electricians to
maintain the rig.
 On a large drillship, there can be quarters for
200 people. If the production platform is close
to a port, the crew can be ferried out to the pl
atform on fast crew boats for a crew change e
very two weeks. On many, however, the crew
and other personnel are transported to and fr
om the production platform by helicopters that
land on the helideck (a flat platform).
 3.Exploratory Drilling

 In shallow, protected waters such as

lagoons and canals up to about 25ft (7 5 m)
deep, the rig can be mounted on a drilling
barge. A pasted barge is a drilling barge
designed to be sunk and rest on the bottom
while drilling. The drilling deck is mounted
on posts to keep it above the surface of the
ocean.
 Offshore, a mobile offshore drilling unit (MO
DU) is used. Three types are jackup,
semisubmersible, and drillship.
 A jackup rig usually has two barge-like hulls
and at least three vertical legs through the h
ulls (Fig. 3). The legs are either 1) open-trus
s with tubular steel members that are cross
braced, or 2) columnar made of large diamet
er steel tubes.
Fig.3 Jackup rig( 自升式平台 )
 The cantilevered jackup rig is most commo
n with the derrick mounted on two large ste
el beams that protrude over the edge of the
deck. Occasionally the derrick is mounted o
n the deck over a slot or keyway in the deck
.
 The jackup rig is usually towed into position
although some are self-propelled. While mo
ving, both hulls are together and float like a
barge with the legs raised high. At the drillsit
e, the lower hull (mat) is flooded and positio
ned on the seafloor.
 On each of the legs is a jack house that
uses a rack-and-pinion arrangement
powered by an electric or hydraulic motor to
raise and lower the upper hull. The upper
hull is jacked up on the legs until usually
about 25 ft (8 m) above the sea surface. The
drilling rig on the upper hull is then secure
above the waves, and the mat acts as a
stable foundation, even with a soft bottom.
 If the ocean bottom is relatively hard, small
er cylinders (cams) with a point on the botto
m can be used on the bottom of each leg ins
tead of a mat. After drilling, the hulls can be j
oined again and the rig towed or steamed to
another site.
 Legs on these rigs are constructed up to 55
0 ft (170 m) high. Jackups are generally use
d in water depths up to 300 ft (91 m) althoug
h some can drill in deeper waters.
 For deep-water drilling, a floater, a semi-su
bmersible, or drillship is used. A semi-subm
ersible is a floating, rectangular-shaped drill
ing platform (Fig. 4).
 The most common type is the column-stabil
ized semisubmersible. Most of the rig flotati
on is in the pontoons, located 30 to 50 ft (9
to 15 m) below sea level when on station. S
quare or circular columns connect the drillin
g platform to the pontoons .
Fig.4 semisubmersible rig( 半潜式平
 If it is relatively shallow water, the semi-
submersible is anchored on station with a
mooring pattern of anchors and chains
radiating out from the rig. In deeper waters,
it uses dynamic positioning. Because most
of the flotation is below sea level in the
pontoons, the rig is very stable even during
high sea and winds.
 Once drilling is completed, the semi-submer
sible can be towed to another drillsite. To m
ove the semisubmersible, the pontoons are
emptied, and the rig floats high in the transit
mode for easier towing.
 A ballast-control specialist supervises the rai
sing and lowering of the semi and keeps it st
able. For long-distance transport, the semi c
an be carried on the deck of a special ship d
uring a dry tow. Some semis can drill in wat
er depths up to 10,000 ft.
 A drillship is a ship with a drilling rig mounte
d in the center (Fig. 5).The ship steams out t
o the drillsite and then drills through a hole i
n the hull, called the moon pool. The ship flo
ats over the drillsite.
Fig.5 drillship ( 钻井船 )
 On the drillship, a satellite dish is used to tra
ck navigational satellites.A computer aboard
the drillship constantly recalculates the drills
hip's location. If the drillship drifts off the drill
site, the computer engages the ship's propel
lers and puts the drillship back on location.
 Drillships have propellers on the side of the
ship (bow and stern thrusters) and can mov
e both back and forth and sideways. Keepin
g on station by computer is called dynamic p
ositioning.
 Drillships are very expensive. For efficiency,
some modern drillships have the equipment
and ability to drill two wells at the same time
from one derrick. The derrick contains two tr
aveling blocks and top drives, and the ship h
as two independent drillers and assistant dril
lers stations and two setback areas to rack t
he pipe. Some drill ships have the capability
of drilling in 35,000 ft water depth.
Spudding an Offshore Exploratory Well

On a well drilled by a jackup rig, several h

undred feet of large diameter (26 or 30 in. -
66 or 76 cm), conductor casing is set into th
e sea bottom.
 On a very soft sea bottom, the conductor ca
sing is jetted into the bottom by pumping se
awater through the center.
 On a harder bottom, the conductor casing is
pile-driven into the bottom.
 On a very hard bottom, a hole is drilled, and
then the casing is run into the hole and
cemented.
 The conductor casing extends above sea lev
el to just below the drilling deck. A smaller diam
eter hole is then drilled through the casing into t
he seafloor to several hundred feet below the b
ottom of the conductor casing. Surface casing is
run into the hole and cemented. Next, a blowout
preventer stack is bolted to the top of the surfac
e casing. The rest of the well is thendrilled and
cased similar to a well on land.
 On a well drilled by a floater (a semi or drills
hip), a temporary guide base or drilling temp
late is installed on the sea bottom. The temp
orary guide base is a hexagonal-shaped ste
el framework with a hole in the center for the
well. It is attached to bottom of a drillstring a
nd lowered to the sea bottom. Four steel gui
delines run from the sides of the temporary
guide base up to the floater. They are used t
o lower and position other equipment in and
on the well.
 The drillstring is then raised back up to the fl
oater leaving the temporary guide base on t
he sea bottom. A guide frame is then attach
ed to the bottom of the drillstring. It has two
or four arms through which the guidelines ru
n.
 The drillstring and guide frame is then lower
ed down the guidelines to the temporary gui
de base. A large diameter hole (30 or 36 in -
76 r 9cm.) is drilled through the center of the
temporary guide base to about 100ft (30 m)
below the seafloor.
 The drillstring and guide frame are then rais
ed back to the floater. The guide frame is th
en attached to the lowest joint on the founda
tion pile, the first casing string run into the w
ell. A fundation pile housing and permanent
guide struture is attached to the top foundati
on pile joint.
 The Location pile is then run into the hole
and cemented. The permanent guide
structure is attached to the temporary guide
base on the sea bottom. The hole is then
drilled deeper, and a string of conductor
casing is run and cemented into the hole.
 A subsea blowout prevent stack that can
be activated from the floater is then lower
ed and locked onto the wellhead with a hy
draulic wellhead connector. The drilling rig
is then connected to the blowout prevente
rs by, flexible, metal hollow tube (marine ri
ser). The drillstring goes through the mari
ne riser into the well.
 A tensioner system of wire rope and pulleys
on the floater supports the upper part of the
marine riser. The marine riser completes a c
losed system to circulate drilling mud down t
he drillstring and up the annulus between th
e drillstring and marine riser.
 To compensate for the up-down motion (h
eave) of the floater on the surface, a teles
coping joint that expands and contracts is
used on the top o the marine rise. A heave
compensator is also located between the t
raveling block and hook on the drilling rig.
The compensator has pistons in cylinders
that hold the hook and drillstring stationary
as the floater heaves.
 During an emergency such as severe weath
er, the blowout preventers can be closed an
d the marine riser disconnected from the BO
P stack. The floater can then be moved off s
tation to safety. After the emergency has pa
ssed, the well can be relocated and reentere
d.
Developmental Drilling and Production
 After a commercial, offshore field has been
discovered, it can be developed with a fixed
production, tension leg, or compliant platform. A
fixed production platform has legs and sits on the
bottom. One type is called a gravity-base platform
because it has a large mass of steel-reinforced
concrete on the bottom of the legs, and gravity
holds it in position (Fig. 6).
 The massive base has hollow cel
ls that can be used for floata-tio
n when assembling and towing t
he platform into posi-tion. On lo
cation, the cells can be used for
ballast or storage of crude and di
esel oil. It is cons-tructed in a sh
eltered, deepwater port along the
shoreline and then towed into po
sition. This type is used in areas
of very rough seas.

Fig.6 Gravity-base production platform

 A more common type is the steel-jacket
platform that has legs, the steel jacket,
that sit on the bottom (Fig.2 and Fig.7). It
is constructed on land and either floated
horizontally or carried on a barge out into
position. It is then flooded and rotated
vertically. Piles are driven into the sea
bottom and bolted, welded, or cemented
to the legs to hold it in position.
 A crane is used to lift the
deck and modules such as
power generation, crew
quarters, and mud storage
off deck barges and
position them on the
platform.

Fig.7 Steel-jacket production platform

 Offshore platforms often have several decks (flat s
urfaces) on top of each other to serve various func
tions such as power and drilling (Fig.2). Wellheads
are usually located on the lower cellar deck. Separ
ators, treaters, and gas compressors are located o
n the platform. The treated oil or gas is then usuall
y sent ashore through a submarine pipeline. A cra
ne is used to lift supplies and equipment aboard th
e platform. Usually one or two derricks are left on
deep-water platforms after the wells have been dril
led to use for workovers.
 The deepest water depth for a production
platform is 1350 ft. (411 m). In relatively
shallow waters, there can be a separate
quarters platform for the crew next to the
production platform as a safety precaution.
A bridge connects the platforms.
 A tension-leg platform (TLP) floats above
the offshore field. It is held in position by
heavy weights on the seafloor (Fig. 8). The
weights are connected to the tension-leg
platform by hollow, steel tubes 1 to 2 ft (0.3
to 0.6m) in diameter, called tendons. The
tendons pull the platform down in the water
to prevent it from rising and falling with
waves and tides.
Fig.8 tension-leg platform
 Tension leg platforms can be installed in
water depths up to about 3500ft (1065 m).
A tension-leg well platform, in contrast,
has only wellheads and no production
treating facilities onboard. The produced
fluids are sent by seabed pipeline to a
production platform in shallow water for
treatment.
A compliant platform (Fig.9)
is a relatively light
production platform that is
designed to sway with wind,
waves, and currents.

Fig.9 Compliant tower)

 One type, a guyed-tower, is attached to a
pivot on the ocean bottom.
 Another type, a spar, is a floating production
platform in the shape of a closed, vertical
cylinder like a buoy. The spar is designed to
not rise and fall with the waves. Both the
guyed-tower and spar are held in position
with radiating guy wires and ocean bottom
weights.
 Wells are drilled through a well template on the
ocean bottom that is used to position and separate
the wells. The template is a steel frame with slots for
each well. It can be either
 1) on the bottom of a leg and the wells are drilled
through the leg.
 or 2) on the sea bottom between the legs or
tendons.
It supports the equipment necessary to drill and
produce the wells. Each slot on the template locates
and standardizes the instillation of a well.
 The offshore field is developed by deviation
drilling from one platform. If the offshore well
flows, it is completed with a Christmas tree.
An offshore oil well that needs artificial lift is
usually completed with gas lift. Offshore wells
are required by law to be equipped with storm
chokes. The choke is installed on the bottom
of the well and is closed either manually or
automatically during an emergency.
 Subsea Work

 Installation and work on a well underwater can be

done by three methods: a diver, a diver in a one-
atmosphere diving suit and a remotely operated
vehicle. A saturation diver breathing a helium and
oxygen mix can work down to 1000 ft (300 m). The
one-atmosphere diving suit (ADS) is a hard diving
suit with one atmosphere air pressure in it and
human-powered limbs. It can operate down to
2300 ft (700 m).
 A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is an un
manned submersible that can effectively op
erate down to 15,000 ft (4600 m). It is conne
cted to a mother ship on the surface by a ca
ble (umbilical). A closed-circuit television ca
mera on the ROV allows operators on the su
rface to manipulate the ROV with thrusters a
nd do work with manipulator arms. ROVs us
ed to work on offshore wells are very similar
to those used to discover and explore sunke
n ships.
 Subsea Completions and Wells

 A subsea completion consists of a wellhead and pr

oduction equipment such as a Christmas tree or g
as lift on the bottom of the ocean. The subsea well
is drilled from a floater instead of a production platf
orm. The completion can be either dry, with an atm
ospheric chamber surrounding the equipment (Fig.
10 a), or wet, which is exposed to sea water (Fig.
10 b).
Fig.10 Subsea wells (a) dry (b) wet
 The production from a subsea well can be ta
ken by flowline to a subsea manifold where i
t is commingled with production from other s
ubsea wells. It is then taken by a flowline to
a production platform in shallow water, a ten
sion leg platform, a semisub-mersible facility
, a spar tower, or up a pro-duction riser to a f
loating production, storage, and offloading v
essel (Fig.11) for processing.
Fig.11 Subsea wells tied in to an FPSO vessel
 The floating production, storage, and offload-i
ng (FPSO) vessel is a converted tanker, a se
misubmersible or a specially built ship that co
ntains separation and treating facilities. It can
be kept on position by an anchoring system or
by dynamic positioning. The treated oil is then
transferred from the FPSO to a shuttle tanker
to be brought ashore. Ultra deep-water wells
are done with subsea completions.
 Remote portions of an offshore field and sm
aller fields that are not economic by themsel
ves can be developed by satellite wells. The
satellite well is drilled by a mobile offshore d
rilling unit and completed as a subsea well.
The satellite well is then tied to an existing p
roduction platform by flowline.