BUILDING SENTENCES USING CONNECTIVES

Simple sentence 1 [connectives] simple sentence 2 = New or compound sentence

A connective combines simpler sentences to form a compound sentence.

Let P, Q and R be simple sentences. We can form compound sentences using

1. Conjunction (and): P Q , P Q R
2. Disjunction (or): P Q
3. Negation (not): P
4. Implication: if-then P Q
5. Biconditional (if and only if): P Q

For more complex sentences we may combine conjunction and disjunction and take its
negation.

( P Q) R

We may introduce symbols to sentences in the natural language.

In the symbolic form we can

(i) define and prove equivalent expressions.
(ii) determine the truthvalue of a compound statement if the truthvalue of the simple
sentences forming it is known.

1. CONJUNCTION

Example: (Conjunction )
Give the symbolic form of the given compound sentences:

1. Malaysians eat rice and fish.

2. Malaysians and the Thais eat rice.
3. The red car is expensive.
4. 0 1 2.
5. 0 x 2.

TRUTH VALUE ANALYSIS (Conjunction)

The truthvalue of P Q is given by the following truth table.

P Q C
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
P Q is always False unless P and Q are both True.

Example:
Determine the truthvalue of the given sentences:
(i) P : { }, Q : , P Q
Since P is false and Q is tue, P Q is false
(ii) 2+2>1 and 1+1=2 and [ {1, 2,3} {1, 2,3} ]

2. DISJUNCTION

Example: (Disjunction )
Use disjunction to connect the given sentences and give the new sentence in the natural
language form:

1. P : It is sunny, Q : It is rainy.
2. P : I wear white shirt. Q : I wear red shirt.

Example:
Write the following sentence in the symbolic form:
1. Either the dog or the cat always makes noise.
2. x 2 .

TRUTH VALUE ANALYSIS (Disjunction)

P Q P Q
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

P Q is always true unless P and Q are both False

Example:
Determine the truthvalue of the sentence 2+3=4 or 1=1.

EQUIVALENT EXPRESSIONS

How do you show that two sentences are equivalent using its symbolic
representations?

Do the connectives (conjunction and disjunction satisfy the following rules?

1. Commutativity (tukar tertib)

2. Assosiativity (kalis sekutuan)
3. Distributive Laws (kalis taburan)

By the commutative law, we say that the sentence P Q is equivalent to Q P , written as

P Q Q P

We can use the truthvalue table to determine if two sentences are equivalent. Two sentences
are (logically) equivalent if their truthvalues are exactly the same.
Example
Show that the sentences P Q ^ R and P Q ^ R are equivalent.

So we can write P Q R without ambiguity neclecting the brackets. However

P Q R without inserting the appropriate brackets can be ambiguious. Can you
explain why?

3. NEGATION

Create a new sentence by prefixing the old sentence with the word ‘not’ (inserting the word
‘not’ at the beginning of the old sentence.

Given a sentence P
The negation of P is P
i.e. Not P or It is not the case P

Example
Give the negation of the following sentences by first converting into symbolic form.

1. The paper is white. _________________________________

2. Everybody is happy. _________________________________
3. Somebody is crying. _________________________________
4. All birds can fly. ___________________________________
6 1
5. . __________________________________
30 5

6. x <2. ___________________________________

7. x 2. ___________________________________

8. I like bread and butter.____________________________________

How do you justify your answers in 7 and 8? You can use symbolic representations to
determine the negation of a sentence that involves conjunction (or disjuction) by finding
and proving an equivalent expression. Then translate the symbolic representations into
the natural language form.

DeMorgan’s Laws: _________________________________________

Exercise:
Create the truth value table for P, P, P respectively. Then construct equivalent
expressions from the results.

You should obtain P P.

You will also have proven that P P P