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Noise margin
1.5
1
1
0.5
0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1
-1
-1.5
-1.5
Time -2
Time
10
In the case of an multilevel system, the eye pattern
contains (L-1) eye openings stacked up vertically one on
the other, where L is the number of discrete amplitude
levels used to construct the transmitted signal.
Eye Diagram: low noise and ISI-free chanel Eye Diagram: noisy and ISI chanel
1
1
0.5
0.5
Amplitude
Amplitude
0
0
-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
Time
Time
11
For PSK (phase-shift keying) modulation, it is customary
to display the “eye pattern” as a two-dimensional scatter
diagram illustrating the sampled values that represent
the decision variables at the sampling instants.
1 1
0.5 0.5
Quadrature
Quadrature
0 0
-0.5 -0.5
-1 -1
-1.5 -1.5
-1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
In-Phase In-Phase
19
The complexity of the bit synchronizer circuit depends on the
sync properties of the line code.
Example : A unipolar RZ code with a sufficient number of
alternating binary 1’s and 0’s is almost trivial, since the PSD
of that code has a delta function at the bit rate, f = R.
The bit sync clock signal can be obtained by passing the
received unipolar RZ waveform through a narrowband
bandpass filter that is tuned to f0 = R = 1/Tb.
For a polar NRZ line code, the bit synchronizer is slightly
more complicated. The filtered polar NRZ waveform is
converted to a unipolar RZ waveform by using a square-law
(or, alternatively, a full-wave rectifier) circuit.
The clock signal is then recovered using a filter or a PLL,
since the unipolar RZ has a delta function at f = R.
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21
Unipolar, polar, and bipolar bit synchronizers will work only
when there are a sufficient number of alternating 1’s and 0’s
in the data.
The loss of synchronization because of long strings of all 1’s
or all 0’s can be prevented by adopting one of two possible
alternatives.
One alternative is to use bit interleaving (i.e., scrambling).
The other alternative is to use a completely different type of
line code that does not require alternating data for bit
synchronization.
For example, Manchester NRZ encoding can be used, but it
will require a channel with twice the bandwidth of that
needed for a polar NRZ code.
22
Intersymbol Interference
The absolute bandwidth of rectangular multilevel pulses is
infinity.
23
Digital data have a broad spectrum with a significant low-
frequency content.
Digital baseband transmission requires a lowpass channel
with a bandwidth sufficient to accommodate the essential
frequency content of the data stream.
If these pulses are filtered improperly as they pass through a
communication system, they will spread in time, and the
pulse for each symbol may be smeared into adjacent time
slots and cause intersymbol interference (ISI).
ISI is a major source of bit errors in the receiver. To correct it,
control has to be exercised over the pulse shape in the
overall system. Another approach to mitigate ISI is to equip
the receiver with an equaliser.
But…how does ISI arise???
24
Coherence bandwidth is a measure of the range of
frequencies over which all spectral components with
approximately equal gain and linear phase.
x(t ) h(t , τ) y (t )
x(t ) h(t , τ) y (t )
τ << Ts
t t t
0 Ts 0τ 0 Ts + τ
X(f ) H( f ) Y( f )
f f f
fc fc fc
25
Flat fading channel characteristics
x(t ) h ( t , τ) y (t )
x(t ) h(t , τ) y (t )
t t t
0 Ts 0 τ 0 Ts Ts + τ
X( f ) H( f ) Y( f )
f f f
fc fc fc
⎡ ⎤
= ⎢∑ anδ (t − nTs )⎥ ∗ h(t )
⎣ n ⎦
28
The output of the linear system would be just the input
impulse train convolved with the equivalent impulse response
of the overall system.
⎡ ⎤
wout (t ) = ⎢∑ anδ (t − nTs )⎥ ∗ he (t )
⎣ n ⎦
where the equivalent impulse response is
he (t ) = h(t ) ∗ hT (t ) ∗ hC (t ) ∗ hR (t )
31
If we choose a (sin x)/x function for he(t). Let τ =0 and choose
sin πf s t
he (t ) =
πf s t
where fs =1/Ts is called the Nyquist rate.
The sinc impulse response satisfies Nyquist’s first criterion
for zero ISI.
Consequently, if the transmit and receive filters are designed
so that the overall transfer function is
1 ⎛ f ⎞
H e ( f ) = ∏⎜⎜ ⎟⎟
fs ⎝ fs ⎠
there will be no ISI.
Absolute bandwidth of this transfer function is B = fs /2, the
optimum filtering to produce a minimum-bandwidth system.
It will allow signaling at a baud rate of D = 1/Ts = 2B pulses/s,
where B is the absolute bandwidth of the system. 32
(a) Ideal magnitude response. (b) Ideal basic pulse shape.
33
Binary sequence 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Amplitude
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
B = f 0 + f Δ = f 0 + rf 0 = (1 + r ) f 0 39
However, the filter is noncausal. We could use a filter with
a linear phase characteristic He(f)e-jωTd, and there would be
on ISI if we delayed the clocking by Td sec, since the e-jωTd
factor is the transfer function of an ideal delay line.
h(t − Td ) ↔ H ( f )e − jωTd
Time delay
property
This would move the peak of the impulse response to the
right (along the time axis), and then the filter would be
approximately causal.
40
Adaptive Equalization
In a telecommunications environment, the channel is usually
time-varying. For example, in a switched telephone network, we
find that two factors contribute to the distribution of pulse
distortion on different link connections:
Differences in the transmission characteristics of the individual
links that may be switched together.
Differences in the number of links in a connection.
wˆ k [n + 1] =
wˆ k [n] + μx[n − k ]e[n]
52
The effect of multiplication by cosωct is simply to shift the
spectrum of the original binary signal (the baseband signal) up to
frequency ωc.
This is the double-sideband suppressed carrier (DSB-SC) AM
signal. It contains upper and lower side bands symmetrically
distributed about the carrier or center frequency ωc.
B = f 0 (1 + r )
1
= (1 + r )
2Ts
57
For a binary train of alternating l's and 0's, resulting in a
periodically alternating ASK signal, the spectrum of this signal is
just the (sinx)/x line spectrum of a pulse of width T, periodic with
period 2T, translated up to frequency fc.
f1 = f c − Δf , f 2 = f c + Δf ,
59
The FSK wave can also be written as:
T T
f c (t ) = A cos(ω c ± Δω)t , − ≤ t ≤
2 2
The frequency then deviates ±Δf about fc .
The quantity Δf is commonly called the frequency deviation.
The frequency spectrum of the FSK wave is difficult to obtain.
We consider one special case, which provides insight into the
spectral characteristics of more complex FM signals, and leads to
a good rule of thumb regarding FM bandwidths.
Assume that the binary message consists of an alternating
sequence of ls and 0s.
If the two frequencies are each multiples of the reciprocal of the
binary period T (i.e., f1 = m/T, f2 = n/T, m and n integers), and are
synchronized in phase. 60
Then this FSK wave is a periodic function:
Carson’s rule:
98% of the total power is contained within the bandwidth BT(FM).
66
Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)
Binary PSK signal using rectangular shaping is given as:
T T
f c (t ) = ± cos ω c t , − ≤ t ≤
2 2
Here a 1 in the baseband binary stream corresponds to positive
polarity, and a 0 to negative polarity.
The PSK signal thus corresponds essentially to a polar NRZ
binary stream, translated up in frequency.
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M-ary Modulation
The bandwidth required for transmitting a baseband digital
sequence could be reduced by using multilevel signaling:
combining successive binary pulses to form a longer pulse
requiring a correspondingly smaller bandwidth for transmission.
Specifically, with ideal Nyquist shaping 2 (symbols/s)/Hz can be
transmitted over the Nyquist bandwidth of B hertz. If a set of M =
2k symbols is used, with k the number of successive binary digits
combined to form the appropriate symbol to be transmitted, 2k
(bits/s)/Hz may be transmitted using the Nyquist band.
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73
Multi-symbol systems include multi-phase, multi-amplitude, and
combined multi-phase/multi-amplitude signaling schemes.
These are commonly used in telephone, microwave, and satellite
data communications to achieve higher spectrum efficiency.
Multi-symbol signals are often called M-ary signals.
Consider a system in which two successive binary pulses are
combined, and the resultant set of four binary pairs, 00, 01, 10, 11,
is used to trigger a high-frequency sine wave of four possible
phases, one for each of the binary pairs.
The ith signal, of the four possible ones, can be written
T T
si (t ) = cos(ω c t + θ i ), i = 1, 2, 3, 4, − ≤ t ≤
2 2
Two possible choices for the four phase angles are:
π π 3π
θ i = 0,± , π θ i = ± ,±
2 4 4 74
In both cases the phases are spaced π/2 radians apart.
Signals of this type are called quaternary/quadrature PSK
(QPSK) signals. They are a special case of multi-PSK (MPSK)
signals. Binary PSK signals often labeled as BPSK.
In general, k successive binary pulses are stored up and one of M =
2k symbols is output.
If the binary rate is R bits/s, each binary pulse interval is 1/R
seconds long. The corresponding output symbol is then T = k/R
seconds long.
The QPSK signals may be represented in the following form:
T T
s i (t ) = a i cos ω c t + bi sin ω c t , − ≤t≤
2 2
where ai and bi are the in-phase and quadrature components,
respectively.
75
Transmission of this type is often called quadrature transmission,
with two carriers in phase quadrature to one another (cosωct and
sinωct) transmitted simultaneously over the same channel.
It is useful to represent the MPSK signals in a two-dimensional
constellation diagram by locating the various points (ai, bi).
The horizontal axis corresponding to the location of ai, is called the
in phase axis. The vertical axis, along which bi, is located, is called
the quadrature axis.
QPSK modulator 77
It is apparent that demodulation is carried out by using two
synchronous detectors in parallel, one in quadrature with the other.
A comparison of the two detector outputs then determines the
particular binary pair transmitted.
QPSK demodulator 78
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
More general types of multi-symbol signaling schemes may be
generated by letting ai and bi take on multiple values themselves.
The resultant signals are QAM signals. Therefore QAM is a
combined multi-phase/multi-amplitude signaling scheme.
These signals may be interpreted as having multilevel amplitude
modulation, applied independently on each of the two quadrature
carriers.
79
Four level (16-symbol) QAM constellation
The general QAM signal may also be written:
si (t ) = ri cos(ω c t + θ i )
with the amplitude ri and phase angle θi given by the appropriate
combinations of (ai, bi).
A phase-detector-amplitude-level-detector combination could then
also be used to extract the digital information.
In practice, signal shaping must be used to reduce ISI.
An actual modulator would have the input binary pulses shaped
before modulating the carrier.
Alternatively, the bandpass output signals would be passed through
an appropriate bandpass shaping filter before being transmitted.
As the result of shaping, an individual output symbol, nominally
designed to fit into the interval T seconds long, may now span
several T-second intervals.
80
Binary sequence 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
Amplitude
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time
where the roll-off factor r varies from an ideal value of 0 (for ideal
low-pass filtering) to 1 (for raised-cosine filtering).
83
The symbol rate allowable over the equivalent transmission channel
of bandwidth BT hertz is thus
BT
Rs = symbols/s
(1 + r )
84
kBT
Rb = bits/s
(1 + r )
Given a transmission bandwidth BT, the desired bit rate and a
particular QAM constellation, the roll-off factor may be found.
Why not go on indefinitely increasing the size of the QAM signal
constellation to achieve indefinitely high bit rate?
As the number of constellation size increases, the phase spacing
between signals reduces correspondingly.
The channel noise and phase jitter makes it more difficult to
distinguish individual points in a constellation as the number of
point increases. This will produce more errors at the receiver.
There is thus a limit on the number of QAM states that may be
used.
85
PSK signal constellations (a) M=4 (b) M=8
88
X(f )
f
-f2 -f1 0 f1 f2
(a)
Y(f )
f
-2f2 -(f1+f2) -2f1 -f2 -f1 -(f2-f1) 0 f2-f1 f1 f2 2f1 f2+f1 2f2
(b)
92
The problem of interchannel interference in QPSK is so serious that
regulatory and standardization agencies will not permit these
system to be used except with appropriate pulse shaping at the
transmitter to suppress the side lobes.
However…the filtering does not necessarily resolve the problem!
In QPSK, the odd and even pulse streams are both transmitted at
the rate of 1/2T bits/s and are synchronously aligned.
Due to this alignment between dI(t) and dQ(t), the carrier phase can
change only once every 2T.
The phase change can be as large as 180°.
In Offset QPSK (OQPSK), also called staggered QPSK (SQPSK),
the timing of the pulse stream dI(t) and dQ(t) is shifted such that the
alignment of the two streams is offset by T.
Since only one component can make a transition at one time, the
phase changes are limited to 0° and ±90° every T seconds.
93
dk(t)
1
d0 d1 d5 d6 d7
t
d2 d3 d4
-1
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T 8T
dI(t)
1
d0 d6
t
d2 d4
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
dQ(t)
1
d1 d5 d7
t
d3
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
s(t)
d0 = 1 d2 = -1 d4 = -1 d6 = 1
d1 = 1 d3 = -1 d5 = 1 d7 = 1
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
d0 d1 d5 d6 d7
t
d2 d3 d4
-1
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T 7T 8T
dI(t)
1
d0 d6
t
d2 d4
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
dQ(t)
1
T
d1 d5 d7
t
d3
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
d2 = -1 d4 = -1 d6 = 1
d0 = 1
d1 = 1 d3 = -1 d5 = 1 d7 = 1
s(t) t
-1
0 2T 4T 6T 8T
96
Now it turns out that when QPSK/OQPSK waveforms with abrupt
phase changes, are filtered so suppress sidebands, the effect of the
filter, at the times of the abrupt phase changes, is to cause
substantial changes in the amplitude of the waveform.
If these signals are used in satellite channels employing highly
nonlinear amplifiers, the constant envelope will tend to be restored
since the nonlinearity suppresses the amplitude variations.
However, at the same time, all of the undesirable frequency side-
lobes, which can interfere with nearby channels and other
communication systems, are also restored.
This suggests that further improvement is possible if the OQPSK
format is modified to avoid phase transitions.
In other words, we need an alternative QPSK scheme which
possesses constant envelop and maintains phase continuity.
Minimum shift keying (MSK) is one such scheme.
97
98
MSK can be viewed as either a special case of continuous-phase
FSK (CPFSK), or a special case of OQPSK with (smoother)
sinusoidal symbol weighting.
99
Mathematically, we can write the MSK signal as
⎛ πt ⎞ ⎛ πt ⎞
si (t ) = ai cos⎜ ⎟ cos ωc t + bi sin ⎜ ⎟ sin ωc t , ai , bi = ±1
⎝T ⎠ ⎝T ⎠
Note that the effect of the sinusoidal weighting terms is to multiply
each carrier by a term going to zero at the bit transition point.
If the carrier has an integer number of half cycles within the symbol
interval T, then there is no phase discontinuity at bit transition points.
This says that we should set
m 1 mR
fc = =
2T 4
with m an integer, and R = 2/T the input bit rate.
One may deduce the following facts from MSK waveforms:
1. The waveform si(t) has constant envelope;
2. There is phase continuity in the RF carrier;
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101
As we may expect, the sidelobes generated by these smoother
waveforms will be smaller than those associated with the
rectangular waveforms and hence easier to suppress as is required
to avoid interchannel interference.
The MSK baseband signal has a broader first lobe, with the first
zero crossing at f = 0.75R = 3/2T.
The actual MSK signal thus has a first lobe bandwidth, centered
about the carrier frequency fc, of BT = 1.5R = 3/T.
The QPSK signal, has a corresponding baseband first zero crossing
of f =0.5R = 1/T. Its first-lobe transmission bandwidth, centered
about fc is BT = R = 2/T.
The higher frequency content of the MSK signal drops off more
rapidly, however.
The bandwidth of MSK to the 99-percent power point is 1.2R =
2.4/T, while that for the QPSK signal is 8R = 16/T.
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