ADAPTATION, CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE OCEAN

This briefing paper reviews adaptation to only two of the many ocean related climate change threats.
They are interrelated and thus share many of the same recommended adaptation actions that are
summarized in a table on page six.

Part 1: Adaptation and Sea Level Rise

1.1. Summary of threats
Climate change effects on ocean and coastal habitat are only going to be more evident over the next
few decades. In addition to rising global temperatures, elevated storm frequency and intensity, and
changing precipitation patterns is the inevitable impact of sea level rise. Human lifestyles will need to
adapt dramatically in response to degradation of shoreline properties, rising cost of property taxes and
coastal flood insurance, changes to marine transportation systems, and alteration of coastal livelihoods
related to tourism, fishing and recreation.

Global sea level depends primarily on three factors: the total quantity of water filling the oceans'
basins; the temperature of the oceans' layers, which determines the density and volume of their
waters; and the bathymetry (shape) of the ocean floor, which determines the water-holding capacity of
the basins. A rise in global temperature can, through a variety of physical mechanisms, transfer snow
and ice from land to the sea, increasing the quantity of water in the ocean basins and can raise the
oceans' temperatures, causing the thermal expansion of their volumes.1 Research shows that sea level
has already risen approximately 15-20 cm worldwide in the last century, and will rise 1-3 feet more over
the next century.

Rising sea levels pose a variety of implications for change: coastal

inundation of low lying areas, increased beach and wetland erosion,
more flooding from storm surges and rainstorms, and saltwater intrusion
in groundwater and upstream freshwater habitats. Specifically, sea level
rise may have the following effects on our way of life.

Impact on Coastal Infrastructure: As the sea rises, so do coastal real

Property Damage Due to Coastal
Flooding. Source: Marine
estate property insurance costs. The number of households needing to
Photobank purchase flood insurance has tripled in the last couple of decades and
coastal flood insurance rates have risen dramatically since the 2005
storm season, and many insurers have already withdrawn from writing new policies in coastal areas.

There are corresponding effects on the regional economy. Many

tourism and recreational industries depend on the shoreline for
revenue generation. Damage to coastal infrastructure including
roads, bridges, docks, water supply systems and hotels may become
too costly to repair, while changes in regional climate and
precipitation levels may soon make some existing tourist locations
unattractive to visitors altogether.2
Flooded pier in Florida. Source: Marine
Photobank
1
Source: http://yosemite.epa.gov/oar/globalwarming.nsf/content/ResourceCenterPublicationsSeaLevelRiseIndex.html#future_0
2
Source: http://news.mongabay.com/2007/1016-climate.html
The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 1
Impact on Marine Transportation Systems: Rising sea levels can inflict significant damage on
transportation infrastructure, such as piers, ports and marinas. A new report from the National
Research Council says that “…potentially the greatest impact on transportation systems will be flooding
of roads, railways, transit systems, and airport runways in coastal areas because of rising sea levels
and surges brought on by more intense storms.” Already an estimated 60,000 miles of coastal
highways are exposed to periodic storm flooding.3

Impact on Small and Low-lying Islands: Some of the most severe effects of sea level rise will be felt in
small island nations, where more than 60 percent of the population lives within 1.5km of the shore, in
areas that will be greatly reduced by inundation and erosion. In addition to the physical reduction of
available land is the potential reduction in freshwater availability as surface water evaporation rates
may rise and saltwater intrusion makes groundwater undrinkable. Increased coastal flooding can
trigger a variety of health problems including increased malaria, cholera, and skin diseases as a result
of more standing water,4 challenges we have already witnessed in the wake of the 2004 tsunami and
the 2008 cyclone damage in Burma. From Alaska to Vanuatu entire coastal communities are being
relocated and small low-lying islands abandoned to inundation.

Impact on Mangrove Stands: Mangroves play an essential role in protecting coastlines from erosion
and storms. Estimates suggest that wave energy may be reduced by 75 per cent during a wave’s
passage through 200 meters of mangrove forest. Mangroves also help to filter coastal pollution,
promote water quality, and serve as important breeding grounds for fish. They are also important
sources of timber and construction materials for coastal communities. Mangrove loss due to flooding
from rapid sea level rise could be disastrous locally and economically. The goods and services
generated by mangroves have been estimated at an average worth of $900,000 per square kilometer,
depending on their location and uses.5

1.2. Expected Human Adaptation

Three typical human responses to sea level rise or coastal inundation are to: 1) hold back the waters
using dykes and levees, 2) elevate human structures and land surfaces, and 3) allow nature to take its
course and respond retroactively. Humans can of course also choose to relocate to upland, inland
areas away from the shore, though climate change may make such options even less palatable.

By its very nature, human adaptation will tend to vary from site to site given that projected effects of
climate change will differ greatly over small geographic areas. Each community differs by way of
location, political and institutional structures, cultural values, economics, and natural landscape. The
most effective adaptation strategies (ones that are implemented) are ones that have goals that respect
local values and that come from the ground up rather than from the top down.

1.3. Management Responses to Sea Level Rise

In order to respond to the threat of sea level rise worldwide, the
conservation and management community should work together
with private sector stakeholders and coastal engineers to prepare
adaptation strategies and mitigation plans that address the
threats. Regardless of the specific management response in
consideration, all funder strategies should include the following
strategic elements within planning processes6: 1) Promote
decision-making processes that include transparency,
information sharing and incorporation of local knowledge along
Bottom Up Approaches & Community
3
Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/03/080311120617.htm
Collaboration in Burma. Source: Marine
4
Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070410135159.htm Photobank.
5
Source: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=483&ArticleID=5312&l=en
6
It should be noted that the Nature Conservancy is working to establish a Sea-Level Rise Learning Network to address some of these needs,
beginning with its work in coastal and marine protected areas.
The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 2
with technical experts, 2) Engage all stakeholders including local community representatives, city
planners, county level officials, and coastal developers, 3) Incorporate local knowledge and
understanding of coastal-change processes into adaptation strategies, and 4) Host workshops and
education exchange forums to teach local communities, including shoreline stakeholders, about climate
change and impacts relevant to their community.7 More specific response and adaptation strategies
might include:

Increase Resilience of Coastal Zone With Shoreline Protection

Strategies: Short-sighted human response often includes
erecting coastal defenses and structural barriers such as sea
walls, dikes, bulkheads, and beach nourishment etc., which can
help prevent sea level rise from inundating low-lying coastal
property and affecting key human infrastructure. Constructing
sea wall and bulkhead protection for just 25% of the length of the
northeast and mid-Atlantic coastline would cost between $300
million to just under $8 billion.8 In addition, the environmental Researchers assessing erosion impacts
costs of such strategies are significant, and most structures in a coastal wetland. Source: Marine
require regular investment in maintenance and rebuilding, which Photobank
makes this strategy even less viable. An alternative adaptation
strategy would be a planned retreat, in which structures are relocated inland or abandoned as
shorelines retreat.9

Improvements to National Marine Transportation Services: Adaptation strategies will have to include
significant changes in the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of transportation
systems. A recent National Academies report calls for the U.S. federal government to establish a
research program to re-evaluate existing road design standards and develop new standards for
addressing climate change; the creation of an interagency working group on adaptation; changes in
federal regulations regarding long-range planning guidelines and infrastructure rehabilitation
requirements; and re-evaluation of the National Flood Insurance Program and updating flood insurance
rate maps with climate change in mind.10

Adaptation Strategies for Small Island Nations: Adaptive measures for

small island nations include the rehabilitation and conservation of natural
sea defenses and fish nurseries like mangroves, coastal wetlands, and
coral reefs. Adaptation will have to include consideration of relocation of
vulnerable communities, redesign of infrastructure such as sewage
treatment and energy plants, and evaluation of sustainability in any new
development. Increased use of renewable energy could also assist in
cutting energy import bills and managing the physical and economic
effects of climate change.11

Integrated Coastal Habitat Protection: Coastal planners and managers

Mangrove reforestation. Source:
Marine Photobank
should consider preserving existing mangroves by reducing pollution
from land-based sources in order to make existing mangroves more
healthy and resilient, restore lost or degraded mangrove wetlands, and set back coastal infrastructure
and development to allow mangroves to spread inland.12 Integrated coastal management planning
should also be applied to coral reef conservation strategies inclusive of reef resiliency mechanisms

7
Source: http://www.adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/projdb/pdf/20061005_exec_sum_e.pdf
8
Source: http://www.cier.umd.edu/climateadaptation/
9
Source: http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/adaptation.html
10
Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com–/releases/2008/03/080311120617.htm
11
Source: http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/04/070410135159.htm
12
Source: http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=483&ArticleID=5312&l=en
The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 3
such as coral restoration and protection. Likewise, both existing and potential coastal wetland areas
should be mapped and protected to allow for both inundation and adaptation of species.

Part 2: Adaptation and Ocean Storm Events

(Tropical Cyclone (Pakistan-India (Cyclone Gonu is taking aim for the North coast of Oman
Coasts) 20 May 1999. Photo NOAA) 3 June 2007. Photo NOAA)

2.1. Summary of threats

As climate change warms the global ocean, it changes patterns of
currents and gyres (and thus heat redistribution) in such a way that there
will be a fundamental change in the climate regime as we know it, and
thus a powerful loss of global climate stability. The basic changes will be
accelerated in a non-linear fashion, including alterations of rainfall
patterns (heavier than normal rainfall in some places, fewer more intense
rainfall events even where total precipitation doesn’t change, and new
prolonged minimal rainfall or extreme drought in others) and storm
frequency and/or intensity.

These changes may overwhelm natural systems, and damage or destroy

local coastal and marine ecosystems. Barrier islands, entire beaches
and associated habitat may be scoured away, changing sediment and
nutrient transport. Already diminished mangrove forests and seagrass
beds (our fish nurseries) may be torn from their roots or buried in debris
and sediment. Storm surge debris may strike and damage coral reefs
and smother benthic habitat. In short, storm surges could result in
increased salinity of estuaries and coastal freshwater aquifers, while
freshwater pulses may increase nutrient and other non-point source
pollution in coastal zones. We also can anticipate altered tidal ranges in
rivers and bays, and increased coastal flooding.

Over half of the world’s human population lives within 50 miles of the
coast, increasing the threat of economic and social disruption from such
storm systems, as well as the loss of productive coastal ecosystems. In
addition to coastal developments directly at risk, ocean originating
cyclones and hurricanes can also threaten human settlements many
miles inland. Shipping routes, shipbuilding, fishing, and other marine industry have all evolved to
operate within relatively predictable seasonal patterns and global ocean currents. Even new
installations of renewable energy and proposed offshore aquaculture are vulnerable to climate pattern
shifts and intense storms. For example, we can expect destruction of agriculture, energy, and
transportation infrastructure in storms and floods, and changes in precipitation patterns that reduce
agricultural productivity.

The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 4
2.2. Expected Human Adaptation
• Improved early warning of catastrophic events
• Modified building codes to strengthen structures
• Coastal armoring to protect population centers or high-value economic activities (hard protection)
• Dredge and fill new sand on beaches (soft protection)
• Abandonment, resettlement or retreat from coastal areas
• Cancellation of coastal property insurance
• Elimination of government subsidies for coastal development/insurance
• Back up systems for power generation
• The DOD predicts increasing conflicts over access to resources
• Increased need for preparedness plans, rescue equipment and spill
response
(Credit: Photo by Robert Harris, • Improved natural disaster management
courtesy of FEMA) • New air and sea navigation routes and schedules, as well as delay
response preparedness

(January 2007 Grand Banks. Photo: seafish.org) (Photo: Avi Abrams) (Hurricane Katrina BP platform damaged)

2.3. Necessary Biodiversity Conservation / Management Adaptation

On one hand, this would be the policy and law side of the human adaptations described above, but as
biodiversity funders, we need to ask ourselves how the conservation NGOs and resource managers will
be working differently to adapt their efforts in the face of climate change-induced storm and weather
pattern changes. We should focus on biodiversity and fund its resilience and restoration, and work to
anticipate storm events. We can let the transportation, tourism, homebuilding and other affected
industries pay for their own adaptation R&D etc. They have a profit motive and far deeper pockets than
the philanthropy community can ever offer.

Some Useful Weblinks:

• The Ocean Foundation’s Ocean & Climate Change Fund

http://www.oceanfdn.org/index.php?tg=articles&topics=87
• Environmental Protection Agency – Adaptation
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/effects/adaptation.html
• Global Warming Early Warning Signs http://www.climatehotmap.org
• World Ocean Observatory’s Climate Change and Oceans website
http://www.thew2o.net/events/climatechange/index.html
• US Climate Change Science Program (which includes the US National Assessment of the Potential
Consequences of Climate Variability and Change) http://www.climatescience.gov
• U.S. Department of Transportation: Center for Climate Change and Environmental Forecasting.
http://climate.dot.gov/sea.html
• The U.S. Economic Impacts of Climate Change and the Costs of Inaction.
http://www.cier.umd.edu/climateadaptation/
• UNEP Backed Report on: Pacific Island Mangroves in a Changing Climate and Rising Seas.
http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=483&ArticleID=5312&l=en

The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 5
Part 3: Opportunities for Funding Adaptation and their Impacts
ACTION/INVESTMENT
Mangrove forest and seagrass
bed replanting and expansion
inland
Land acquisition in anticipation
of inundation
Enhanced coastal development
restrictions, improved estuarine
and coastal wetland protections
and enforcement
Opposition to sand dredge and
replacement activities for
beaches
Implementing and enforcing
non-point source pollution
controls, storm water
management
Aggressive implementation of
sewage treatment upgrades and
agricultural pollution
management, especially manure
management issues
Opposing open ocean
aquaculture/farming of predator
species
Opposition to expansion of oil
and gas exploration/production
in near shore and offshore
waters, reinforcement of existing
and prevention of new fossil fuel
delivery facilities
Alternative energy
development—wind/wave—in
near shore and offshore waters
Integrating climate change
effects into State Wildlife Action
Plans (SWAPs)
Shipping safety protocols and
preparedness
The Ocean Foundation – www.oceanfdn.org - The Oceans and Adaptation in the Face of Climate Change – pg. 6
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT
Carbon sequestration, storm surge impact
reduction, erosion control and shoreline
stabilization in sea level rise
New potential coastal protections,
ecosystem services such as those
provided by coastal wetlands now
Lower economic risk, less debris during or
following storm events, reduced storm
surge effects, reduced costs from clean-
up/debris removal, reduced incentive for
construction of “hard” protective measures
in vulnerable habitat
Reduced smothering of near shore
habitats following storm events; Reduced
economic exposure for replacement of
sand following storm events
Reduced negative effects on coastal
ecosystems from storm events,
freshwater pulsing
Reduced threat of toxic damage (e.g.
CAFO manure pit spills or sewage
overloads) during storm events,
opportunity to anticipate and address new
sources of pollution from inundation,
reduction in hypoxic zones, new economic
opportunity from energy source/fossil fuel
alternative (manure)
No risk of extra debris, pollution, or alien
species escapements in storm events, no
extra use of fossil fuel to maintain offshore
farming operations, reduced economic
exposure for replacement and cleanup
after storm events
Reduced vulnerability of infrastructure to
storm events; limited danger of
detrimental oil spills; avoidance of
greenhouse gas emissions from the use
of those fuels
Promotion of alternatives to fossil fuels
Carbon sequestration in protected habitat,
more incentive to protect space for retreat
from inundation
Less vulnerability to fuel spills during
storm events, reduced economic risk,
reduced costs of reparation/restoration to
coastal habitats and fisheries
BIODIVERSITY ENHANCEMENT
IMPACT (SHORT & LONG TERM)
Enhanced nursery and feeding habitat
for fish and other species; Improved
water clarity and turbidity reduction
Protect land from development;
management of protected areas will
enhance opportunities for local and
migratory species
Greater opportunity to protect nursery
and feeding grounds for migratory and
local birds, reptiles, and other animals
Restoration of natural habitat changes;
no smothering of near shore reef and
other habitat when sand erodes
Healthier coastal waters, lower
turbidity, shellfish/seagrass recovery,
enhanced plant species diversity with
reduced nitrogen
Healthier coastal waters, lower
turbidity, shellfish/seagrass recovery,
No pressure on forage fisheries for use
to feed farmed fish; no risk of adverse
impact of aquaculture activities
(pollution, diseases, escapes, etc.) in
marine waters
Reduced vulnerability of marine
species to spills, reduced mercury
contamination of species from drilling
muds
Possibility of de facto marine protected
areas through restrictions on boating &
related activities, possibility of
increased species mortality from
collisions/water intake/etc.
Integration of anticipatory land
management for wildlife protection,
especially in coastal areas
Reduced threat to birds, fisheries, and
marine mammals from fuel spills,
reduced risk of ship groundings in
vulnerable marine habitats such as
corals