Follow Where the Research Leads Us: What Brain

Research can tell us about Students’ Learning

Developed by Professor Terry Doyle

Ferris State University
www.learnercenteredteaching.com
doylet@ferris.edu
Slides available for download at:

www.learnercenteredteaching.com

Virginia Tech Conference of Educational Pedagogy

Follow Where the Research Leads Us

 Folklore vs. Science
In A Celebration of Neurons by
University of Oregon Education
Professor Robert Sylwester in 1995

He said : “the
information upon which
we make our teaching
decisions is much closer
to folklore than science”.
 What was Then
• Guido Sarducci Five Minute University
Brain Systems Relation to Complex Cognition
and Behavior
“ can only be explained
satisfactorily by a comprehensive
blend of theories and facts related
to all the levels of organization of
the nervous system, from
molecules, and cells and circuits, to
large-scale systems and physical
and social environments.

We must beware of explanations that rely

on data from one single level, whatever
the level may be.“ (Antonio Damasio, head of the
Department of Neurology at the University of Iowa Medical Center)
What We Know about the Brain
What we know about
the brain comes from
biologist who study brain
tissue, experimental
psychologist who study
behavior, cognitive
neuroscientist who study
how the first relates to
the second. (Medina, 2008).
 Brain Based Education
How reputable is brain-based
education?

Harvard University now offers

both master's and doctoral
degrees in Brain Based Education.
 Brain Based Education
Harvard’s mission is to
build a movement in
which cognitive science
and neuroscience are
integrated with
education so that we
train people to make
that integration both in
research and in
practice.
 The Brain was Designed to Learn
The brain was meant to explore and learn
 The Brain’s Needs
The brain needs to
function effectively:
1. Exercise
2. Sleep
3. Oxygen
4. Hydration
5. Food (glucose)
 The Human Brain
The human brain weighs three (3) pounds but
uses 20-25% of the bodies energy.
 The Human Brain
• The human brain has 100 billion neurons.
(It does grow thousands of new cells daily)

www.enchantedlearning.com/.../gifs/Neuron.GIF
 The Human Brain

These 100 billion neurons

are capable of making
40,000,000,000,000,000

(Forty quadrillion connections )

(James Ratey, Users Guide to the Brain, 2002)

Learning is when Neurons Wire

Learning is a change
in the neuron-
patterns of the
brain.
(Ratey, 2002, Goldberg, 2009)

www.virtualgalen.com/.../ neurons-small.jpg
Teachers’ Definition of Learning?

Learning is the ability to use information after

significant periods of disuse
and
it is the ability to use the information to solve
problems that arise in a context different (if only
slightly) from the context in which the information
was originally taught.

(Robert Bjork, Memories and Metamemories, 1994)

Basic Finding from Brain Research as it
Impacts Human Learning

It is the one who does

the work who does the
learning ( Doyle , 2008).
 Part One

Our Students’ Mindsets

 Growth Mindset
Students with a growth
mindset believe their brain
is malleable and their
intelligence and abilities
can be enhanced through
hard work and practice.

They believe only time

will tell how smart they
become.
 Mindset-Fixed
In a fixed mindset students
believe that intelligence is a fixed
trait -- that some people have it
and others don't -- and that their
intelligence is reflected in their
performance (Dweck, 2006).

Fixed mindsets also believe they

either shouldn’t need to work
hard to do well or putting in the
effort won’t make any difference
in the outcome.
 Mindsets
Fixed VS. Growth
Intelligence is unchangeable Intelligence is malleable and can be
improved

Look smart Desire to learn is paramount

Avoid Challenge Failure is seen as an opportunity to learn

Effort is necessary for growth and success

Make excuses to avoid difficulties

Criticism is directed at their current level—

know they can improve
Criticism is taken personally (Carol Dweck, 2008)
 Mindset and Intelligence
There is no relation
between students'
abilities or intelligence
and the development of
a growth mindset.
 Feedback and Mindset
Teachers should focus on
students' efforts and not on
their abilities. Praise their
efforts or their strategies, not
their intelligence.

When students fail, teachers

should also give feedback
about effort or strategies --
what the student did wrong
and what he or she could do
now.
 Part Two

Cognitive Enhancements
 Cognitive Enhancements
“There are lots of quick and
dirty studies of cognitive
enhancement that make
the news, but the number
of rigorous, well-designed
studies that will stand the
test of time is much smaller
(Peter Snyder of Brown University Medical
School)

“We’re sort of in the Wild

West.”
 Cognitive Enhancements
Greater cognitive capacity
means--
1.More neurons or synapses

2.Higher levels of neurogenesis

especially in the memory
forming hippocampus

3. Increased production of
BDNF which stimulates the
production of neurons and
synapses, (Neuroscientist Yaakov Stern of
Columbia University)
 Cognitive Enhancements
Both neurogenesis and
synapse formation boost
learning, memory, reasoning,
and creativity.

In people who excel at

particular tasks, brain circuits
tend to be more efficient
(using less energy even as
cognitive demand increases),
higher capacity, and more
flexible. (Yaakov Stern of Columbia
University) We can get smarter!
 Cognitive Enhancements
Vitamins B6, B12, and E;
beta carotene; folic acid;
and the trendy
antioxidants called
flavenoids are all busts.

The evidence for alcohol,

omega-3s (the fatty acids
in fish), or having a large
social network is weak.
(Neuroscientist Peter Snyder of Brown
University Medical School)
 Cognitive Enhancements
Statins don’t help, and
neither do estrogen or
NSAIDs (aspirin, ibuprofen).

Be skeptical of practices
that promise to make you
smarter by increasing
blood flow to the brain—
there is no evidence that’s
the limiting factor in
normal people.
 Cognitive Enhancements
“We have accumulated
enough knowledge
about the mechanisms
and molecular
underpinnings of
cognition at the synaptic
and circuit levels to say
something about which
processes contribute”
(James Bibb of the University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center)
Attention and Cognitive Enhancement
One of the strongest
findings in neuroplasticity,
is that attention is almost
magical in its ability to
physically alter the brain
and enlarge functional
circuits.

What we pay attention to

is key!
 Cognitive Enhancements
Skills we’re already good at
don’t make us much smarter:
we don’t pay much attention
to them.

New, cognitively demanding

activity—ballroom dancing, a
foreign language—is more
likely to boost processing
speed, strengthen synapses,
and expand or create
functional networks (Yaakov Stern of
Columbia University.)
We need to learn new
things!
 Nicotine is a Cognitive Enhancement
Nicotine enhances attention— Scientists at the National Institute on
that key driver of Drug Abuse reported in a 2010
neuroplasticity and cognitive analysis of 41 double-blind, placebo-
controlled studies.
performance in both smokers
and nonsmokers.

Nicotine has significant positive

effects on fine motor skills, the
accuracy of short-term memory,
some forms of attention, and
working memory, among other
basic cognitive skills.
(Martha Farah, University of Pennsylvania)
Nicotine is a Cognitive Enhancements
The improvements likely
represent true performance
enhancement and beneficial
cognitive effects.

The reason is that nicotine

binds to the brain receptors
for the neurotransmitter
acetylcholine that are
central players in cortical
circuits. (Martha Farah, University
of Pennsylvania)
 Adderall and Ritalin are Cognitive
Enhancements
There are cognitive benefits of
stimulants like Adderall and
Ritalin, at least in some people
for some tasks.

Studies show that both drugs

enhance the recall of memorized
words as well as working
memory, which plays a key role
in fluid intelligence. The dopamine boost these drugs
(Martha Farah of the University of Pennsylvania) provide can also be obtained by just
thinking/believing you can do better.
 Cognitive Training
Cognitive training should
boost mental prowess.
Studies are finding just
that.

BUT, training your

memory, reasoning, or
speed of processing
improves only that skill
and does not generalize to Doing crosswords makes you
other tasks.( Stern, 2010) better at doing crosswords!
What Enhances Cognitive Performance?
Three things for sure

1. Aerobic exercise

2. Meditation

3. Some Gaming
Exercise and Cognitive Enhancement
Exercise is the single
most important thing a
person can do to
improve their learning.

(John Ratey, 2008, Spark, The

Revolutionary New Science of
Exercise and the Brain)
 Exercise Stimulates Synaptic Growth
Exercise stimulates the
production of new
synapses, whose capacity
and efficiency underlie
superior intelligence.

Fitness training changes the

molecular and cellular
building blocks that
underlie many cognitive
skills.
(Art Kramer of the University of Illinois at Urbana- “It thus provides more
Champaign) generalizable benefits “
 Aerobic Exercise
A year of aerobic
exercise can give a 70-
year-old the
connectivity of a 30-
year-old, improving
memory, planning,
dealing with ambiguity,
and multitasking. (Art Kramer
of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign)
Exercise and Cognitive Enhancement

Exercise increases
production of
neurotransmitters that help:
1.Focus and attention
2.Motivation
3. Patience
4. Mood (more optimistic)

(Ratey, 2008)
 Exercise and BDNF
(Brain-derived neurotrophic factor )

BDNF

Miracle Grow for the

Brain

(Ratey, 2008)
 Exercise Produces BDNF
• Improves brain health

• Enhances the wiring of

neurons

• Is a stress inoculator

• Makes the brain cells

more resilient
BDNF
Exercise creates BDNF
proteins that act to promote
neurogenisis.

BDNF acts not only to

generate new neurons, but
also to protect existing
neurons and to promote
synaptic plasticity—generally
considered the basis for
learning and memory (Modie, 2003,
Mattson, Wenzhen, Rugian and Zhihong, 2004)
 BDNF and Exercise
“In particular BDNF seems to be important for
long term memories” (Ratey, 2008)
 Meditation and Cognitive Enhancement
The second form of overall cognitive
enhancement is meditation.

Meditation can increase the

thickness of brain regions that
control attention and process
sensory signals from the outside
world

(Neuroscientist Amishi Jha of the University of Miami)

• .
Meditation and Cognitive Enhancement
The training has shown
success in enhancing
mental agility and
attention by changing
brain structure and
function so that brain
processes are more
efficient, the quality
associated with higher
intelligence (Neuroscientist
Amishi Jha of the University of Miami)
Gaming and Cognitive Enhancement
Some videogames might
improve general mental
agility (Yaakov Stern of Columbia
University).

Games that require motor

control, visual search, working
memory, long-term memory, and
decision making, plus require that
elixir of neuroplasticity: attention,
specifically the ability to control
and switch attention among
different tasks.

Space Fortress Video Game

Gaming and Cognitive Enhancement
People get better on
tests of memory, motor
speed, visual-spatial
skills, and tasks
requiring cognitive
flexibility (Yaakov Stern of
Columbia University).
 Serious Games
A serious game is a game
designed for a primary
purpose other than pure
entertainment.

The "serious" adjective refers

to products used by industries
like defense, education,
scientific exploration, health
care, emergency management,
city planning, engineering,
religion, and politics.
 Virtual Textbooks
The Future is Here--Almost
Click on any bar in the
timeline, and that bar
expands to a list of images,
which in turn are linked to
video about that artist.

That's key, because, like a

great documentary, it makes
learning about what can be
a fairly narrow subject into
something painless.
Art Textbook
 Part Three

What Aids Our

Students’ Learning
and Recall
Rest after Learning Improves Recall
The researchers found that
during rest, the areas of the
brain were just as active as
they were when they were
learning the task –

The greater the correlation

between rest and learning the
greater the chance of
remembering the task in later
tests.
Dr Lila Davachi, NYU's Department of
Psychology and Center for Neural Science.
 Significance of this Finding
Should Students not
take classes back to
back?

"Taking a break after

class can actually help
you retain the
information you just
learned." Dr Lila Davachi
 Naps Help Learning
You need to sleep before learning, to
prepare your brain, like a dry sponge,
to absorb new information (M. Walker,
UC Berkley).

A NASA study found astronauts who

napped for 27 minutes in the
afternoon improved their cognitive
functioning on later day tasks by 31%
over non napping astronauts(Medina
2008) .
 Caffeine + Sugar and Learning
The combination of caffeine
and sugar (glucose) enhanced
attention, learning and
memory.

Improves cognitive performance in

terms of sustained attention and
working memory by increasing the
efficiency of the areas of the brain
responsible for these two functions.

(Grabulosa, Adan, Falcón, and Bargalló, 2010 reported in the journal

Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental
 The Brain and Learning
The human brain was
designed to solve
problems of survival in
outdoor, unstable
environments while in
almost constant
motion.
( Dr. John Medina, Developmental Molecular
Biologist, University of Washington and Author
of Brain Rules)
 The Brain and Learning
“If educators had set
out to design a learning
environment that was in
complete opposition to
what the human brain is
good at they would
have designed the
schools of yesterday
and today.”
(John Medina, Brain Rules, 2008)
 Neuroplasticity
The ability of the brain
to rewire and remap
itself by means of
neuroplasticity is
profound.
 Neuroplasticity
When the correct skill-
building protocol is
used, educators can
make positive and
significant changes in
students’ brains in a
short time. (Neuroscientists
Michael Merzenich and Paula Tallal)
 Remediation of Reading
The quality of white
matter — the brain tissue
that carries signals
between areas of grey
matter, where
information is processed
— improved substantially
after the children
received 100 hours of
remedial training. (Keller
and Just, 2009)
 Dendrite Growth
Within 20 minutes of
being exposed to new
learning the dendrites
in the brain begin to
grow new cellular
material.

(Cognitive Neuroscientist Janet Zadina, 2010)

 Use it or Lose it
When new material is
not practiced the new
dendrite tissue is
reabsorbed to conserve
resources.

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)

 Learning Activates the Brain’s
Reward Pathway
Real life, meaningful,
and authentic learning
activates the reward
pathway in the brain

It is this pathway that

keeps us alive

(Dr. Janet Zardina, 2010)

 Learning Activates the Brain’s
Reward Pathways
By giving us a jolt of
pleasure (dopamine) the
reward pathway works to
ensure that we will
repeat the behaviors
necessary to survive.

http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/addi
ction/reward/
 Multitasking Slows Learning
It is not possible to
multitask when it
comes to activities
that require the
brain’s attention.
(Foerde Knowlton Poldrack, 2006)
 Multi-tasking
Multi-tasking violates everything
we know about how memory
works .

The imaging data indicated that

the memory task and the
distraction stimuli engage
different parts of the brain and
that these regions probably
compete with each other.
(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack,
Russell A. 2006. )
 Multitasking
Our brain works hard to fool
us into thinking it can do more
than one thing at a time. It
can’t.

When trying to do two things

at once, the brain temporarily
shuts down one task while
trying to do the other.
(3 Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. )
 Sleep and Memory
"Periods of slow-wave sleep
are very long and produce a
recall and probably
amplification of memory
traces. Ensuing episodes of
REM sleep, which are very
short, trigger the expression
of genes to store what was
processed during slow-wave
sleep."
Sidarta Ribeiro, Duke University, 2004
 Sleep and Memory

"When you're asleep, it seems as

though you are shifting memory to
more efficient storage regions within
the brain.

Consequently, when you awaken,

memory tasks can be performed both
more quickly and accurately and with
less stress and anxiety."

Matthew Walker, PhD, director of BIDMC's Sleep and

Neuroimaging Laboratory and Assistant Professor of
Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School,
 Stress

Long term stress

diminishes/ harms
brain function.
 Short Term Stress
Acute stress activates
selective molecules
called corticotropin
(CRH) releasing
hormones, which
disrupted the process
by which the brain
collects and stores
memories. (Baram,2010)
 Music Helps Mood
The neurotransmitter dopamine is
produced when people listen to
their favorite tunes, be it classical,
rock, or jazz.

Those who engaged in active

listening to music without lyrics
showed similar dopamine
production in the pleasure centers
of the brain as those who might be
doing drugs or having sex.

(Neuroscientist Robert Zatorre)

 Progress is Vital
A feeling of making
progress is what allows
humans to deal with
tasks, especially tasks
we don’t necessarily like
to do.

(Dr. James Zull, 2002)

 The Brain is Social
Survival is accomplished
by working with other
brains

Groups of brains almost

always outperform a
single brain
 Part Four

Memory Formation
and Recall
 We Use all our Senses
The traditional belief among
neuroscientists has been that
the five senses operate
largely as independent
systems.

However, mounting data

suggest interactions between
vision, hearing, smell, touch
and taste are the rule, rather
than the exception.
Aaron Seitz – Journal Current Biology, 2006
Senses Create Multiple Pathways
The more senses
used in learning and
in practicing what
has been learned
the more pathways
are available for
recall.
 Smells and Learning

Proust Effect is the

unusual ability of smell
to enhance recall.

Best results when

smells are congruent
with the situation.
Medina, 2008, Brain Rules, p.212
 Vision Trumps All
Vision trumps all other senses
 Vision Trumps All
Text and oral
presentations are not
just less efficient than
pictures for retaining
information they are
way less efficient
(Brain Rules p.234)
 Vision Trumps All
Oral information has a
recall of about 10% after
72 hours

Add a picture and the

recall increases to 65%

(Brain Rules, P.234)

192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg

192.107.108.56/.../m/murray_k/final/img004.jpg
Working Memory and Long Term Recall
The researchers
concluded that short-
term memory decays as
a function of time if
rehearsal is not
permitted.

(Barrouilet, Bernardin, and Camos.,2004)

 Cramming
The short-term
advantage of study
However, if the goal
practice shows that
cramming can improve
of practice is long-
exam scores. term retention of
course material,
Carrier & Pashler, 1992; Roediger & cramming appears to
Karpicke, 2006b; Thompson, Wenger,
&Bartling, 1978; Wenger, Thompson, & be an
Bartling, 1980; Wheeler, Ewers, &
Buonanno, 2003 irrational behavior.
 Cumulative Tests Work
These studies show that
reviews in general and
cumulative tests in
particular lead to
improved student
performance (Thomas
Edmonds, 1984)
 Using Cumulative Exams
If the intervening test includes
correct answer feedback, it is not
surprising that testing often
improves long-term retention (Cull,
2000; McDaniel & Fisher, 1991; Pashler, Cepeda, Wixted, &
Rohrer, 2005);

A test with feedback provides

not only an opportunity for
retrieval practice but also an
opportunity for additional study
because the answer is either
retrieved or provided.
 Memory Rules

1. Repetition over
time

2.Elaboration of
material
 Why Students Forget
Review helps to limit the 3 “Sins” of Memory that
commonly occur among students.
1. Blocking – information stored but can’t be
accessed (Schacter, 2001)

2. Misattribution – attributing a memory to the

wrong situation or source (Zola, 2002)

3. Transience – memory lost over time – 65% of a

lecture is lost in the first hour (Schacter, 2001)
 Listen to the Music
Do you know the lyrics to
songs that you did not try to
learn and do not want to
know the lyrics to?

YES
 Practice over Time
Practice, Use ,
Repetition, Review,
Reflection or other
meaningful ways we
engage with new
learning over time is a
major key to its recall.
 Review
• Reviews may do more
than simply increase
the amount learned;
they may shift the
learner’s attention away
from the verbatim
details of the material
being studies to its
deeper conceptual
structures(Dempster, 1986)
How to Use Review
• Review is most effective
when spread out over
time—every few days
rather than two reviews
in the same day is twice
as effective and
increases as the
frequency of review
increases.(Dempster,1986)
 Elaborations are the Key

• ” For better or worse, our

recollections are largely
at the mercy of our
elaborations” (Daniel Schacter
author of the Seven Sins of Memory)
 Elaboration is a
Major Key to Recall
• Step One. Accuracy

• Step Two: Reflection

• Step Three: Regular Review

• Step Four: Mapping, Images, Charts

• Step Five: Recoding

 Keeping Memories
The best way to minimize memory decay is to use
elaborative rehearsal strategies—

• Visualizing
• Singing
• Writing
• Semantic Mapping
• Drawing Pictures
• Symbolizing
• Mnemonics.
 Emotion and Memory

Emotional arousal organizes

and coordinates brain
activity (Bloom, Beal & Kupfer 2003)

When the amygdala detects

emotions, it essentially
boosts activity in the areas
of the brain that form
memories (S. Hamann & Emony, UN.)
 Emotion and Memory
Emotional arousal appears to
increase the likelihood of
memory consolidation
during the retention (storage
) stage of memory.

A number of studies show

that over time, memories for
neutral stimuli decrease but
memories for arousing
stimuli remain the same or
improve (Lebar and Phelps, 1998).
Which of the following slides
would be easier to recall after
two weeks?
 Slide One

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/...
 Slide Two

www.operationsudan.org/images/darfur_child_st...
 Multiple Senses with Emotion
Powerful
memories can be
created when
using multiple
senses and
emotion
20 Ounces of Coke

74 grams of sugar or 2.7 oz

A Burger King Whopper

47 grams of fat
 Part Five

Patterns and Learning

 Patterns and Learning

The brain is a pattern

seeking device that relates
whole concepts to one Sociology
another and looks for
similarities, differences, or
relationships between
them.” (Ratey, 2002, pg.5)

Anthropology Psychology
Which of the following
slides is easier to
remember and WHY?
SLIDE ONE

4915802979
Slide Two

(491) 580-2979
Slide One

NRAFBINBCUSAMTV
Slide Two

NRA NBC FBI USA MTV

 Familiar Patterns

Clustering is used to organize related

information into groups. Information that is
categorized becomes easier to remember and
recall.

In Teaching Reading

Topic
Main Ideas-concepts, issues
Significant Details
Important Examples
Lists
Names, Dates, Places
Terms, Definitions
 Common Patterns for Learning
Similarity and Difference

Cause and Effect

Comparison and Contrast

In students’ own words

 Teach your Students the Patterns in the
Course
Hierarchal-- Chemistry

Linear –History, Math

Rank Order—Business

Pivot
Concepts-- Social Sciences

Location—Geography

Theme--Humanities
 Patterns in Law-LATCH
Your pattern will be • Location, alphabet,
determined by the story time, category, or
you want to tell. Each hierarchy.
way will permit a
different understanding
of the information. 

Data can only inform us

when it becomes
structured.
 References
Bjork, R. A. (1994) Memory and Metamemory consideration in the training of human beings. In J. Metcalfe & A.
Shimamura

(Eds) Metacognition: Knowing about Knowing pp. 185-205. Cambridge, MA MIT Press.
Bloom, Benjamin S. (Ed). (1956). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives: The
classification of Educational Goals. Handbook I. Cognitive Domain (pp. 201-207). New York: McKay.

Caine, Renate; Caine, Geoffrey. Education on The Edge of Possibility. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and
Curriculum Development, 1997.

Damasio, A. R. (1994). Descartes' error: Emotion, reason, and the human brain. New York, NY, Grosset/Putnam

Diamond, Marion. (1988). Enriching Heredity: The Impact of the Environment on the Brain. New York, NY: Free Press.

Damasio AR: Fundamental Feelings. Nature 413:781, 2001.

.D. O. Hebb,1949 monograph, The Organization of Behavior

Dweck, Carol. Mindset The New Psychology of Success, 2006 random House, NY
 References
Medina, John, Brain Rules, Pear Press, 2008

Sylwester, R. A Celebration of Neurons An Educator’s Guide to the Human Brain, ASCD:1995

Sprenger, M. Learning and Memory The Brain in Action by, ASCD, 1999

.How People Learn by National Research Council editor John Bransford, National Research Council, 2000

Goldberg, E. The Executive Brain Frontal Lobes and the Civilized Mind ,Oxford University Press: 2001

Ratey, J. MD. Spark: The New Science of Exercise and the Brain, 2008, Little Brown

Ratey, J. MD :A User’s Guide to the Brain, Pantheon Books: New York, 2001

Zull, James. The Art of Changing the Brain.2002, Stylus: Virginia

Weimer, Maryellen. Learner-Centered Teaching. Jossey-Bass, 2002

Sousa, David. How the Brain Learns(Corwin Press, Inc., 1998),

 References
Long-Lasting Novelty-Induced Neuronal Reverberation during Slow-Wave Sleep in Multiple
Forebrain AreasSidarta Ribeiro,Damien Gervasoni, Ernesto S. Soares, Yi Zhou, Shih-Chieh Lin,
Janaina Pantoja, Michael Lavine, Miguel A. L. Nicolelis , 2004
(Foerde, K., Knowlton, Barbara J., and Poldrack, Russell A. 2006. Modulation of competing memory
systems by distraction. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. 103: 11778-11783.)
Dux, P. E., Ivanoff, J., Asplund, C. LO., and Marois, R. 2007. Isolation of a Central Bottleneck of
Information Processing with Time-Resolved fMRI. Neuron. 52 (6): 1109-1120
Geary, D.C. Chapter 8: Sex differences in brain and cognition. In "Male, Female: the Evolution of
Human Sex Differences". American Psychological Association Books. ISBN: 1-55798-527-8
Sabbatini, R.M.E.: The PET Scan: A New Window Into the Brain
http://www.cerebromente.org.br/n11/mente/eisntein/cerebro-homens.html
 References
John T. Bruer, "Education and the Brain: A Bridge Too Far," Educational Researcher, November 1997, pp. 1-13; idem, "In Search of . . .
Brain-Based Education," Phi Delta Kappan, May 1999, pp. 648-57; and idem, "Points of View: On the Implications of Neuroscience
Research for Science Teaching and Learning: Are There Any?," CBE Life Science Education, vol. 5, 2006, pp. 445-61.
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• The testing effect, cramming, and retrievability Yoonhee Jang 1, John T. Wixted 1, Diane Pecher 2, René Zeelenberg 2, and
David E. Huber 1
• 1 University of California, San Diego 2 Erasmus University Rotterdam, The Netherlands
• Thomas Edmonds, 1984http://www.jstor.org/stable/247326 retrieved January, 9, 2011
• January 03, 2011Analyzing successful ways to build better brains and improve cognitive performance , Newsweek
http://www.newsweek.com/2011/01/03/can-you-build-a-better-brain.html
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says so.
Carnegie Mellon scientists discover first evidence of brain rewiring in children
Published: Wednesday, December 9, 2009 - 13:12 in Psychology & Sociology
Yaakov Stern is the Division Leader of the Cognitive Neuroscience Division of the Sergievsky Center, and
Professor of Clinical Neuropsychology, at the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Columbia University,
New York. See this website for his publications
http://www.cumc.columbia.edu/dept/sergievsky/cnd/publications.html
http://www.newsweek.com/2011/01/03/can-you-build-a-better-brain.html reference for Peter Snyder
Papp, K. V., Walsh, S. J. & Snyder, P. J. Alzheimers Dement. 5, 50-60 (2009). 
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19;1129(1):1-14.
The End