Yarn from spinning department

Warp yarn weft yarn

Cone/ cheese winding pirn/cop winding

Warping

Sizing

Drawing in or tying in

Denting

Weaving

Fabric checking

Fabric folding

Bale of fabric or baling

 WEAVING EFFICIENCY:
Ratio of picks actually inserted per hour or day to picks that would have been inserted in
an hour or day if the operated continuously without having to stop.
 NECESSITY OF WARP PREPARATION:
We need to prepare the warp yarn because of
 Imperfections of yarn
 Requirement to transfer the spun yarns in a convenient package
 Extra treatment to make the yarn ready for weaving
 Warp yarn must be able to withstand destructive forces to which it is subjected
during the weaving process.
 Yarn hairiness must be decreased.
 Yarns must be aligned properly
Yarn elongation and flexibility must be sustained

 YARN DEFECTS:
  Trash
 Slubs
 Nep
 Thick and thin place
 Irregularities
 Weak yarn
 Irregularly twisted yarn
 Hairy yarn
BALLOONING:
As the yarn is unwound from the package at high speed, centrifugal force causes it to follow
a curved path. As the yarn rotates, it gives the illusion of a balloon above the package. This
process is called ballooning.
 AUXILIARY FUNCTION OF WINDING:
 Creeling:
Creeling is the placement of full packages in position ready to be unwound as part of
the transfer operations. An alternative meaning is the removal of the exhausted
packages and their replacement with full ones.

 Piecing:
Piecing is the finding and connecting of the ends on the packages. The connection
between the ends can be made by knotting adhesion or welding but the former is by
far the most common. Such connections are required whenever an end breaks or
when a creeling operation has been completed.

 Doffing:
Doffing is the removal of newly wound packages and the replacement of these by
empty packages which will receive yarn during the transfer process. It will be noted
that creel packages are emptied as the packages to be doffed are filled.

 PARAMETERS OF WINDING:
 Winding rate:
Winding rate is defined as the amount of yarn to be wound on the package per unit of
time i.e. the length of yarn in meter wound on package per minute. Its unit is m/min.

 Winding on diameter:
The diameter of the package on which the yarn is wound is called winding on
diameter. It changes continuously after each traverse. Its unit is cm.

 Winding on surface:
The place where winding is done according to the time is called winding on surface.
Its unit is cm.

 Traverse velocity:
The amount of distance travelled per unit time by the traverse guide is called traverse
velocity. Its unit is meter per minute. It is denoted by Vt.
  Angle of wind:
The angle contained between wrapped of yarn on the surface of package and the
diametrical plane of the package is known as angle of wind. It is denoted by θ.

 Surface velocity:
The rate at which winding is carried out on winding on diameter is called surface
velocity. Its unit is m/min and denoted by Vs=ᴨDN
Vs Package

ß θ
Vt

Direction of wind
 Net winding rate:
Net winding velocity is obtained by dividing the traverse velocity by sine value of
winding angle. It is also called real winding rate and denoted by Vr.
Vt
Sin θ¿ Vr

 Coil angle:
The angle contained between a wrap of yarn in the surface of the package and the
longitudinal plane of the package is called known as coil angle. It is denoted by ß
and is measure by degree.

θ= angle of wind

ß= coil angle θ

θ + ß = 90ᵒ ß

 TYPES OF WINDING:
 According to density:
1) Precision winding
2) Non precision winding

 According to type of package:

1) Cone winding package
2) Pirn winding package
3) Flange winding package
4) Cheese winding package
5) Cop winding package
 According to the build of the package:
1) Parallel winding package
 2) Near parallel winding package
3) Cross parallel winding package
 According to methods of drive:
1) Positive or direct drive
2) Negative or indirect drive
 According to the future of automation:
1) Conventional winding
2) Modern winding

 SOME SHORT TERMS RELATED TO WINDING:

 Winding ratio:
It is the ratio of the length of yarn wound during the upward movement of the ring
rail and the length wound during the downward movement of the ring rail.
If θ be helix angle, then
T
Tan θ= Π D W
Where,
T= traverse distance at any moment
D=cones instantaneous diameter
W= wind ratio
But when T, Π, and W being constant, then
1
Tan θ α D
Thus higher the package diameter, smaller the helix angle and vice versa.

 Bobbin tapper:
The ratio of the length of the upper of the cop (bobbin with yarn) to the diameter of
the bobbin must be 1:2 or greater.

 Helix angle:
It is the instantaneous angle which the yarn makes over cone surface with cone axis.

 Winds:
Yarn coils laid over rotating cone surface are termed winds.

 Winding per double traverse:

The number of yarn layers laid over cone surface during one to and fro motion of yarn
traverse.

 Gain:
Gain is the slight difference in wind ratio. Instead of being a whole number, it is kept a
small fraction which produces variation in yarn layer repeats during precision
winding.

 Explain how cone winding operations affect yarn’s strength and appearance?
 Cotton yarn possesses 8 percent natural elongation which is very much needed to be
preserved for coping with weaving stresses and strain.
By removing weak spots, yarn’s strength is only marginally increased, and say about
4% only. Appearance wise yarn looks more regular and bright.
 What are the conditions for minimum angle of wind?
Winding angle is kept minimum by doing the following
 By surface velocity maximum
 By traverse velocity minimum
 Winding efficiency:
The ratio between the actual production and the calculated production is called
winding efficiency. It is expressed by in percentage:
actual production
Winding efficiency η= × 100 %
calculated production

 TYPES OF WARPING:
Depending on the kind of intermediate carrier used, the industrial warping process can be
carried out according to two different technologies:

 Sectional warping (conical drum or dresser warping);

 Beam warping or direct warping (preparatory beam warping).

 Sectional warping:

 Features:
 To produce check and stripe pattern
 Widely used in silk and synthetic fabric weaving
 Sectional warping is used in hand weaving
 Beam can be produced from the twisted yarn
 To produce weavers beam from small amount of warp yarn

Advantages:
 Reduction in wastes
 Ready weaver’s beam
 Greater number of ends on the weaver’s beam

Disadvantages:
 Less efficient method
 Yarn tension is less uniform
 More costly process
 More time consuming process
 Less production
 Beam warping:
 Features:
  Beam warping is most widely used in cotton, linen, woolen and worsted
weaving.
 Beam warping is also used in colored warps
 A simple flanged bobbin is used as beam
 Beam warping is most efficient.
 Beam warping is used for long runs of grey fabrics.
 As an intermediate stage warper’s beams which may contain up to 1000 ends
are produced.
 SOME IMPORTANT FORMULA:
Time required in hours
¿ total length of warp ¿ be produced∈ yards ¿
production ( actual ) ∈ yards per hour × No of mac h inesused

Total length of warp = length of warp/beam ×no of beams/set × no of sets

Therefore, time required in hours =

length of warp per beam× no of beams per set ×no of sets
production ( calculated ) ∈ yards per hour × No of mac h inesused × eff y

total number of warp thread

Section number =
creel loadingcapacity

reed width
Section width =
no of sections

total numbers of warp yarns

Number of beams =
creel capacity

length of warp∈ yards/hr ×8

Number of beams produced/8 hr=
840 ×lengt h of warp∈ yards/beam

total length of yarns∈hank

Beam count =
weight of yarns∈lbs

length of warp∈ yards × no of ends∈the warp

=
840 × weight ∈lbs

Production of warp in yds/hr (calculated)

= rpm of winding drum×60×dia of winding drum in inch/36×Π

Production of warp in yds/hr (actual) = Production of warp in yds/hr (calculated)×eff.

Length of yarn in hanks warped/hr (calc.) =
yds
production ( calc . ) of warp∈ ×no of ends∈t h e warp
hr
840

Length of yarn in hanks warped/hr (actual)

yds
production ( actual ) of warp∈
× no of ends ∈t h e warp
= hr
840
yds
production ( calc . ) of warp∈ ×no of ends∈t h e warp ×eff .
= hr
840
Wt of warped warp/yarn in lbs/hr (calc.)
yds
lengt h l of warp ( calc . ) ∈ × no of ends∈t h e warp
= hr
840 ×count of yarn

Wt of warped warp/yarn in lbs/hr (actual)

yds
lengt h l of warp ( actual . ) ∈ × no of ends∈t h e warp
= hr
840× count of yarn

yds
lengt h l of warp ( calc . ) ∈ × no of ends∈t h e warp × eff .
= hr
840 × count of yarn

 EFFECTS OF SIZING ON YARN PROPERTIES:

The following properties of yarn are affected by sizing:
 Yarn elasticity is higher
 Yarn strength higher
 Hairiness of yarn low
 Flexibility of yarn low
 Smoothness of yarn higher
 Irregularity of yarn lower
 Yarn diameter higher
 Yarn weight higher
 SIZE INGREDIENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS:

1. Gums:
These materials form the base of size. There are two types of gums:
Natural: until lately, mainly edible products were used as gums: starches used as 75%
of size ingredients and it will continue till to near future. Common starches are potato,
maize etc. wheat flour, corn flour.
Synthetic: polyvinyl alcohol, carboxymethyl cellulose, polyacryloamide.
Functions:
 o Coat the warp yarn with a film.
o Impart smoothness.
o Bind the protruding fibers to the yarn surface.
o Increase elasticity

2. Lubricants or softeners:
vegetable and animal fats ,Japan wax, tallow, cotton seed and castor oils, stearine,
glycerin, soap, TRO etc.
Functions:
 To give a softer feel to the sized yarn
 To reduce stickiness of yarn
 To smoothen the yarn

3. Deliquescent or humectants:
Ethylene glycol, glycerol, and glucose are the most important organic humectants.
Calcium chloride, zinc chloride and magnesium chloride are inorganic humectants.
Functions:
 To moisturizing the yarn
 To prevent the excessive dryness of yarn

4. Antiseptic or anti mildew agent:

Phenol, boric acid, carboxylic acid, zinc chloride, sodium silicofluoride, cresol etc. the
quantity used is very low 0.1 to 2%.
Functions:
 To prevent the growth of mildew
 To prevent spoiling of the size mix during storing it for long time
 To help to store the sized yarn.

5. Wetting agent:
Sulphanol A, soap, avirol, alizarin oil, etc. the amount of wetting agents introduced into
the size should not exceed 0.1 to 0.15 gm/liter.
Functions:
 To improve the size wet ability
 Improve the penetration of the size between the fibers
 Uniform distribution of the sizing solution on the yarn surface is obtained.

6. Antifoaming agent:
Silicones, stearine-paraffin emulsions, benzene, pyridine. The antifoaming agents in
amounts of 0.05 to 0.1 gm/liter are stirred in a small quantity of warm water.
Functions:
 To prevent formation of foam.

7. Tinting agent:
Blue is used as tinting agent.
Functions:
  To increase the brightness and remove yellowish color of yarn.
 To prevent dusting off.
 To form a particular shade.

8. Fillers or weighting agent:

The most commonly used substances are soluble inorganic powders such as china clay,
talc, barium or calcium sulfate.
Functions:
 To give additional weights to the goods.
 To prevent opening of cloth.

9. Effect of water:
Water is used as a solvent in preparing the size of chemical sizing agents, as well as
starch products. Its volume occupies the greatest part in the size composition. Only
clean water with suspended admixtures may be used for sizing. It should not contain a
considerable amount of calcium, or magnesium salts, i.e. should not be hard.

10.Starch stabilizer:
It act to keep the size mix in a liquid or paste condition for a longer time and over a
wider range in temperature than would normally be the case. The starch stabilizer
prevents congealing.
 TYPES OF SIZING:
 Pure sizing:
When sizing is done in yarn which produces unbleached fabric is called pure sizing. Size
ingredients are used on the weight of yarn 7-10%.

 Light sizing:
Size used in case of dyeing and printing is called light sizing. 11-15% sizing ingredients
are used on the weight of yarn.

 Medium sizing:
To increase of strength and weight of yarn 16-40% sizing ingredients are used on the
weight of yarn.

 Heavy sizing:
When sizing is done on twisted yarn and lower count of yarn then it is called heavy
sizing. Above 40% size ingredients are used on the weight of yarn.
 PROCESS OF SIZE APPLICATION:
 Conventional/ slasher sizing machine:

Mixing

Cooking

Storage

Application
 Drying

Separation

Winding

 Hot melt sizing:

Solid or block form of size ingredients

Size is placed over a grove cylinder

Size materials is melt by heat

Yarn is passed through the groove (size material)

 Foam sizing:
It is used in case of light shade and high quality yarn.

Size material is cooked

Foaming agent is added

Produced foam is applied on the yarn

  Emulsion sizing:

Emulsion is prepared with soap

Oil polymer is brought in emulsion form

Size is applied

 Combined sizing:
This type of sizing is done for denims. In this process both dyeing and sizing is done
simultaneously.

Two way process

Warp yarn is dyed and

Sizing is done
 SLASHER SIZING MACHINE:

Slasher sizing machine is most widely used. About all types of yarns can be sized by this
machine.
The slasher sizing machine is consists of the following primary units:
Creels—unwinding zone
Size boxes—sizing zone
Drying cylinders—drying zone
Bust or lease rods—splitting zone
Head stock—weaver’s beam preparation zone
 SIZE TAKES UP%:
The amount of size material added on the yarn surface is called size take up percentage.
 wt of sized yarn−wt of unsized yarn
Size take up%= ×100 %
wt of unsized yarn

¿¿
=wt of wt of unsized yarn ׿ 100%
 CAUSES OF FAULTS OF SIZING:

Underslashed warps:
Causes:
 Due to insufficient size concentration
 Improper size feed to the size box
 Variable size level
 Dilution of size
 Strong squeezing of warp

Overslashed warps:
Causes:
 Due to insufficient splitting of starch at size preparation
 Weak squeezing
 Too deep immersion of the warp into the size box

Sticky warps:
Causes:
 High sizing speed
 Low drying temperature

Over dried warps:

Causes:
 Low sizing speed
 Long stoppage of machine during sizing
 Very high temperature in the drying section

Gum spots and smears:

Causes:
 Splashes of size get on the squeezed warp
 Bad stirring of starch at preparation
 Improper coating of felts on the squeezing rollers

Non uniform size regains:

Causes:
 Irregular heating of the size in the box
 Dilution of the size with live steam
 Non uniform pressure of squeezing rollers

Crossed and lost ends:

Causes:
  Lease rods are set too far apart
 Broken ends are improperly pieced up
 Bad warping

Improper build of beam:

Causes:
 Incorrect spreading of yarn ends in the reed dents

Incorrect warp length:

Causes:
 Disarrangement of the measuring and marking mechanism
 Improper adjustment of measuring and marking mechanism

Dirt stains in warp:

Causes:
 The size boxes and machine metal parts are dirty
 The size is cooked in non-galvanized iron kettles.

Shinnery:
Causes:
 Due to the friction between the yarn and drying cylinder

Sandy warp:
Causes:
 Due to not crushed or grind the size material

Hard sizing:
Causes:
 Excessive application of size material

Size dropping:
Causes:
 Due to not optimum viscosity of the size solution

Uneven sizing:
Causes:
 Due to over and under sizing
 CLASSIFICATION OF LOOM:

Loom

Non automatic Loom Automatic Loom

Primitive Loom Ordinary Loom Semi automatic Loom

 Shuttle Loom Shuttle less Loom

Air jet Loom Projectile Loom Rapier Loom Multiphase Loom

 DIFFERENT TERMS OF WEAVING:

 Warp:
Set of yarns that run lengthwise on a piece of woven fabric. It is parallel to selvedge (ends).

 Weft:
Yarn that run horizontally across the width of a piece of woven fabric. It is perpendicular to
warp yarns.

 Bias:
A line or cut across a fabric that is not at right angles to the side of a fabric.

 Grain:
Refers to the relationship between the warp and weft.

 Balanced fabric:
It has the same no of yarns in the warp and weft.

 Lifting:
The operation of raising the various heald shafts in their required order to form the pattern
or design is termed as lifting.

 Fell:
The edge of the weaving where the last weft has been beaten in.

 Selvedge:
The woven edge of a fabric
  Shed:
The opening created on a loom where the weft passes.

 Shot or pick:
A single pass of weft through the shed.

 Fly shuttle:
A shuttle used for weaving on wide looms which is supported by a shuttle race and moves
across the loom by pulling a cord.

 Shuttle race:
A horizontal beam in front of the reed, attached to the beater on which the fly shuttle
glides.

 Threading hook:
A small tool with a thin narrow hook used to pull the warp ends through the heddle eyes.

 Bubbling:
Allowing some looseness in the weft to provide the extra length needed for the wert to ge
beaten in without causing draw-in.

 DIFFERENT PARTS OF A LOOM:

 Heald/heddle:
Wire or cord with eyelets that hold warp yarns in a place.
Functions:
It helps in shed formation
It is useful in identifying broken ends
It determines the order or sequence of the warp threads.
It determines the warp thread density in a fabric i.e. the numbers of heald wires per inch
determine the warp thread density per inch.

 Heald shaft/harness:
A wood or metal frame that holds the heald/heddles in position in the loom during
weaving. It is usually more than one.

 Shuttle:
This is a vehicle for weft and passes through the divided warp for the interlacement of the
warp and weft.
Function:
To hold the filling yarn.

 Shuttle box:
Compartment of each end of the sley of a shuttle loom used to retain the shuttle between
picking motions.

 Picker:
It is a piece of leather or other material placed in grooves or on a spindle inside a shuttle
box.
Function: to give a blow to the shuttle to drive it from one box to another.

 Beams:
A cylindrical body with end flanges on which a multiple of warp yarns are wound in such a
way to permit the removal of these yarns as a warp sheet.

 Warp or weaver’s beam:

The roller upon which the warp yarn is wound and fitted to the bottom at the back of the
loom is termed as warp beam.

 Cloth beam or cloth roller:

The roller upon which the cloth is wound when weaving is fitted in front of the loom below
the breast beam is termed as cloth beam.

 Back beam or back rest:

It is a fixed bar or roller placed above the weaver’s beam and acts as a guide for the warp
yarn from the weaver’s beam to pass alternatively over and under the lease rods through
the eyes of the heads and dents of the reed then over the front rest to the cloth beam.

 Breast beam or front rest:

It is a fixed roller placed in front of the loom above the cloth beam and acts as a guide for
the cloth to wind on to the cloth beam.

 Lease rods:
The division of warp yarn into one and one, two and two, and so on is termed as lease. The
two rods passed between the two successive divisions of warp yarns are called lease rods.
Functions:
It places the warp yarns in serial numbers.
It helps to detect the broken ends.
It forms the last end of the divided warp.
To keep the ends separated from each other.

 Sley/slay/lay:
It is the portion of loom that carries the reed and oscillates between the harness and the fell
of the cloth. It is also known as lathe, batten, going part, fly beam in UK.
Function:
To carry the reed.
  Reed or dent:
A comb like wire or device used to separate yarns on a loom and to beat up the filling
during weaving.
Functions:
It pushes the lastly laid pick of weft cloth fell.
It helps to maintain the position of warp threads.
It acts as a guide to the shuttle which passes from one end of the loom to the other.
It determines the fineness of the cloth in conjunction with the healds.
It determines the openness or closeness of the fabric.

 Treadle or treddle:
The treadle is a pedal or lever placed under a loom with which a thread is connected by
means of cords.

 Temple:
Roller device on a loom that hold the cloth at the proper width to prevent it from being
drawn in too much by the filling.
Function:
To control the fabric width

Types of shed:
There are fours types of shedding –
 Centre close shed
 Bottom close shed
 Semi open shed
 Open shed

Knitting:

Course:
Horizontal rows of stitches in a knitted fabric are called courses. A course is a row of loops
produced by adjacent needles during the same knitting cycle. Courses run widthwise from
side to side of the cloth and are that sense are similar to the weft or filling in a woven fabric.
Wales:
A vertical column of stitches in a knitted fabric are called Wales. A Wales is a column of
loops produced by the same needle on successive knitting cycles. A wale run lengthwise
through the entire fabric and in that sense is similar to the warp in a woven fabric.
Stitch length:
Stitch length is the length of yarn in a knitted loop. It is the dominating factor for all knitted
structures.

Pattern row:
A pattern row is a horizontal row of needle loops produced by adjacent needles in one
needle bed. In plain weft knitted fabric this is identical to a course but in more complex
fabrics a pattern row may be composed of two or more course lengths. In warp knitting
every loop in a course is usually composed of a separate yarn.

Gauge or gage:
The density of knitting machine needles, and the number of knitting needles per inch
(approx. 2.54cm). The smaller the figure, the coarser the stitch, and vice versa.

Cut:
The fineness of weft knits made on a circular knitting machine. The higher the gauge or cut
number, the finer the fabric.

Gaiting:
The arrangement of two sets of needles is known as gaiting. Two types of gaiting are
Rib Gaiting
Interlock Gaiting

Timing:
Relative movement between two sets of needles or needles and sinkers is called timing.

Loop:
The simplest unit of knitted structure. It consists of needle loop and sinker loop. The needle
loop includes a head and two side limbs.

Needle loop:
The upper part of the loop produced by the needle drawing in the yarn is called as needle
loop.

Sinker loop:
The lower part of the knitted loop is technically referred as sinker loop. It is the connection
of two legs belonging to the neighboring stitches lying laterally.

Open loop:
The open loop is one in which the loop forming yarns does not cross at the bottom of the
loop.

Closed loop:
In closed loop, the legs of the loop cross so that the loop closing takes place.

Face loop:
During loop formation, when the new loop emerges through the old loop from back to the
face side, it is called as face loop or weft knit loop.
Back loop:
If the new loop passes from the face side to the back side of the old loop, it is called as back
loop or weft purl loop.

Technical face:
The side of the knitted fabric that consists all of face or knit loops, is called technical face of
the fabric.

Technical back:
The side of the knitted fabric having full of back or purl loops is called needle loop.
Normally the reverse side of the technical face is the technical back.

Stitch density:
It is the number of stitches per unit area of a knitted fabric. It determines the area of the
fabric.

Knitted stitch:
The knitted stitch is the basic unit of intermeshing. It usually consists of three or more
intermeshed needle loops (Fig. 5.6). The centre loop has been drawn through the head of
the lower previously-formed loop and is, in turn, intermeshed through its head by the loop
above it.
The repeat unit of a stitch is the minimum repeat of intermeshed loops that can be placed
adjoining other repeat units in order to build up an unbroken sequence in width and depth.

Needle:

Needle is hooked metal part which is used for the formation of loops. It is the principle
knitting element of knitting. The knitting needles are two types

 Independent needle
 United needle

Independent needle:

The needles which are slide in the needle bed and can move individually during the loop
formation is called independent needle. It is used in weft knitting.

Needle bed
United needle:

Needles which are fixed in the needle bar and which can only be moved in union during the
loop formation process are called united needles. These needles are used in warp knitting.

Needle carrier:

The place in which the needles are set up is called needle carrier. A part of a knitting
machine containing independently by moving needles in a needle bed or united needles is
needle bar to help in knitting action. The needle carrier may be flat or circular.

Circular bed

Flat bed

Needle pitch:

The distance between two neighboring needles in the same needle bed from the center of a
needle to the center of a neighboring needle is called needle pitch.

1
Needle pitch = Needle gauge
Pitch

Flat bed
 Needle timing:
Needle timing is the relationship between the loop-forming positions of the dial and
cylinder needles measured as the distance in needles between the two stitches cam knock-
over points.
  Synchronized timing is the timing of a machine that has two sets of needles
where the point of knock-over of one set is aligned with the point of knock-over
of the other set.
 Delayed timing is the setting of the point of knock-over of one set of needles on a
two-bed knitting machine out of alignment with that of the other set so as to
permit the formation of a tighter stitch.

Warp knitting principle:

Compound lapping movements are responsible for the production of warp knitted fabric.
The compound lapping movement is composed of two separate motion.
 Swinging motion (backward & forward motion)
 Shogging motion (the lateral motion or side way movement)

The swinging motion is obtained from the main cam shaft while the shogging motion is
obtained from the pattern wheel or pattern drum provided at one side of the machine.

The no. of pattern wheels or no. of endless pattern chain links will be equal to the no. of
guide bars used.

The lateral movement of the guide bars along the needle bars or parallel to the needle bar
is called a shogging motion.

Run –in : The amount of yarn supplied to the guide bar for a definite number of courses is
called run-in or amount of yarn required (inch) to 480 courses (1 rack) is termed as run-in.
“If Run –in increase then GSM is low”
Run-in ratio: The ratio of Run-in between two guide bars is termed as Run-in ratio.
Run-in ratio is related to the loop length & structure of fabric & thus the appearance &
knitting performance.