Carbohydrates

1. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes and polyhydroxy ketones, polymers, and other
compounds derived from them.
2. The suffix –ose in a name for a substance indicates a carbohydrate, such as glucose, sucrose, and
cellulose. Warning: do not confuse this with the suffix –ase, which you will encounter later. This
suffix indicates an enzyme (catalytically active protein). Sucrose is the digestive enzyme that
mediates the hydrolysis of sucrose.
3. Carbohydrates are usually classified as monosaccharides or simple sugars, such as ribose and
glucose; compounds related to or derived from monosaccharides, such as deoxyribose and
glucuronic acid; oligosaccharides, such as sucrose and maltose; or polysaccharides, such as
glycogen and cellulose

Monosaccharides

1. Monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes and polyhydroxy ketones that cannot be further
degraded by hydrolysis.
2. They have the general formula CxH2xOx.
3. The monosaccharides are classified on the basis of the number of carbon atoms per molecule.
Trioses are C3, or 3-carbon, sugars. Tetroses are C4, or 4-carbon, sugars. Pentoses are C5, 5-
carbon, sugars. Hexoses are C6, 6-carbon, sugars. Heptoses are C7, 7-carbon, sugars.
4. Monosaccharides that have an aldehyde group are called aldoses. The prefix aldo- can be
combined with each of the terms defined in item 3. An aldohexose is any of several
monosaccharides having an aldehyde group and the empirical formula C6H12O6.
5. Monosaccharides having a keto group are called ketoses. The prefix keto- or the inflex –ul- is
combined with each of the terms defined in item 3 to designate a monosaccharides having a
keto group and the empirical formula C6H12O6.
6. The trioses (c3h6o3) are possible; two are aldoses and one is a katose

Properties of monosaccharides

1. Very pure preparations of monosaccharides from colorless crystals

2. Monosachharides are water-soluble and oil-insoluble; solutions of monosaccharides are viscous
and sweet-tasting.
3. The chemical properties of monosaccharides are determined by their carbonyl and alcohol
groups.
4. Monosaccharides and certain other sugars will reduce an oxidant such as copper (II) or silver (I)
and are therefore known as reducing sugars. This reaction is a test for reducing sugars.
5. Monosaccharides can undergo oxidantion of either the aldehyde group or the terminal –GH2OH
or both to form acids.
6. Monosaccharides can undergo reduction of the carbonyl group to form polyalcohols.
7. Monosaccharides can undergo deoxygenation to form deoxy-sugars.
8. Monosaccharides can be aminated to become amino sugars; acetylation of the amino group
yields N-acetyl amino sugars.
9. Monosaccharides can react with phosphate compounds and themselves become phosphates.
Sugar phosphates are biologically very important

Compounds related to monosaccharides

1. Sugar acids such as glucuronic acid and galacturonic acid are important constituents of
polysaccharides. They can exist in ring configurations as hemiacetals and lactones.
2. Polyalcohols such as mannitol and glucitol (better known as sorbitol) are found in natural
products.
3. Sugar phosphates are metabolically active forms of monosaccharides.
4. Deoxy sugars are important constituents of the genetic material (doexyribose) and of the cell
walls of certain microorganisms.
5. Amino sugars and acetylated amino sugars are found in numerous polysaccharides. A polymer of
N-acetyl-glucosamine is an important constituent of the exoskeleton of arthropods

Oligosaccharides
1. Oligosaccharides are molecules composed of two to around a dozen monosaccharide residues
glycosidically linked.
2. The most important oligosaccharides are the disaccharides sucrose (found in sugar cane ang
sugar beets) and lactose (found in milk)
3. Other important disaccharides are maltose and cellobiose. Note carefully the differences
between these two
By green
Polysaccharides
1. Polysaccharides are molecules composed of many (up to several thousand) monosaccharide
residues glycosidically linked.
2. Polysaccharides, specifically starch and cellulose, make up more than half of the bulk of plant
material and are the primary food source for the world’s fauna.
3. Polysaccharides containing only one type of monosaccharide unit are called
homopolysaccharides. The important homopolysaccharides are starch, glycogen, cellulose, and
chitin.
4. Polysaccharides containing more than one monosaccharide unit are called
heteropolysaccharides. Important heteropolysaccharides are pectins and mucopolysaccharides,
which include hyaluronic acid, chondroitin, heparin, and peptidoglycans.
5. Two large families of substance contain significant amounts of carbohydrate, though they are
primarily protein and lipid. These substance are called glycoprotein sang glycolipids.

CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates or sugars are produced by green plants during photosynthesis. Carbohydrates
contain only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They occur in a variety of sizes, ranging from simple
sugars called monosaccharides to polymer molecules called polysaccharides. Most of the
common monosaccharides are polyhydroxy aldehydes. That is, they occur as carbon chains with
an aldehyde group on one end and one hydroxyl group on each of the other carbons. Among the
most important monosaccharides are ribose and glucose, sometimes called dextrose.
(gambar)
These structures represent the open-chain forms of these sugars. For reference, the carbons are
numbered from top to bottom. For example, the carbons in glucose are numbered as
(gambar)