IN THE NAME OF ALLAH THE MOST

MERCIFULL AND THE BENIFICIAL

 Data Structure and Algorithm

Zafar Mehmood khattak

Lecture 1 (October. 20, 2010)

amur_kk@yahoo.com
zafar.mehmood@uog.edu.pk
 Course Information
 3-Credit Hours Course
 Course Title:
 Introduction to Data Structure and Algorithm
 Textbooks:
Data Structure in C++ by CM Aslam, TA Qureshi
Data Structure using C++ by DS Malik
Data Structure and Algorithm Analysis in C, Addison
Wesley, 1997.
Data Structures and Algorithms (SAMS teach
yourself), Lafore, Sams Publishing, 1999.

 Grading:
 Quizzes (10) Announced/Unannounced
 Assignment (5)
 project/presentation (10),
 Midterm test (25%)
 Final exam (50%)
Introduction to Data
Structure and Algorithm

BS-3rd Term
Department of CS&IT
University of Gujarat
 What you will learn

 This course will focus on solving problems efficiently

 you will be introduced to a number of fundamental

data structures and algorithms (or procedures) for
manipulating them.
 Cover well-known data structures such as dynamic arrays,
linked lists, stacks, queues, tree and graphs.
 Implement data structures in C++
What you will learn
After following this course, students should:

 Be able to understand the importance of

complexity analysis of algorithms

 Be aware of basic algorithm design techniques

 Have the understanding of common data

structures used in algorithms

 Be reasonably able to select appropriate data

structures and algorithms for a given situation
Need for Data Structures
 Data structures organize data  more
efficient programs.
 More powerful computers  more complex
applications.
 More complex applications demand more
calculations.

AL 7
Organizing Data
 Any organization for a collection of records
that can be searched, processed in any
order, or modified.
 The choice of data structure and algorithm
can make the difference between a program
running in a few seconds or many days.

AL 8
Efficiency
 A solution is said to be efficient if it solves
the problem within its resource constraints.
 Space
 Time

 The cost of a solution is the amount of

resources that the solution consumes.

AL 9
Selecting a Data Structure
Select a data structure as follows:
1. Analyze the problem to determine the
resource constraints a solution must meet.
2. Determine the basic operations that must be
supported. Quantify the resource
constraints for each operation.
3. Select the data structure that best meets
these requirements.

AL 10
Some Questions to Ask
 Are all data inserted into the data structure
at the beginning, or are insertions
interspersed with other operations?
 Can data be deleted?
 Are all data processed in some well-defined
order, or is random access allowed?

AL 11
Data Structure Philosophy
 Each data structure has costs and benefits.
 Rarely is one data structure better than
another in all situations.
 A data structure requires:
 space for each data item it stores,
 time to perform each basic operation,
 programming effort.

AL 12
Goals of this Course

1. Reinforce the concept that costs and benefits

exist for every data structure.

2. Learn the commonly used data structures.

 These form a programmer's basic data structure
“toolkit.”

3. Understand how to measure the cost of a data

structure or program.
 These techniques also allow you to judge the merits
of new data structures that you or others might invent.
AL 13
Outline Syllabus
 Introduction
 Analysis of Algorithms
 Basic data structures and operations on
them
 Arrays
 Stacks
 Queues
 Linked lists
 Trees
 Graphs
 Hash tables
Outline Syllabus
 Recursion
 Sorting
 Searching
 Complexity of Algorithms
 Polynomial and Intractable Algorithms
 Basic algorithm design techniques
 Divide-and-conquer
 Greedy approach
 Dynamic Programming
Today Topics
 Introduction
 Programming language review
 Data & Information
 What is Data Structures?
 Abstract Data types
 Categories of Data Structures
 Operations on Data Structures
 Analysis of Algorithms
 What is Algorithms?
 Analyzing Algorithms
 Algorithmic Notation
Programming Language :
Definition
 A vocabulary and set of grammatical
rules for instructing a computer to
perform specific tasks.
 A Common
Perception...
“The programming language problem has
been solved; the name of the solution is C.”
- Dean of a top-3 research university,
circa 1991.

“Well, Java”

- Same dean, several years later.

 The Reality...
XSLT XQuery
bash F#
Python javascript
perl
Haskell
ActionScript C S
Java SQL
Ruby Ocaml
awk C++ R latex
PHP C#
Tcl/TK postscript make ML
Visual Basic
regular expressions
Evolution of Programming languages
 First Generation : Machine languages
 Strings of numbers giving machine specific instructions
 Example:
+1300042774
+1400593419
+1200274027
 Second Generation : Assembly languages
 English-like abbreviations representing elementary
computer operations (translated via assemblers)
 Example:
LOAD BASEPAY
ADD OVERPAY
STORE GROSSPAY
 Third Generation : High-level languages
 Codes similar to everyday English
 Use mathematical notations (translated via compilers)
 Example: grossPay = basePay + overTimePay
PL hierarchy
Different types of High-level PL
 Weakly typed/strongly typed
 Structured
 And many other types
Typed Languages
 Type information was added to
programs to improve efficiency.
 For ex. An integer addition is performed
more efficiently than floating point
addition.
 Hence it is more advantageous to
declare the value/variable as integer
whenever it is possible.
Weakly Typed/Strongly Typed
Language
 A strongly-typed programming language is
one in which each type of data (such as
integer, character, hexadecimal, packed
decimal, and so forth) is predefined as part of
the programming language and all constants
or variables defined for a given program must
be described with one of the data types.
 Certain operations may be allowable only
with certain data types. The language
compiler enforces the data typing and use
compliance.
Strongly Typed Language
contd..
Different definitions are given for a
language to be strongly typed and if
that condition is not defined by a
particular language it is said to
weakly typed in that context.
For example..
1. A language is strongly typed if it contains
compile -time checks for type constraint
violations. If all checking is deferred to run
time, it is weakly typed.
2. A language is strongly typed if it contains
compile- or rum-time checks for type
constraint violations. If no checking is done, it
is weakly typed.
3. A language is strongly typed if conversions
between different types are forbidden. If
such conversions are allowed, it is weakly
typed.
More Examples..
4. A language is strongly typed if
conversions between different
types must be indicated explicitly.
If implicit conversions are performed, it
is weakly typed.
Where does C fit in?
 For example, under definitions 3,4
the C Language is weakly typed; —
with definitions 1 and 2 it is open for
further debate since C does perform
type checks for compound types but
not for scalar or array types.
C++/Java?
 C++ and Java are stronger typed
than C.
Overview of different programming languages

 Imperative programming paradigm

 Structural programming languages
 Procedural programming languages

 Declarative programming paradigm

 Functional programming languages

 Modular programming paradigm

 Object oriented programming languages

 http://www.answers.com/topic/programming-language
Structured Programming

 Structured programming
 Disciplined approach to writing
programs
 Clear, easy to test and debug and easy
to modify
 Structured programming is hard
and takes time to master
Structured Programming…….
 Discipline for organizing and coding
programs.
 Simplifies control paths so that
programs can be easily understood
and modified.
 Uses basic control structures and
modules that have only one entry
point and one exit point.
Control Structures
 Basic Control Constructs
 Sequence Structure
 Selection Structure
 Iteration Structure

 Advanced Control Construct

 Case Structure
 Sequence Construct
 Single steps or actions in
the program logic
 Statements executed in the Initialize A
order of appear-ance, with Variables

control passing
unconditionally from one
statement to the next.
 The program executes Increment B
Statement A followed by Counter
Statement B.
Selection Construct

 A decision point in a procedure in which

the outcome of a stated condition
determines which of two actions will be
taken.

 Tests a condition and executes one of

the two alternative instruction sets
based on the results of the test.
 Selection Construct
continued
IF Hours is greater than
40
Y N
THEN Hours > 40
Compute Overtime
Pay
Compute Compute
ELSE
Overtime Regular
Compute Regular Pay
ENDIF
Iteration Construct
 The logic pattern in programming in
which certain actions are repeated
whenever a specified condition
occurs.

 The cycle repeats until such time as

the specified condition no longer
occurs
 Iteration Construct ~ Test
Before Looping (WHILE)
 First, test the
control condition
 IF condition is true
THEN perform the
process Condi- T
ELSE continue with Perform
tion Process
the program
 Process loops back F
to the condition
 Iteration Construct ~ Perform
Before Testing (FOR - NEXT)
 A process (which may
consist of one or more
sequences) is executed.
 The condition is tested Perform
 IF the condition is Process
true

THEN repeat the

process Condi- T
ELSE continue the tion
program
F
Structured programming
 Only the following code structures are
used to write programs:
1. Sequence of sequentially executed
statements.
2. Conditional execution of statements (i.e.,
"if" statements).
3. Looping.
4. Structured SubRoutine calls (e.g.,
'gosub' but not 'goto').
Structure Programming contd..
In particular, the following language usage
is forbidden:
 "GoTo" statements.
 "break" or "continue" out of the middle
of loops.
 Multiple exit points to a
function/procedure/subroutine (i.e.,
multiple "return" statements).
 Multiple entry points to a
function/procedure/subroutine.
Data & Information
 Data

Collection of Raw Facts & Figures

 Information

The processed data that gives useful

meaning
Software Development
 5 phases of software development
 problem analysis and specifications
 design
 coding
 testing
 maintenance
Analysis and Specification
 Statement of specifications
 Customer requirements
Design
 Objects
 Operations
 Algorithms
 Algorithms + Data Structures =
Programs
Coding
 Language
 Style
 Integration
 Correctness / Readability /
Understandability
 Good Programming Practices
Testing
 Validation
 are we building the right product (checking that
the documents, program modules, etc. are
according to customer’s requirements.)
 Verification
 Are we building the product right (checking that
products are correct, complete, consistent)
 Black Box Testing (no structural testing)
 White Box Testing (examining internal
structure)
Maintenance
 Bugs
 Modifications
 Enhancements
Data Types
 Simple
 char, int, float, double
 Structured
 arrays, structures, unions, classes
 Advanced
 lists, queues, stacks, trees, graphs
ADTs
 Abstraction
 separating data from implementation
 ADT
 a collection of related data items
together with basic operations between
them and operations to be performed on
them
Abstract data types another
 What does ‘abstract’ mean?
 From Latin: to ‘pull out’—the essentials
 To defer or hide the details
 Abstraction emphasizes essentials and defers the
details, making engineering artifacts easier to use
 I don’t need a mechanic’s understanding of
what’s under a car’s hood in order to drive it
 What’s the car’s interface?
 What’s the implementation?
Abstract Data Type (ADT)
another def….
a collection of related data items
Def. together with
an associated set of operations
e.g. Phone book
Basic operations: find number by name, add a new entry,
delete an entry, list all entries in order
Why "abstract?"
Data, operations, and relations are studied
independent of implementation.

What not how is the focus.

52
Data Structures
 Goal: to organize data
 Criteria: to facilitate efficient
 storage of data
 retrieval of data
 manipulation of data
 Design Issue:
 select and design appropriate data
types. (This is the real essence of OOP.)

53
Categories of Data Structures
 Primitive or nonlinear data structure

The data structures whose elements are

arranged in non-linear or non-sequence
form are nonlinear data structures.

trees and graphs are nonlinear data

structures
Categories of Data Structures
 Non-Primitive or linear data structure

The Data structure whose elements are

arranged in a sequence is called linear
data structure.

Arrays, Linked Lists, Queues, Stacks

etc are linear data structures
Operations on Data Structures
 Some commonly used operations performed on data
structures

 Inserting: adding new data items into a data

structure
 Deleting: removing data items from a data structure
 Searching: finding specific data items in a data
structure
 Traversing: accessing each record or item in a data
structure exactly once for processing
 Sorting: arranging data items in a data structure
into a specific order
 Merging: combing two lists of data items into a
single data list
What is Algorithm?
 An algorithm is a recipe or a well-
defined procedure for performing a
calculation, or in general, for
transforming some input into a desired
output.

 Step-by-step procedure to solve a

particular problem.
 Story of the algorithm.
Analyzing Algorithm
 Why analyze algorithm?
 To improve or to choose one among many

 Criteria for analysis

 Correctness
 Amount of work done (efficiency)
 Amount of space used
 Simplicity, Clarity
 Optimality (whether it’s “the best possible”?)
Analyzing Algorithm
 Amount of work done (efficiency)

 Compare execution time of 2 algorithms?

 Perhaps OK, but …. Vary from computer to
computer and between different inputs

 The number of instructions executed?

 Dependent on programmer, language,
compiler, machine architecture
Algorithmic Notation
 Name of Algorithm
 Introductory Comment
 Steps
 Comments
 Variable name
 Operators
 Assignment Statement
Algorithmic Notation
 INPUT & OUTPUT STATEMENTS

 SELECTION STATEMENTS

 LOOPING STATEMENTS

 SUB ALGORITHMS
 Type of Sub-Algorithm
 Function sub-algorithm
 Procedure sub-algorithm
Another definition
Informally, an algorithm is any well defined
computational procedure that takes some value, or set
of values, as input and produces some value, or set of
values, as output.
Thus an algorithm is a sequence of computational
steps that transform the input into the output.
Algorithm is a tool to solve computational problem.
Example of an algorithm

Problem: find the maximum (largest) value in a

finite sequence of integers.

We want to develop an algorithm that can be used

whenever the problem of finding the largest
element in a finite sequence of integers.
For example : we have 15, 8, 20 , 7, 52, 30,23 as the
sequence of integers.

We want an algorithm that would give 52 as an

answer (since 52 is the largest in this sequence of
integers) when applied to this list.
Solution of finding the maximum integer:

We perform the following steps.

1. Set the temporary maximum equal to the first
integer in the sequence. (The temporary
,maximum will be the largest integer examined at
any stage of the procedure.)
2. Compare the next integer in the sequence to the
temporary maximum, and if it is larger than the
temporary maximum, set the
Continued…

temporary maximum equal to this integer.

3. Repeat the previous step if there are more
integers in the sequence.
4. Stop when there are no integers left in the
sequence. The temporary maximum at this
point is the largest integer in the sequence.
 Pseudocode

We can specify an algorithm in many ways, like we can

use English or a programming language.
We employ whatever method is clear and concise to
specify an algorithm.
We will use a pseudocode to specify algorithms.
Pseudocode provides an intermediate step between an
algorithm written in English or in a programming
language.
Why use pseudocode?

When an algorithm is written in English, it is

difficult to conceive how that algorithm can be
performed on a computer.
Use of a programming language to specify an
algorithm often leads to description that is
complicated and difficult to understand. Furthermore,
since many programming languages are in common
use so it would be undesirable to choose one
particular language.
Pseudocode for finding
maximum in a list

Procedure max(a1,a2,…,an: integers)

max:= a1
for i := 2 to n
if max < ai then max := ai
// max is the largest element //
Some concepts regarding
algorithms

The input sequence 15, 8, 20 , 7, 52, 30,23 which

we used as our example of “finding the maximum
integer in a sequence” is called instance of the
problem.
An algorithm is said to be correct if, for every
input instance, it halts with the correct output. We
say that a correct algorithm solves the given
computational problem.
Properties of Algorithms

There are several properties that algorithms

generally share. They are:
Input: An algorithm has input values from a
specified.
Output: From each set of values an algorithm
produces output values from a specified set. The
output values are the solution of the problem.
Definiteness: The steps of an
algorithm must be defined precisely.
Correctness: An algorithm should
produce the correct output values
for each set of input values.
Finiteness: An algorithm should
produce the desired output after a
finite (but perhaps large) number of
steps for any input in the set.
Next Lecture
 Arrays Data Structures
 One Dimensional Array
 Two Dimensional Array
 N Dimensional Array

 Operations on Arrays
 Insert
 Delete
 Traversing