Mammela Lecture

HOW TO GET A PH.D.
Aarne Mämmelä 14.1.2004
VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND
HOW TO GET A PH.D.
Dr. AARNE MÄMMELÄ

Research Professor (VTT), Docent (HUT)
VTT ELECTRONICS
Kaitoväylä 1, P.O. Box 1100, FIN-90571 Oulu, Finland
Email: aarne.mammela@vtt.fi, http://www.vtt.fi/ele
Tel. 08-5512111, 08-5512482 (direct), 040-5762963 (GSM)
Fax 08-5512320
19.1.2004 2
1
OUTLINE
Introduction
I Research methods
II Literature reviews
II Scientific publication
Bibliography
19.1.2004 3
INTRODUCTION
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/ System
analysis (prototype)
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
19.1.2004 4
2
HOW TO GET A PH.D. (2003-2004) at the

University of Oulu
1. Aarne Mämmelä, Research Methods: From Problem and
Hypothesis to Experiments
2. Tapio Seppänen, Characteristics of a Researcher
3. Aarne Mämmelä, Literature Reviews: Existing Knowledge from
Data Bases
4. Pekka Heinonen, Industrial Experiences on Ph.D. Students
5. Erkki Oja, Experiences of a Senior Researcher
6. Olli Silven, Peer Review Process: the Task of a Referee
7. Jani Mäntyjärvi, Experiences about Preparing a Doctoral
Thesis
8. Aarne Mämmelä, Final Result: a Scientific Publication
9. Kari Leppälä, Theory of Science for Engineers
http://www.infotech.oulu.fi/GraduateSchool/ICourses/to_phd_
2003.html
19.1.2004 5
I RESEARCH METHODS
• Definitions
• Research process
• problem and hypotheses
• research proposal
• creativity
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3
JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION: COLUMBUS
• Problem: a new way to India, competing hypotheses: over the

Atlantic (Spain), around Africa (Portugal), incomplete
”roadmap” and vision, difficulties with funding
19.1.2004 7
KNOWLEDGE AND LITERATURE
Researchers
Editor
Peer review
Literature (knowledge)
19.1.2004 8
4
SOME DEFINITIONS
• Research: Careful study or investigation to discover new

knowledge
• basic research (no specific application in mind)
• applied research (ideas into operational form)
• Development: Systematic use of the existing knowledge
• Note. Research and development are closely related. In

research a prototype is often developed.
19.1.2004 9
LEARNING PROCESS
Students learn
Concrete: "example sentences" Abstract: "grammar"
Induction
Applications Principles
(examples) (theory)
Deduction
Professors teach
CONFLICT!
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5
HOW DOES A RESEARCHER WORK?
1. Make always notes in a notebook
2. Make plans for the future all the time (outlines,

roadmaps, visions)
3. Discuss, ask questions and argue (criticism)
19.1.2004 11
CREATIVITY: PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES
No clear rules exist

to find hypotheses.
Synthesis Analysis Theory
Confusion Problem Hypotheses Criticism
(model,
(disorder) (question) (guesses) (experiments)
order)
Experience
(literature, Peer review
analogies)
Popper: Theories are only hypotheses that cannot be proved, they can
only be falsified. Theories are explanations, not only predictions.
19.1.2004 12
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CREATIVITY: ORDER AND CHAOS
Order Chaos
Creativity
19.1.2004 13
THREE FORMS OF ORDER

STATIC OR TIMELESS ORDER (TAXONOMY)
System
Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 3
DYNAMIC ORDER (REDUCTIONISM)
Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 3
GENERATIVE ORDER (HOLISM)

Note. Causal
relationships. Subsystem 2
Subsystem 1 Subsystem 3
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CONCEPT ANALYSIS
Object
Term Concept
triangle “a closed plane figure having

(word) three angles and three sides”
(definition, properties)
19.1.2004 15
ANALOGIES IMPROVE CREATIVITY
LENGTH
FURNITURE (WEIGHT)
HEIGHT REMOVAL VAN
TIME
BIT (ENERGY)
BANDWIDTH
TIME SLOT
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8
COMMUNICATIONS IMPROVE CREATIVITY
Other researchers
Encouragement, criticism
YOURSELF Advisor
Landmark
Paper
Oral communications
Written communications
19.1.2004 17
SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE IMPROVES CREATIVITY
Synthesis
Specifications
Comparisons
Analysis
Measurement System
results
Synthesis
Parts
Analysis
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EXAMPLE: HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Telegraph Telephone Wireless telegraph Broadcast
Wireless voice Police radio
1860 1880 1900 1920 1940
Computers Computer networks Internet

Voiceband modems WLAN
Mobile radio Mobile cellular
Fixed links Satellite comms Satellite navigation
Radar Optical comms
1940 1960 1980 2000
19.1.2004 19
ROADMAP AND VISION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS
Ad hoc networks
WPAN
Digital broadcast Mobile DVB
Multicast/unicast Mobile universal

Wireless Internet Mobile Internet
Satellite positioning
FWA Supermacrocells Megacells
Mobile 3D voice Multi-sense interaction True virtual reality

Haptic interaction 3D telepresence
Mobile wide-screen
2000 2010 2020 2030 2040
19.1.2004 20
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Brainstorming
• A new problem is described and everyone is allowed to give ideas

• No-one is allowed to criticize the ideas during brainstorming
• Integrity and high ethical standards
• Most successful if participants are experts in different fields
• Best solution from any field that we can imagine
19.1.2004 21
BIG ISSUES GUIDING OUR WORK
Systems System models,

engineering relationships,
complexity analysis
History &
Reviews of literature
roadmaps
Physical limits,
Fundamental optimal systems,
limits performance analysis
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RESEARCH IDEAS
To find research ideas, use your own intuition/expertise

and..
• know the literature, especially original landmark

papers (write brief well-organized summaries)
• do experiments early in your studies, use your

colleagues’ experience
• discuss with colleagues and students and teach them

(seminars)
19.1.2004 23
RESEARCH PROPOSAL
• Abstract
• Introduction
• problem and hypothesis
• Review of the literature
• good organization, concept analysis, historical notes
• Materials and methods
• system requirements, system specifications
• plan for operation, experimental procedures
• analytical and simulation tools
• Results
• results (for example experimental data) to be expected
• publication and other dissemination of research results
• Discussion and conclusions
• originality, open questions, limitations
• validation, significance, applications
• Time frame, budget
• intermediate objectives
• Bibliography
• list of references
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TIMING OF DOCTORAL THESIS (4 years)
1. Proposal
2. Courses
3. Literature
4. Experiments
5. Reports
6. Papers
7. Thesis
8. Defence
19.1.2004 25
BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS
• Analysis (= deduction)
1. Axiomatic system, for example, Newtonian mechanics
2. Theory based on models, for example Bohr’s atom model, ideal
gas model, Crick and Watson’s model for DNA molecule
• Observations and experiments (= experience)
• the problem is divided into smaller problems (reduction), and
observations and experiments are made to gain experience
• Hypothetico-deductive method
• analysis and experience are combined
• a problem and competing hypotheses are defined, some
observable results are derived from hypotheses and compared
with experiments
• most common method in science and engineering
19.1.2004 26
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EXPERIMENTS (1)
Analysis
Simulation
Prototype
19.1.2004 27
EXPERIMENTS (2)
• Mathematical analysis (presentation of formal theory)

• creates best scientific papers
• simple, mathematically tractable problem, must be often
linear (numerical results needed)
• Simulations (empirical research)
• complicated systems can be developed rapidly, but slow
to simulate
• basic idea: lower level blocks are simplified and idealized
(hierarchy)
• key problem: realistic models for the environment (e.g.
channel)
• Prototyping (empirical research)
• more convincing than “pure” simulations, not so flexible,
slow and expensive to develop complicated systems
• environment (channel) simulators still needed
(approximations!), field tests expensive, repeatability?
19.1.2004 28
14
ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS
Simple
pendulum System (specific)
- prototype
Analysis
Synthesis
(reverse engineering)
(engineering)
Parts (general)
- materials
Wire
Mass point
19.1.2004 29
REASONING: INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION
l Experimental
x x
T T x x
Examples (specific) x
- statistics Theoretical
l
Induction
Deduction
Assumptions:
- small amplitude
- no friction
Theory/model (general)
Definitions:
- knowledge (explanation) g is gravitational
acceleration (9.81 m/s2)
Theory:
T = 2π l / g
19.1.2004 30
15
HYPOTHETICO-DEDUCTIVE METHOD
x x
l T x x
Pendulum x
T
Experiments l
System Examples
Induction
Analysis Deduction
Synthesis
Relationships
Parts Theory
Wire
T = 2π l / g
Mass point
Special
Analysis
Synthesis
General
19.1.2004 31
A MORE GENERAL VIEW
Requirements,
"PRACTICE" specifications "THEORY"
Experimental Comparisons
results Examples
Induction
Synthesis (reduction) Deduction
Analysis
(experiments)
Prototype Model
Analysis Analysis
Synthesis
(reduction) Synthesis
Parts Parts
19.1.2004 32
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II LITERATURE REVIEWS
• Publications
• Publishers
• Data bases
• Finding literature
19.1.2004 33
Introduction
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/ System
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
19.1.2004 34
17
Introduction (2)
• Motivation for literature searches:

• full grasp of subject (large picture)
• show originality of own work
• ideas for new research
• list of references (bibliography)
• Note. Every day almost 1000 papers in electrical engineering
are published, thus you must carefully select what you read.
19.1.2004 35
Motivation to know the history
Vision 1
Prediction with little
historical knowledge
Vision 2
Prediction with strong

historical knowledge
Time
Past Present
19.1.2004 36
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Publications
Textbooks,
reviews
Journal
Literature reviews
Own papers
papers
Conference
papers
Reports
19.1.2004 37
Example original paper
19.1.2004 38
19
Example review paper
19.1.2004 39
Example magazine paper
19.1.2004 40
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Publishers
Scientific Commercial
societies publishers
1. Non-profit scientific societies (“educate”)

• publish best journal and conference papers and some good
books
• examples: ACM (www.acm.org), APS (www.aps.org), IEEE
(www.ieee.org), SPIE (www.spie.org)
2. Commercial publishers (“make money”)

• publish good books
• examples: McGraw-Hill (www.mhhe.com), Prentice-Hall
(vig.prenhall.com), John Wiley & Sons (www.wiley.com)
19.1.2004 41
Data bases (1)
1. Bibliographies
• usually in textbooks, review and tutorial papers and IEEE Press
books, bibliographical notes in original papers (see the introduction of
the paper)
• use keywords “bibliographies” and “special issues” (for cumulative
indices) in abstracts journals
2. Digital libraries (whole papers included as .pdf files)
• IEEE Xplore from 1950 (for some journals from 1988)
3. Abstracts data bases
• INSPEC from 1969, 330000 new abstracts/year
4. Citation data bases
• Science Citation Index (SCI) from 1974, see ISI Web of Science
19.1.2004 42
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Data bases (2)
19.1.2004 43
Use of a citation index
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES
time
xx x xxxx x xxxx
How to find this?
CITATION INDICES
x landmark paper
x other paper
References (citations)
19.1.2004 44
22
Hints when looking for information
• try to understand the historical evolution by using bibliographical

notes (read and compare the lists of references)
• history will improve your understanding of the state-of-the-art
• historical evolution is always somewhat scattered (gaps
between papers, independent discoveries, etc.)
• read only high-quality landmark papers (learn to know good
groups)
• it is better to organize your material according to the relationships
of the topics (for example in a taxonomy: separate groups based on
some factor common to each, hierarchical structure, special cases)
• include historical notes as additional information
19.1.2004 45
Search according to the publication category (1)
1) Books
• data bases of the libraries of universities and research
institutes (largest libraries include Congress Library,
www.loc.gov, and British Library, www.bl.uk)
• Internet bookshops such as Amazon (www.amazon.com),
Barnes & Noble (www.bn.com) and Abebooks
(www.abebooks.com)
• see the www addresses of the most important book
publishers such as McGraw-Hill (www.mhhe.com), Prentice-
Hall (vig.prenhall.com), and Wiley (www.wiley.com)
• book reviews in many magazines
• use key words “books” or “book reviews” in abstracts journals
19.1.2004 46
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Search according to the publication category (2)
2) Review and tutorial papers

• Proceedings of the IEEE (best reviews)
• IEEE Magazines (papers of varying quality)
• special issues in other journals
• use keywords “reviews”, “history” and “special issues” in
abstracts journals
19.1.2004 47
Search according to the publication

category (3)
3) Original landmark papers

• old landmark papers collected in bibliographies and IEEE Press
books (www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/press/)
• data bases such as IEEE Xplore, INSPEC or SCI
• for very old papers try abstracts journals (INSPEC since 1898,
Engineering Index (EI) since 1884) and special data bases
(MathSciNet since 1940)
• author and subject indices in the last issue of the year
• newest conference proceedings of best conferences (long
publication delays in journals)
19.1.2004 48
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Search according to the publication

category (4)
4) Standards
• good source for state-of-the art system knowledge
• sold by standardization organizations, for example
• ANSI, American National Standards Institute, www.ansi.org
• IEC, International Electrotechnical Commission, www.iec.org
• IEEE, www.ieee.org
• ISO, International Standards Organization, www.iso.ch
• ITU, International Telecommunication Union, www.itu.int
• ETSI, European Telecommunication Standards Institute,
www.etsi.org
• must be an active member in standardization groups to have the
newest knowledge
19.1.2004 49
III SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATION
• Introduction
• IMRAD structure of a paper
• Organization of a paper
• Conclusions
19.1.2004 50
25
Introduction (1)
Idea
Literature review
Problem and
hypotheses
Experiments/ System
Theory/paper
(new knowledge)
19.1.2004 51
Introduction (2)
Textbooks,
reviews
Journal
Literature reviews
Own papers
papers
Conference
papers
Reports
19.1.2004 52
26
Introduction (3)
Motivation for writing scientific papers:

• distribution of knowledge
• improves the quality of research
• maturation as a researcher (our “Olympic Games”)
• improve organization, use clear definitions, accurate
terminology
• measure of scientific merit for the researcher and for the
employer
• peer review process
19.1.2004 53
IEEE writing instructions
• Information for IEEE Transactions, Journals and Letters Authors,

www.ieee.org/organizations/pubs/transactions/information.htm
(see “Information for Authors” and the templates)
• see also the writing instructions of the journal you are interested in,
www.ieee.org/organizations/tab/society.html
19.1.2004 54
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Example original paper
19.1.2004 55
IMRAD structure of a paper
Introduction
• What question or problem was studied?
• Write the whole literature review here, do not continue it
elsewhere
Methods
• How was the problem studied?
• Describe the whole system model here (parameters
presented with symbols), do not continue the system
model description elsewhere
Results
• What were the findings?
• These must be your own results. Plagiarism (also self-
plagiarism) strictly forbidden.
Discussion
• What do these findings mean?
19.1.2004 56
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Structure of an IEEE paper

Abstract
1. What the author has done.
2. How it was done (if it is important).
3. Principal results (numerically, when possible).
4. Significance of the results.
I. Introduction
1. Nature of the problem.
2. Background of previous work.
3. Purpose and significance of the paper.
4. Method by which the problem is approached.
5. Organization of the paper.
II. Materials and methods
III. Results
IV. Conclusions
1. What is shown by this work and its significance.
2. Limitations and advantages.
3. Applications of the results.
4. Recommendations for further work.
19.1.2004 57
Structure of an IEEE paper (2)
READERSHIP
(PAST)
Introduction
(motivation,
orientation)
Scope Methods and
Results
Conclusions
FUTURE
19.1.2004 58
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Organization of the text (1)
• an easy holistic approach to start: write a draft and try to improve

it
• a more difficult serial approach: write a very detailed outline of the
table of contents and then finish the sentences
• treat each topic in one place only, minimize cross-references
to other parts
• study the material and use key words for outlining (a mind
map may also be useful)
• try to make the organization clear, unified and well balanced,
no gaps between sections, write a stand-alone document
19.1.2004 59
Organization of the text (2)
• define your system model, no silent assumptions allowed, everything

must be explicit
• use of terms, symbols and abbreviations must be unified during
outlining, do not use different synonymous terms, define all symbols,
abbreviations and new terms
• continue outlining until all the topics are covered and well organized
• make a list of figures and tables, use them sparingly
• based on the outline, write a table of contents (make a clear copy!)
19.1.2004 60
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Conclusions
General hints
Idea • use bibliographies to improve your
efficiency in literature reviews (start from
books and reviews, see the introduction of
Literature review
original papers), learn the terminology,
write a classification and see historical
Problem and trends
hypotheses
• define a problem and hypotheses (use
reduction: start from very simple models
Experiments/ System
analysis (prototype) and generalize, make experiments early in
your project)
Theory/paper • start to outline the paper right from the
(new knowledge)
beginning (there will never be “more time”),
emphasize good organization
• reserve time for all phases in your project
plan
19.1.2004 61
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Writing, general
• M. Davis, Scientific Papers and Presentations. Academic Press, 1997, 296 pp.
(This is our course book at the University of Oulu.)
• Matt Young, The Technical Writer’s Handbook: Writing with Style and Clarity,
2nd ed. Mill Valley, CA: University Science, 2002 (This style manual is
recommended by IEEE, includes alphabetical entries.)
Dictionaries and encyclopedias
• Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 4th ed. John Wiley & Sons, 2000,
1744 pp. (ISBN 0028631196). (A dictionary of American English, includes
163000 entries, recommended by Prentice-Hall. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate
Dictionary, recommended by Wiley, includes 225000 definitions and is
available at www.m-w.com. A more comprehensive dictionary, recommended
also by Wiley is Webster’s Third New International Dictionary, Unabridged,
which includes 472000 entries.)
• Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed., Columbia University Press, 2002 (The largest
one-volume encyclopedia in English, includes 51000 entries, available at
www.bartleby.com/65/. The largest encyclopedia in the world is Encyclopedia
Britannica, including 65000 entries.)
19.1.2004 62
31
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Grammars of the English language
• Rodney D. Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. Cambridge University Press, 2002, 1860 pp. (ISBN
0521431468.) (This is the first comprehensive descriptive grammar of English
to appear for over fifteen years, a period which has seen immense
developments in linguistic theory at all levels. This book is destined to
supplant “A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language” as the
standard reference.)
• Randolph Quirk, Jan Svartvik (Contributor), Geoffry Leech (Contributor), and
Sidney Greenbaum, A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, 7th
ed. Addison-Wesley Pub Co, 1989, 1779 pp. (ISBN 0582517346.) (This book is
an expanded and revised version of a series of grammars first published in
1972. Since its publication, this book has been the standard reference work
used by professional grammarians.)
19.1.2004 63
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Research methods, philosophy of science
• Ilkka Niiniluoto, Johdatus tieteenteoriaan: käsitteen- ja teorianmuodostus. 3rd
ed. Otava, 2002, 314 pp. (This is an introduction to the philosophy of science,
including formation of concepts and theories. The book includes a review of
the history and bibliographical notes. Ilkka Niiniluoto, Tieteellinen päättely ja
selittäminen. Otava, 1983, 416 pp. is a continuation of the book, including
scientific reasoning and explanation. The book includes bibliographical notes.
No English translation available.)
• Ernest Nagel, Structure of Science: Problems in the Logic of Scientific
Explanation, 2nd ed. Hackett Pub Co, 1998, 618 pp. ( “This magisterial work is
worthy of careful study on all topics in the philosophy of science. Its account
of the nature of theories, its development of examples and its identification of
philosophical issues remains unrivaled. Nagel’s discussion of the structure of
theories, of reductionism and or the realism/antirealism issue set the agenda
for the next several decades.” A quotation from Alexander Rosenberg, The
Philosophy of Science: A Contemporary Introduction. Routledge, 2000, 208 pp.)
19.1.2004 64
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Cultural education
• Dietrich Schwanitz, Bildung: Alles was man wissen muss. Eichborn,
Frankfurt, 1999, 540 pp. [Dietrich Schwanitz, Sivistyksen käsikirja: Kaikki
mitä tulee tietää. Ajatus Kirjat, 2003, 613 pp.] (This book summarizes the
essence of the European culture starting from the ancient Greece. Until now
no English translation seems to be available. An earlier rather similar Finnish
book is Uusi Pikkujättiläinen, WSOY, 1985.)
Creativity
• D. Bohm and F. D. Peat, Science, Order and Creativity. Bantam Books, 1987
(Tiede, järjestys ja luovuus. Gaudeamus, 1992). (The authors discuss
fragmentation of research and the communication problems and emphasize
systems engineering and analogies.)
• W. Bennis & P. W. Biederman, Organizing Genius: The Secrets of Creative
Collaboration. Addison Wesley, 1998, 239 pp. (The authors have considered
how great groups such as Disney work. Concrete vision, strong leader, and
talented people are emphasized.)
19.1.2004 65
33

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HOW TO GET A PH.D.

Aarne Mämmelä 14.1.2004

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

HOW TO GET A PH.D.

Dr. AARNE MÄMMELÄ

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

HOW TO GET A PH.D. (2003-2004) at the

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

JOURNEY OF EXPLORATION: COLUMBUS

• Problem: a new way to India, competing hypotheses: over the

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

KNOWLEDGE AND LITERATURE

• Research: Careful study or investigation to discover new

• Note. Research and development are closely related. In

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

HOW DOES A RESEARCHER WORK?

1. Make always notes in a notebook

2. Make plans for the future all the time (outlines,

3. Discuss, ask questions and argue (criticism)

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

CREATIVITY: PROBLEM AND HYPOTHESES

No clear rules exist

CREATIVITY: ORDER AND CHAOS

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

THREE FORMS OF ORDER

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 3

DYNAMIC ORDER (REDUCTIONISM)

Subsystem 1 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 3

GENERATIVE ORDER (HOLISM)

triangle “a closed plane figure having

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

ANALOGIES IMPROVE CREATIVITY

COMMUNICATIONS IMPROVE CREATIVITY

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

SYSTEMS KNOWLEDGE IMPROVES CREATIVITY

EXAMPLE: HISTORY OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Telegraph Telephone Wireless telegraph Broadcast

Wireless voice Police radio

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940

Computers Computer networks Internet

Mobile radio Mobile cellular

Fixed links Satellite comms Satellite navigation

Radar Optical comms

1940 1960 1980 2000

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

ROADMAP AND VISION OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS

Digital broadcast Mobile DVB

Multicast/unicast Mobile universal

FWA Supermacrocells Megacells

Mobile 3D voice Multi-sense interaction True virtual reality

2000 2010 2020 2030 2040

• A new problem is described and everyone is allowed to give ideas

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

BIG ISSUES GUIDING OUR WORK

Systems System models,

To find research ideas, use your own intuition/expertise

• know the literature, especially original landmark

• do experiments early in your studies, use your

• discuss with colleagues and students and teach them

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

TIMING OF DOCTORAL THESIS (4 years)

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND

BASIC TYPES OF RESEARCH METHODS

VTT TECHNICAL RESEARCH CENTRE OF FINLAND