Characteristics of Foaming Slag in Smelting Reduction Processes
Dr S K Dutta, Member
R Sah, Non-member
Smelting reduction processes, without using coke, are alternative ironmaking technologies for production of hot metal. Gases, which are
generated due to reaction, cannot be removed from the reactor without foaming of the slag. Characteristics of foaming slag are important in the
smelting reduction processes. Main foaming parameters are foaming index and foam life.In this paper measurement of foaming index and
influence of additives on foam are discussed.
Keywords : Alternate ironmaking ; Non-coking coal ; Slag foam ; Foaming index ; Foam life
INTRODUCTION
Blast furnace (BF) ironmaking technology has dominated the world
scenario as most economic and widespread resource of iron used in
steelmaking. Till today, BFs have played a major role in achieving
high degree of gas utilisation. However, this dominancy of BF
technology has been facing problems due to shortage of metallurgical
coke and higher investment cost1. As shown in Table 1, the availability
of coking coal in India is limited (15.4% only of the total reserve).
while it has a huge reserve of non-coking coal2.
The need of an alternative ironmaking technology arises to
complement BF process in order to produce hot metal using non-
coking coal. Such processes are known as Smelting Reduction (SR)
Processes. The term smelting reduction is used to designate processes
for the production of hot metal without using metallurgical coke3.
Recently, the smelting reduction process, for production of liquid
iron, has received considerable attention due to its many advantages,
such as lower capital cost (due to absence of auxiliary units), high
production rate, and the diversity of charging materials4.
In most of the smelting reduction processes, coal and iron ore are
injected into an iron bath, the main reactions are the cracking of the
coal and the reduction of iron oxide in the slag phase by solid carbon
and carbon dissolved in metal. Therefore, a large amount of CO and
H2 gases are evolved when a high production rate is maintained. The
gases at the slag-metal or slag-carbon interface, as a result, form
bubbles and the volume of the slag increases extensively due to
foaming5, ie, the gases cannot come out from the reactor through
the slag phase without foaming. Slag foams are formed, when gas
bubbles entrapped in the slag can not readily coalesce and foam
Table 1 Coal reserves in India2
Type of Coal Reserves, Mt Percentage of Total
Coking coal 28 031 15.4
Non-coking coal 148 284 81.3
Lignite 5 978 3.3
Total 182 293 100.0
Dr S K Dutta is with the Metallurgical Engineering Department, Faculty
of Technology and Engineering, M S University of Baroda, Vadodara
390 001; and R Sah is with the Mechanical Engineering Department,
Institute of Technology, Nirma University, Ahmedabad.
This paper was received on September 12, 2005. Written discussion on the
paper will be received until January 31, 2006.
54
comprises a system of tightly packed bubbles separated from one
another by thin films of liquid slag. In true foam, the liquid is
eliminated from the films separating the bubbles by drainage and
thus a high viscosity, by retarding the rate of drainage, tends to
stabilise the foam6. On the other hand, the energy requirement for
formation of foam increases with increasing surface tension, and
hence, low surface tensions are favourable for both formation and
durability of foam.
Foaming slag provides a large surface area and the chemical reactions
proceed more favourably. Slag foaming becomes the production rate
limiting step in the process. At a high production rate, the slag can
foam out of the reactor, which is somewhat similar to the slopping
phenomenon in oxygen steelmaking4. The foaming slag is also
important, because it is the medium for post combustion and heat
transfer, which is the key to an energy efficient process. Hence, foamed
slag plays an important role in heat transfer from the post combustion
flame to the bulk slag in the reactor. Therefore, slag foaming is
important in the smelting reduction process, and it is critical to
understand the fundamental features of slag foaming in the process.
FOAMING PARAMETERS
Foaming Index
Considerable research activities were concentrated toward
understanding the foaming behaviour of slag in the past decade, the
major contribution coming from Fruehan and co-workers4,5,7,8. They
measured the foaming behavior of different slags. To quantify the
foaming behaviour, Ito and Fruehan5 defined the foaming index
(Σ, s) of the slag as
s
∑ = h / Vg (1)
where h is the height (cm) of the foam at steady state when gas with
superficial velocity ( V gs , cm /s) is passed through it.
s
The superficial gas velocity ( V g ) is defined as
V gs = Q g / A (2)
where Q g is a volumetric gas flow rate (cm3 /s) and A is cross-
sectional area (cm2) of the reactor.
The superficial gas velocity is also correlated to the void function (α),
IE(I) Journal-MM
volumetric fraction of gas, and the actual gas velocity ( V g ,cm /s) Therefore,
V gs = α V g (3) Rate of volume change due to bubble rupture = k NVb (8)

where k, N and Vb are the rate constant for bubble rupture (s-1),
The foam height (h) is expressed as a function of void function and
total number of bubbles, and average volume of a gas bubble (cm3),
foam layer thickness (L , cm)
respectively.
h =αL (4)
The total volume of foam and the bubbles volume are can be related
by:
Finally, foaming index is expressed in terms of the foam layer and α = NVb / V (9)
actual gas velocity as where α is the average void fraction and V is the volume of foam
∑ = L / Vg (5) (cm3).

From equation (5) it is clear that foaming index means the average Using equations (8) and (9), equation (7) can be written as:
gas travelling time through the foamed layer. This equation is valid d V / d t = Q − kαV (10)
when void function (α) is independent of foam height (h), ie, void
function can be assumed as constant. The foaming index was found where Q is the rate of gas generation or injection (cm3/s). If foam
to be independent of reactor size for reactor diameter greater than is produced in a reactor of uniform cross sectional area, the
3 cm and depends only on the physical properties of the slag4. equation (10) can be written as:
Knowing the foaming index of the slag, the gas evolution rate, and d h / d t = V gs − kαh (11)
the reactor size, the foam height in any process can be calculated.
Foaming index is defined by equation (1), so equation (11) becomes:
The foaming index means the foaming ability of the slag in the
foam caused by blowing gas. So, the foaming index has been d h / d t = ( h / ∑ ) − kαh (12)
correlated as a function of the physical properties such as the density,
viscosity, and surface tension of the liquid slag. Zhang and Fruehan7 Therefore, at steady state, equation (12) can be written as:
have demonstrated that the foaming index is also inversely ∑ = 1/( αk ) (13)
proportional to the gas bubble size. For dimensional analysis, Jiang
and Fruehan4 have assumed that the foaming index is a function of The bubble rupture takes place due to drainage of the liquid. The
all the variables and dimensional constants that may affect the average foam life (τ, s) is defined as10
foaming index (Σ).
τ = (1/V0 )∫ t d V (14)
Therefore, where V0 is an initial liquid volume (cm3) in foam.
∑ = f ( µ, σ, ρ, d b ) (6)
Again,
where µ, σ, and ρ are the viscosity (g /cm-s), surface tension (g /s2),
V = V0 (1 − e −kt ) (15)
and density (g /cm3) of slag respectively, and db is the gas bubble
diameter (cm).
Therefore,
Foam Life
d V / d t = kV0 e −kt (16)

The foam volume is determined by the balance equation9

Rate of change of foam volume = {(rate of gas generation
or injection)-(rate of volume change due to bubble rupture)} (7)
The gas bubble rupture on the top layer of foam causes a decrease in
foam volume because of gas escape. Bubble rupture inside the foam
leads to bubble coalescence and, consequently, a change in the liquid
film thickness between the bubbles and their packing. Coalescence
of bubbles also leads to a decrease in foam volume. Besides, non-
uniform bubbles, which are produced by coalescence, make the foam
unstable. Hence, the bubble rupture rate can be assumed to be
proportional to the number of bubbles. Assume that the kinetics
of bubble ruptures follow first order rate equation.
Vol 86, October 2005
Combining equations (14) and (16) can be written as:
τ = k ∫ t e −kt d t = 1/ k (17)
Foam life (τ) is the time (s) required to drain the liquid entrapped
between two consecutive layers of bubbles, the rate constant (k) for
bubble rupture is inversely proportional to foam life (τ). Again by
combining equations (13) and (17), can be written as:
τ = α∑ (18)
Equation (18) shows the relationship between foaming index and
foam life. For an ideal slag (ie, a slag of constant void fraction) the
foaming index is equal to the average foam life.
55
MEASUREMENT OF FOAMING INDEX
Fruehan and co-workers5,8 used a molybdenum disilicide
resistance furnace for experiment. Slag was taken in an alumina
crucible (41 mm intenal diameter and 300 mm height). Argon gas
was introduced into the molten slag through an alumina tube
(1.57 mm intenal diameter). When foam height reached a steady
state level, the foam-gas interface was detected by two
molybdenum wire probes (0.76 mm φ). They observed that the
foam height increases linearly with the increasing superficial gas
velocity (Figure 1). The foaming index is obtained from the slope
of the line shown in Figure 1. Similar experiments were also carried
out at different temperatures. As shown in Figure 2, the foaming
index decreases with increasing temperature because of a decrease
in viscosity and an increase in surface tension. Similar observations
were also made by Wu, et al 11.
surface tension increased and viscosity decreased with increasing CaO
in slag. Therefore, low surface tension and high viscosity stabilised
the slag foam. On the other hand, foaming index increased with
increasing basicity, when basicity was greater than the liquidus
composition. This was because solid particles such as 2CaO. SiO2
and CaO precipitated at higher CaO content and the particles
significantly increased the foam stability. Therefore, the precipitation
of second phase particles had a larger effect than the increase in surface
tension and decrease in viscosity on foam stability. Table 2 shows the
laboratory experimental data of foaming index for smelting reduction
slag at 1773 K.
20
CaO-SiO2-FeO-Al2O3
FeO=30%, Al2O3=3%-5%
10

Σ,s
5
Ito and Fruehan5 found that the foaming index was independent
of reactor diameter (>3.2 cm) and wall effects were small. Foaming 1573 K
index decreased with increasing basicity (B = CaO / SiO2) upto a 2 1673 K
maximum (B=1.2 to 1.22) and then increased (Figure 3) at 1673K
due to presence of second phase particles (CaO or 2CaO. SiO2). The
1
1.50 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
CaO/(SiO2+Al2O3)
1.25 Figure 3 Relation between foaming index Σ and the basicity ratio of the
slag at 1573K and 1673 K
Foaming height, cm

1.00 Table 2 Foaming Index for Smelting Reduction Slag at 1773 K

Basicity Slag Addition to Foaming Reference

0.75 (CaO/SiO 2 ) Composition the Slag, % Σ,
Index (Σ,
Σ,s)

0.50 30% CaO 10% CaF2 2.000

0.50
60% SiO2
1.00 - 5% FeO 1.400
0.25 7.5% FeO 1.200
10% FeO 0.900
12.5% FeO 0.800
0.00 15% FeO 0.750
0.00 0.50
1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 1.25 - 0% FeO 0.600
Superficial gas velocity, cm/s 3% FeO 1.300
Figure 1 The relation between foam height and gas flow rate for a 48 % 5% FeO 0.900
CaO - 32 % SiO2 -10 % Al 2O3 - 10 % FeO slag at 1873 K 7.5% FeO 0.800 Jiang and
10% FeO 0.800 Fruehan 4
1.50 15% FeO 0.700
1.50 45% CaO 0% FeO 2.900
30% SiO2 1% FeO 2.000
10% MgO 3% FeO 1.600
1.25 15% Al2O3 6% FeO 1.300
9% FeO 1.200
1.10 37.2% CaO -
Forming index

33.8% SiO2 0.387

1.00 18% MgO
11% Al2O3
1.60 41.2% CaO -
25.8% SiO2 1.073
8% MgO
0.75 11
15% Al2O3 Wu, et al
2.00 48.7% CaO
24.3% SiO2 20% CaF2 0.681
0.50 7% MgO
1700 1850 2.60 47.7% CaO
1800
1750 1900
18.3% SiO2 20% CaF2 1.170
Temperature, K 9% MgO
Figure 2 Effect of temperature on foaming index for a slag containing 10% Al2O3
48% CaO, 32% SiO2, 10% Al 2O3, and 10% FeO

56 IE(I) Journal-MM
Jiang and Fruehan 4 have conducted slag forming measurements in
terms of the foaming index on reduction smelting slags (CaO - SiO2
- FeO, CaO - SiO2 - MgO - Al2O3 - FeO) at 1773 K and found that
the slag foam stability decreases with increasing FeO (>2 %) content
and basicity. For the slag system (CaO - SiO2 - FeO), no stable foam
was observed at very low FeO content (< 2%). As percent of FeO
Foam
increases, the slag foaming index goes through a maximum and
then decreases. Foams formed from gases, resulting from chemical
reactions on metal surfaces, have significantly smaller bubbles and
Pellet
more stability.

INFLUENCE OF ADDITIVES ON FOAM

Coke can reduce slag foaming in steelmaking processes. It was reported

that top injection of coke was very effective in controlling excess
foaming during smelting reduction of iron chrome ore. The use of
carbonaceous particles in controlling foaming had been experimented
on 1 t smelting reduction furnace at Sakai Works, Nippon Steel Dense-slag
Corporation, Osaka-fu, Japan as pilot scale bath-smelting
experiments12. Zhang and Fruehan 7 observed that the foam height
was found to decrease significantly with the increase of the ratio of
the carbonaceous particles to that of the slag. X-ray examinations
showed that small gas bubbles ruptured and spread over the surface
Figure 4 Iron ore pellet in foaming slag
of a coke particle present in the slag. Then several spread bubbles
Table 3 Effect of Number of Particle and Size of Coke on Foaming
coalesced and evolved from the top of the coke particle as a single Index at 0.5 Slag Basicity7
larger bubble. Wettable particles showed a completely different
behaviour when interacting with the foaming slag. The X-ray images Diameter of Coke Number of Particles Foaming Index
of an iron ore pellet in the foamed slag is shown in Figure 4 7. The Particle, mm (Σ, s)
iron ore pellet is totally immersed in the foaming slag. The foam 3 0 1.65
2 1.10
grew and passed the pellet without any gas bubbles being ruptured 6 0 1.80
or coalesced, even when some of the mechanical movement was 1 0.90
applied to the pellet. The wettability of the solid particle with the 4 0.62
liquid slag plays a key role in slag foaming. 8 0 3.60
1 1.30
5 0.51
Ito and Fruehan 5 studied the effect of P2O5, sulphur, MgO, and 10 0 2.00
CaF2 on foaming of slag. Potassium (K), phosphorous (P), and 2 0.75
sulphur (S) are surface active components, which lower the surface 4 0.47
tension of the slag. P2O5 slightly increases foaming index (Σ) whereas
6
marginally decreases foaming index indicating surface tension alone Added 76 µm coke
does not determine slag foamability. CaF2 decreased foaming index Added 110 µm coke
5
by lowering the viscosity of the slag. Large addition of CaF2 No additive
significantly decreases the foam stability by increasing CaO solubility Added 1 µm coke
Foam height, ∆h, cm

4
and consequently dissolving some of the second phase particles. Added 3 µm coke
MgO increases foaming index probably because it increases the
amount of solid particles in the slag. 3

Zhang and Fruehan 7 found that the anti-foam effect of coke or coal 2
char particles was primarily contributed by the non-wetting nature
of the carbonaceous materials with the liquid slag. Wu, et al 11 also 1
investigated foaming behaviour of slag with addition of additives
such as coal, coke, graphite and CaO. The effect of different coke size 0
on the foam behaviour of slag at 1773 K is shown in Figure 5. The 0 2 1 3 4
foam height increases with fine powder coke (76 µm and 105 µm) Flow rate,V, cm-s-1
and decreases with grain coke (1 mm and 3 mm). Effect of number Figure 5 Effect of various coke sizes on form behavior of sample slag at
of particle and size of coke on foaming index for laboratory 1773 K
experimental data is shown in Table 3 7. In the smelting reduction Hara and Ogino 13 also studied the effect of surface active components
process of the thick slag layer, it is very important to keep slag height on foaming of slag. They found that vigorous foaming appears
stable without abnormal slag foaming. Adding carbonaceous material when the slag contains components, which stabilize the bubble,
can control the slag foaming. especially surface active components such as SiO2, P2O5, and CaF2.
Vol 86, October 2005 57
The mechanism of the stabilization of the foam is considered to be
a surface tension driven flow, namely, the Marangoni effect. This
effect also plays an important role in the suppression of foaming by
coke addition.
SUMMARY
The slag foaming is an important factor for the smelting reduction
process. To quantify the foaming behavior, the foaming index (S) of
the slag is measured. The foaming index means the foaming ability
of the slag in the foam caused by injecting of gas. For an ideal slag (ie,
a slag of constant void fraction) the foaming index is equal to the
average foam life. The control of the foaming index is required for
steady state operation in the smelting reduction process.
Foaming index decreases with increasing basicity up to a maximum
and then increases due to presence of second phase particles (CaO or
2CaO.SiO2). The slag foam stability decreases with increasing FeO
content and basicity. The foaming index decreases with increasing
temperature because of a decrease in viscosity and an increase in
surface tension.
The anti-foam effect of coke or coal char particles was primarily
contributed by the non-wetting nature of the carbonaceous materials
with the liquid slag. Adding carbonaceous material can control the
slag foaming. Wettability between the particle and the slag is the
key factor in determining the ability of the particle to control
foaming of slag.
58
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