1.

0 Introduction

The purpose of this paper is to discuss and evaluate the influence of the educational

philosophies on our educational system. The educational philosophies are the two traditional

educational philosophies, Perennialism and Essentialism, and the other two contemporary

educational philosophies, Progressivism and Reconstructionism. This paper consists of three

parts. The first part is to define what are the two traditional educational philosophies and what

are the two contemporary educational philosophies. The second part is the comparison of all the

educational philosophies. Finally, the third part is to discuss their (educational philosophies)

influences on our educational system.

2.0 Traditional Educational Philosophies

2.1 Perennialism

According to Mok Soon Sang (2009), perennialism stem from a traditional philosophy

that was heavily influenced by Plato (427-347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC). As a modern

educational philosophy, it was ‘revive’ by Robert M. Hutchins, Mortimer J. Alder in America

and by Jacques Maritain in France. Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) stated that perennialism derives

from the principles of realism. Perennialism is the oldest and most conservative educational

philosophy. It emphasises on 3Rs (Reading, wRiting and aRithematic). It also relies heavily on

the past history and findings.

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 The aim of this educational philosophy is to ensure that students gain understandings

about the everlasting truth or knowledge. (http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html). For

perennialists, the focus is to teach ideas that are everlasting, constant, not changing, as natural

and human worlds at their most essential level, do not change. Tanner and Tanner (1975) noted

that for perennialists, “the cultivation of the intellectual virtue is accomplished only through the

“permanent” studies that constitute our intellectual inheritance”. Based on this belief, Hutchins,

develop a program for the schools in the US, “The Great Books of the Western world” in 1963

(http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html). The approach of this Great Books program is to

read and discuss the great works of great thinkers (authors of literature books), whose books

have withstood the test of time and continue to be appreciated by the readers all over the world

from the time it was published till now. Hopefully by reading these books, it can cultivate the

intellect of the students and encourage the students to use their mind like these great thinkers.

Hutchins in Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), stated that “The function of man as man is the

same in every society. The aim of educational system is the same in every age and in every

society where such exist; is to improve a man as man.” Therefore, education is constant,

absolute, and universal. The goal of education is to develop a rational person and to uncover

universal truths by carefully training the intellect of the students and to develop their moral and

spiritual beings.

The function of teachers, from the perennialists’ point of view, is that a teacher is the

authority in the field whose knowledge and expertise cannot be questioned. A teacher must be

able to master the subject or discipline, and is able to guide a discussion based on Socratic

Method (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004).

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 The role of the learners or students is to study or receive the knowledge given by the

teacher without question. Students are considered as immature and unable to judge what is best

for them (Tanner and Tanner, 1975).

2.2 Essentialism

Essentialism is the educational philosophy founded by William C. Bagley (1874-1946)

from America in 1938. Among those who supported the philosophy are Thomas Briggs,

Frederick Breed and Isaac L. Kandel. In 1957, after Russian successfully launched its first

satellite into the orbit, essentialism gained back its popularity.

James B. Conant (1893-1978) and Hyman George Rickover (1900-1986), suggested that

human lacks moral values. In order to be a good person with good values, cultural influence of

the society is important. Essentialism focuses on cultivating the right values of a society to the

students, so the students are prepared to live in the society. It also places the importance of

knowledge to the students.

Tanner and Tanner (1975) defined essentialism as the cultivation of intellect for modern

needs through the fundamental academic disciplines of English (grammar, literature, and

composition), Mathematics, Science, History, and modern foreign languages. All these subjects

are organized logically to develop our mental capacities. Tanner and Tanner further stated that

subjects like performing arts, industrial arts, and vocational studies are regarded as frills.

According to essentialists, teachers play an important role to help learners to acquire

essential knowledge on how to live in an ever changing society. Teachers are democratic leaders,

responsible as a teacher, creative in building a conducive environment for teaching and learning

3
activities, and expert in using reinforcement or reward and punishment methods. Hence, teachers

should possess suitable academic background, stable in emotions and understand the

developmental psychology of children and teenagers. Like perennialism, a teacher is considered

as a master and therefore respected as an authority because of the knowledge and high standards

he or she holds (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004).

Curriculum wise, essentialists suggested that the school curriculum be developed

according to society needs, teaching materials are properly prepared and logical organized,

teaching and learning activities are to be arranged systematically with proper sequence, and

transition to the next level is based on examination. Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) stated that the

elementary level focuses on 3Rs (Reading, wRiting, aRithmetics), while in the secondary level

essentialists focus on five academic or essential subjects: English, Mathematics, Science, History

and a foreign language.

Essentialists also believe that knowledge is more effectively gain by students when they

are diligent and pay more attention. Students’ interest in study is not the key to success in

learning, but the interest can be cultivated through ongoing efforts of teaching by teachers.

Tanner and Tanner (1975) stressed that essentialists view students as individuals that do not

know what they want and stated that young people should be forced to study.

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3.0 Contemporary Educational Philosophies

3.1 Progressivism

According to Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), Progressivism developed from pragmatic

philosophy and as a protest against perennialism. It is part of the largest social and political

movement of reform in the USA. The idea of progressivism was derived from reform writings of

Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Rush of the eighteenth century, Horace Mann and Henry

Bernard ninetieth century and later John Dewey in early twentieth century.

Dewey's emphasis on the importance of democratic relationships in the classroom setting

which shifted the focus of educational theory from the institution of the school to the needs of

the school's students (http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2336/Progressive-

Education.html). This view of John Dewey's attraction to child-centered educational practices

was shared by other Progressive educators and researchers–such as Ella Flagg Young (1845–

1918), and Granville Stanley Hall (1844–1924), a psychologist and avowed leader of the child

study movement–who collectively derived their understanding of child-centeredness from

reading and studying a diverse array of nineteenth and twentieth-century European and American

philosophical schools, in the likes of Frenchman Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) who

emphasized its organic and natural dimensions; English literary romantics such as William

Wordsworth (1770–1850) and William Blake (1757–1827) who celebrated its innate purity and

piety, a characterization later shared by American transcendentalist philosophers Ralph Waldo

Emerson (1803–1882) and Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862). For these thinkers, childhood

was a period of innocence, goodness, and piety that was in every way morally superior to the

5
polluted lives led by most adults. It was the very sanctity of childhood that convinced the

romantics and transcendentalists that the idea of childhood should be preserved and cultivated

through educational instruction.

Dewey and his fellow educational Progressives also drew from the work of the German

philosopher Friedrich Froebel (1782–1852) and Swiss educator Johann Pestalozzi (1746–1827).

Froebel and Pestalozzi were among the first to articulate the process of educating the "whole

child," wherein learning moved beyond the subject matter and ultimately rested upon the needs

and interests of the child. Froebel drew upon the garden metaphor of cultivating young children

toward maturity, and he provided the European foundations for the late-nineteenth-century

kindergarten movement in the United States. Similarly, Pestalozzi popularized the pedagogical

method of object teaching, wherein a teacher began with an object related to the child's world in

order to initiate the child into the world of the educator.

Dewey believed his educational philosophy could equip each child with the problem-

solving skills required to overcome obstacles between a given and desired set of circumstances.

This also includes scientific inquiry (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004). According to Dewey,

education was not simply a means to a future life, but instead represented a full life unto itself.

School is a place to transmit the culture of society while it prepares the students for changing

world. Teachers served as a guide for students in their problem-solving and scientific projects.

Progressivism placed heavy emphasis on how to think rather than what to think.

Progressivism is heavily influenced by Naturalism and Pragmatism. Below are briefs

introduction to Naturalism and Pragmatism.

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 3.1.1 Naturalism

“Naturalism as a philosophy of education was developed in the 18th century. It is

based on the assumption that nature represents the wholeness of reality. Nature, itself, is a total

system that contains and explains all existence including human beings and human nature.

According to naturalists the material and the physical world is governed by certain laws, and

man, who is the creator of the material world, must submit to it. It denies the existence of

anything beyond nature, behind nature and other than nature such as supernaturalism.”

(http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/25000/1/Unit3.pdf)

Naturalists believe that a child will gather experience from nature according to his

own demands. He is not to be forced to practice any fixed curriculum. This concept is

popularized by Jean Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) (Mok, 2010).

Naturalist philosophers have proposed for radical change in teaching method.

They say that children will learn by self-activity.

(http://www.educationguideonline.net/curriculum-and-teacher-according-to-naturalism/)

Learning through the senses, learning by doing, play education - all these are the gifts of this

philosophy. A child learns according to his own need and through practical experiences. Thus,

the teachers role is not to deliver knowledge but to create a proper environment in which a child

will get opportunity to learn. The teacher is an observer and felicitator. He will observe their

process of works and protects them, thereby felicitating their learning processes.

Rousseau stressed that naturalism is important to develop an ideal human. (Mok,

2010) A child and an adult vary much, therefore teaching and learning of the two should be

different according to their mental capacities. A child cannot be forced to learn like an adult.

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 3.1.2 Pragmatism

Pragmatism is based on traditional ways of thinking and finding ways to

incorporate new ideas to achieve a desired result. Because the world is constantly changing,

people continue to change things of the past. The nature of pragmatism reflects a naturalistic

humanism approach. According to Mok (2010), pragmatism followers believe that knowledge is

gain through the interaction of human and the environment. They believe that satisfaction of an

idea and fact can be proven through scientific experiments. Similarly, Pierce and Dewey believe

that the most effective way of gaining knowledge is through problem-solving.

The aim for education of pragmatism is to teach children to be comfortable in

their learning environment to the extent that children are living their life. Dewey believed in this

type of environment that is not considered a preparation for life, but life itself. He believed that

teachers should be prepared to motivate and interest children and plan accordingly. The methods

of educating are unique to each individual. This philosophy believes that not all children learn

the same way, so it is important to vary educational methods. Children should enjoy learning and

leave with a sense of accomplishment

(http://pangea.tec.selu.edu/~swoodson/edf607/pragmatism.pdf).

3.2 Reconstructionism

According to Mok Soon Sang (2009), reconstructionism is an educational philosophy that

broke away from the progressivism philosophy. Although George Counts was the first to suggest

the idea of reconstructionism, but it was Theodore Brameld that first used the term

8
‘reconstructionism’ (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004). This philosophy was based on early

socialistic and utopian ideas, but the World War II and Economic Depression rebirth the idea and

gave it a new life (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004).

For reconstructionists, analysis, interpreted, and evaluation of problems are not enough;

commitment and action by the students and teachers are needed. Concerning the curriculum,

reconstructionists believe that as society is always changing, thus curriculum has to change

accordingly. The ideal curriculum would be one that focuses on social issues and social services

that will produce a caring society in the future. In Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), the proponents –

Jonathan Kozul, Christopher Jencks and Alvin Toffler- seek a curriculum that emphasis cultural

pluralism, equality and futurism. Students are taught to appreciate life in a world of many

nations.

Ozman and Craver (1995) stated that there are two major premises of the

reconstructionism philosophy. (1) Society is in need of constant reconstruction or change, and

(2) social change involves both a reconstruction of the education and the use of education in

reconstructing society. Reconstructionists believe that the society is always changing as human

improve themselves. Therefore, schools are the agents of this change, who are able to initiate and

help to construct the students.

Teachers and educators are involved in a political act. They have the choice to whether to

serve (conservative) or be opponent (social reconstructionists) with those who are in power

(McNeil, 2006). Therefore, teachers’ role in this philosophy of education is to guide learning and

to cause students to critically look at the knowledge. Although, the course content was not

neglected but students are to know that content is never neutral and to continue to ask, “For

9
 whom and for what do we use our knowledge?” Students thus, play an active role in this

framework of educational philosophy.

Finally, Ornstein and Hunkins (2004), summarized reconstructionism as follows:

“A reconstructionist program of education

1) critically examines the cultural heritage of a society as well as the entire

civilization,

2) is not afraid to examine controversional issues,

3) is deliberately committed to bring about social and construction change

4) cultivates a future planning attitude that considers the realities of the world, and

5) enlists students and teachers in definite program to enhance cultural renewal and

interculturalism.

4.0 The overview of the educational philosophies

Ornstein and Hunkins (2004) made an overview of the educational philosophies as

follow:

Related

Educational Philosophical Aim of Role of Curriculum Curriculum

Philosophy Base Education Knowledge Education Focus Trends

Perennialism Realism To educate the Focus on the past Teacher helps Classical subjects; Great books; Paideia

rational person; and permanent students think literary analysis; proposal; returning to

cultivate studies; mastery of rationally; based on constant the liberal arts

intellect the facts and Socratic method, curriculum

timeless oral exposition;

knowledge explicit teaching of

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 traditional values
Essentialism Idealism, To promote the Essential skills and Teacher is authority Essential skills Back to basics;

Realism intellectual academic subjects; in his or her subject (3Rs) and essential cultural literacy;

growth of the mastery of field; explicit subjects (English, excellence in

individual; to concepts and teaching of science, history, education

educate the principles of traditional values math, and foreign

competent subject-matter language)

person
Progressivism Pragmatism To promote Knowledge leads Teacher is guide for Based on students’ Relevant curriculum;

democratic, to growth and problem-solving interests; involves humanistic education,

social living development; a and scientific the application of radical school reform

living-learning inquiry human problems

process; focus on and affairs;

active and relevant interdisciplinary

learning subject matter;

activities and

projects

Reconstructionism Pragmatism To improve Skills and subjects Teacher serves as an Emphasis on social International

and reconstruct needed to identify agent of change and sciences and social education;

society; and ameliorate reform; acts as a research methods; reconceptualise;

education for problems of project director and examination of equality of

change and society; learning is research leader; social, economic educational

social reform active and helps students and political opportunity

concerned with become aware of problems; focus on

contemporary and problems present and future

future society confronting trends as well as

humankind on national and

international issues

Below is our summary of the educational philosophies:

Element Perennialism Essentialism Progressivism Reconstructionism

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Curriculum Focus heavily on Focus on 3Rs in the Child-centred; well Reconstruction of the

academic elementary level planned curriculum society order; social and

achievement and and 5 essential according to a child values enhancement

performance subjects in mental capacities

secondary level
Content Knowledge of the Useful knowledge Focus on problem- Focuses on social issues

past and permanent to use in the society solving methods and and current issues.

studies. scientific inquiry

View of Schools as libraries Schools as a place As how one will live Schools as agents of

schools of knowledge or to transmit social in the real world; change – reconstructing

works of great values and relevant to real life the society

thinkers knowledge
Role of Teacher masters the Master of the field As a guide and Teacher is to guide the

teachers subject or discipline; and to be respected felicitator to create a learning, encourage

teacher is the conducive learning critical, analytical, and

ultimate authority of environment that discriminating in

knowledge will motivate and judgement (Ozmon and

interest students Craven, 1995)

Role of To passively receive To acquire To use their mind to To be actively involves in

students the knowledge; one knowledge as much think - thinking skill, the learning by

cannot question the as possible; forced to ask how not what. questioning everything

teacher to learn that is presented to them;

encouraged to think

critically and analytically

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5.0 The influence of educational philosophies on our educational system

5.1 The influence of Perennialism on our educational system

One of the emphasis of perennialism in education is the 3R. In our educational system,

Laporan Jawatankuasa Kabinet (1979)’s main objective is 3M (membaca, menulis, mengira)

(Mok, 2009). This is parallel to perennialism stresses on reading, writing and arithmetic.

Concerning knowledge, Malaysia educational system also gave attention to the past and

permanent studies, mastery of the facts and timeless knowledge. Subjects like history, literature

and mathematics are given proper priority, because these are the never changing facts or truths.

Initially, teachers of this curriculum (Malaysia educational system) acted as the ultimate

authority of a subject or discipline of studies, although it is stated in our documented curriculum

that teachers are to be facilitators. Students are force to receive whatever that is presented to

them without question. Students are considered immature and cannot make a decision on what

they want and what best for them. But this concept is changed later as we look into

reconstructionism.

Perennialism focuses on academic performance. In Malaysia, even though the philosophy

of education stated that the aim of the education is to develop “the potential of individuals in a

holistic and integrated manner, so as to produce individuals who are intellectually, spiritually,

emotionally and physically balanced and harmonic”, the scenario tells a different story.

Personally, we felt that our system fall back to this (perennialism) philosophy. Why? Because

our education is too exam oriented. The tool or instrument that we use to measure success in

schools is examination. We cannot denied that as the Education Board keeps on stressing on

13
quality and measuring success through the result of students’ examination, we as educators are

‘force’ to be like teachers of the perennialism, the authority of knowledge that is unquestionable

by students. There is no ‘why 1 plus 1 is 2’. We taught them that ‘1 plus 1 is 2’, end of debate.

Consequently, students became passive in learning. As much as the educational

philosophy of our nation wants to produce capable citizen who are able to achieve high level of

personal well-being, we cannot help it when too much stress is place upon knowledge and

testing. There is no room for students to explore because we are so tie down with exam

consciousness. The fear of failing by both teachers and students will drive them to gain or give as

much knowledge as possible, thus taking up all the time in schools to do so.

5.2 The influence of Essentialism on our educational system

Our educational system is based on the curriculum which was developed to fulfil the

aspiration and ideology of our nation that is to cultivate unity among the many races found in

Malaysia as stated in the Rukun Negara. In order to achieved this, the schools’ curriculum need

to create a platform where the value can be channel to students.

One of the main concerns of Essentialism is to cultivate values in students. I believe

national unity can be developed through our educational system. This is because values are not

only explicitly taught in Moral or Civic classes, but in our educational system values are

integrated in every lesson. Effort by the Ministry to make sure that our students are guarded by

values can be seen through the Nilai Merentas Kurikulum.

Like Perennialism, Essentialism also focus on the 3Rs. This has been adopted by our

educational system. Another aspect that we adopted from this philosophy is the teaching of the

14
five academic or essential subjects, namely English (Bahasa Melayu in our context),

Mathematics, Science, History and a foreign language (English as a second language for us).

One aspect that we strongly disagree is the omission of subjects like performing arts and

vocational studies which the essentialists considered as frills and useless. In accordance to our

national educational philosophy to produce a balanced individual, we need to teach subjects that

not only cultivate their mental capacities but also subjects that can enriched their physical,

emotion and spiritual being.

5.3 The influence of Progressivism on our educational system

The educational system in Malaysia focuses on the development of intellect and skills

among students through the teaching and learning activities. The success of fulfilling the

objective thus, depends on selecting the right teaching strategy. In developing students’ intellect

and thinking skills, the students themselves play an important role. Hence, learners-centred

strategy needs to be incorporated.

As stated in the teaching ‘manual’ teachers role in our educational system is to plan,

facilitate and guide students’ learning. Teachers are to encouraged learners to participate actively

in learning. Like how the progressivism stressed on problem-solving and scientific inquiry, our

educational system also places heavy emphasis on problem-solving, thinking skills and scientific

inquiry to learn and prove an idea or fact. Hopefully through these teaching and learning

technique, we can produce knowledgeable individuals that are able to give their ideas clearly

with good thinking skills. This is in accordance of our national educational philosophy.

15
5.4 The influence of Reconstructionism on our educational system

As we look into the national educational philosophy of Malaysia, we noticed that it is

heavily influenced by the reconstructionism educational philosophy. The education is “to

produce Malaysian citizens who are knowledgeable and competent, who possess high moral

standards and who are responsible and capable of achieving high level of personal well-being

as well as being able to contribute to the harmony and betterment of the family, the society and

the nation at large" The idea behind reconstructionism is teacher serves as an agent of change

and reform; acts as a project director and research leader; helps students become aware of

problems confronting humankind (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004). In the context of our national

educational philosophy, school is seen as the agent to construct and build within them the values

of our society. This is easily proven by the move of the Ministry of Education of Malaysia’s

Nilai Merentas Kurikulum effort, where values are incorporated in the syllabus. Every topic has

its own values to be taught to the students. The recent rises of the awareness of “go green”

globally had also found its way into our curriculum. Students are taught to value the environment

and how to care for it. They learn to be responsible towards their environment and surrounding.

All these are taught in school with the hope that these students will bring about a change in the

society, if not immediately then later as they become adults and leaders of our nation.

As Jonathan Kozul, Christopher Jencks and Alvin Toffler proposed the curriculum that

emphasis on cultural pluralism and equality, our education system promote oneness. As Malaysia

is a plural society and diverse in culture, it is important to instil unity among the students of

difference races. The recent campaign of ‘1Malaysia’ by the government has also found its way

16
into our education system. Like what had been stated earlier, teachers and educators are involved

in a political act.

Today, social skills such as communication and values play an important part in our

schools. Gone were the ‘chalk and talk’ days. Students are given opportunity to speak up and

give their views on certain areas. Slowly, we are moving to the concept of reconstructionism

where teachers became the facilitators in learning. Students are encouraged to thinking critically

and creatively.

6.0 Conclusion

Although we see our educational philosophy as the ideal philosophy and promote the

balanced development of an individual, we are still very much ‘control’. There is a higher power

or powerful authority that directs the direction of our education, thus, controlling the kind of

citizen that will be produced by the schools. Michael W. Apple (1979), in his book, Ideology and

curriculum, uses the term hegemony to state the influence of a leadership of a social group over

others.

From the four educational philosophies discuss in this paper, we cannot confidently put

our finger to which educational philosophy our educational system fall to. But we can safely say

that our curriculum makers had made the best out of these educational philosophies to outline

our national curriculum. As there is not formula that can guarantee success in adopting a certain

curriculum, we choose and pick those that are suitable for our society and nation at large, in the

hope that we can fulfil the aspiration of our national educational philosophy.

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Reference:

Apple, M. W. (1979); Ideology and curriculum; New York: Routledge & Kegan Paul.

McNeil, J. D. (2006); Contemporary Curriculum in Thought and Action (6th. ed.). USA: John

Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Mok Soon Sang (2009); Falsafah dan Pendidikan di Malaysia; Puchong: Penerbitan Multimedia

Sdn. Bhd.

Mok Soon Sang (2010); Falsafah Pendidikan, Kurikulum dan Profesionalisme Keguruan;

Puchong: Penerbitan Multimedia Sdn. Bhd.

Ornstein, A.C. & Hunkins, F.P. (2004); Curriculum Foundations Principles and Issues

(4th ed.). Boston: Pearson.

Ozmon, H. & Craver, S. (1995); Philosophical Foundations of Education (5th.ed.). New Jersey:

Prentice-Hall.

Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. N. (1975); Curriculum Development: Theory into Practice. New York:

Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc.

http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/ed416/PP3.html

http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2336/Progressive-Education.html

http://www.educationguideonline.net/curriculum-and-teacher-according-to-naturalism/

http://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/25000/1/Unit3.pdf

http://pangea.tec.selu.edu/~swoodson/edf607/pragmatism.pdf

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