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This chapter is a presentation of the basic principles and algorithms related to radiowave
propagation used in radio-relay transmission. Both loss and attenuation algorithms as well as
fade prediction models for different fading mechanisms are presented and discussed. The
chapter also includes a presentation of the basic concepts of main propagation mechanisms,
Fresnel zone, equivalent and true Earth radii and the decibel scale. Diversity, hardware failure
and passive repeaters are also presented.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 The decibel 1
1.1 A relative comparison 1
1.2 Some motivations for using decibels 1
1.3 Absolute comparisons 1
1.4 The comparison of field quantities 2
1.5 Power and field quantity ratios 3
2 The main propagation mechanisms 3
2.1 Propagation along the earth’s surface 4
3 The Fresnel zone and clearance 4
3.1 Definition 4
3.2 The Fresnel ellipsoid 4
3.3 Clearance 5
4 Equivalent and true earth radii 6
4.1 Earth-radius factor 6
4.2 Comparing the equivalent and true Earth surface 7
5 Prediction models 7
6 The prediction cycle 8
7 The loss/attenuation block 8
7.1 Free-space loss 8
7.1.1 Definition 8
7.1.2 Free-space loss between two isotropic antennas 9
7.2 Atmospheric gases 10
7.2.1 Definition 10
7.2.2 The troposphere 11
7.2.3 Chemical composition 11
7.2.4 Absorption peaks 11
7.2.5 Calculating total gas attenuation 11
7.2.5.1 Oxygen (dry air) 12
7.2.5.2 Water vapor 13
7.2.5.3 Total gas attenuation 15
7.3 Reflection 16
7.3.1 Ground reflection interference 16
7.3.2 The problems of handling reflection 17
7.3.3 Reflection coefficient 18
7.3.4 The Fresnel reflection coefficient 18
7.3.5 Divergence factor 18
7.3.6 Correction factor 19
7.3.7 Rough estimation of the total reflection coefficient 19
7.3.8 Calculation of the position of the reflection point 20
7.3.9 Optimum height difference 22
I
7.4 Precipitation 23
7.4.1 Types of precipitation 23
7.4.2 Precipitation: now 24
7.4.3 Precipitation: hail 24
7.4.4 Precipitation: fog and haze 25
7.4.5 Precipitation: rain 25
7.4.6 Cumulative distribution of rain 25
7.4.7 Obtaining Rain Intensity (the former ITU-R model) 25
7.4.8 Rain zones - diagram 26
7.4.9 Obtaining rain intensity (current ITU-R model) 26
7.4.10 The calculation of the specific rain attenuation 29
7.4.11 Calculating total rain attenuation 32
7.4.12 Calculating total rain attenuation for 0.01% 33
7.5 Obstruction - diffraction 33
7.5.1 Definition 33
7.5.2 Knife-edge obstructions 34
7.5.3 Knife-edge loss curve 35
7.5.4 Typical knife-edge losses 36
7.5.5 Single-peak method 36
7.5.6 Triple-peak method 37
7.5.7 Smoothly spherical earth 40
7.5.8 Typical losses resulting from smoothly spherical earth 41
7.5.9 Clearance and path geometry 41
7.5.9.1 The Earth bulge 41
7.5.9.2 Path geometry 42
7.5.9.3 The height of the line-of-sight 43
7.5.9.4 Clearance of the LOS 43
7.5.9.5 Antenna height 43
7.5.9.6 Obstacle penetration 44
7.5.10 Vegetation 44
7.6 The Link Budget 44
7.6.1 Path loss 45
7.6.2 Fade margin 45
7.6.3 Power diagram 46
7.6.4 Effective fade margin 46
8 The fading block 47
8.1 Definition 47
8.2 General cause 47
8.3 General classification 47
8.4 Classification based on source 48
8.5 The concept of outage 48
8.6 Rain fading (current ITU-R model) 48
8.6.1 Calculation of the fade margin based on a yearly basis 48
8.6.2 Outage due to rain fading - annual basis 49
8.6.3 Transformation between yearly and worst month basis 50
8.6.3.1 From yearly basis to worst month 50
8.6.3.2 From worst month to yearly 51
8.6.4 Presentation of the rain fading models in diagram form 51
8.7 Multipath fading 52
8.7.1 Flat and frequency selective fading 52
8.7.2 The effects of multipath propagation 53
8.7.3 Measures taken against multipath fading 54
8.8 Flat fading (former ITU-R model): small percentages of time 54
8.8.1 Introduction 54
8.8.2 Fade occurrence factor 55
8.8.3 Flat fading and quality (error performance) 55
8.8.4 Estimation of the geoclimatic factor 55
8.8.5 Inland Links 55
8.8.5.1 Antenna altitude coefficient 56
8.8.5.2 Latitude coefficient 57
II
8.8.5.3 Longitude coefficient 57
8.8.5.4 Climatic factor pL 57
8.8.6 Coastal Links 58
8.8.6.1 Coastal links over/near large bodies of water 58
8.8.6.2 Coastal links over/near medium-sized bodies of water 59
8.8.6.3 Links at other regions 59
8.8.7 Link and terrain parameters – overview 60
8.8.7.1 Estimation of the path inclination 60
8.8.8 Outage due to flat fading 61
8.8.9 Range of values for the climatic factor pL 61
8.9 Flat fading (current ITU-R model): small percentages of time 62
8.9.1 Method for detailed link design 62
8.9.1.1 Geoclimatic factor 62
8.9.1.2 Parameters 62
8.9.1.3 Outage due to flat fading 64
8.9.2 Method for quick link design 64
8.9.2.1 Geoclimatic factor 64
8.9.2.2 Outage due to flat fading 65
8.9.3 Method for small percentage of time - conclusion 65
8.9.4 Method for all percentages of time 66
8.9.5 Range of validity for the flat fading method 68
8.10 Reduction of cross-polar discrimination 69
8.10.1 XPD outage due to multipath propagation 69
8.10.2 XPD outage due to precipitation 71
8.11 Outage due to frequency selective fading 72
8.11.1 General aspects 72
8.11.2 The prediction model 73
8.12 Refraction fading 75
9 Diversity 76
9.1 Basic concepts 76
9.2 The definition of the improvement factor 77
9.3 Improvement factor for space diversity 78
9.4 Improvement factor for frequency diversity 78
9.5 The calculation of outage when employing diversity 79
9.6 Prediction of outage using diversity 79
9.6.1 Space diversity 79
9.6.2 Frequency diversity 81
9.6.3 Space and frequency diversity with two receivers 81
9.6.4 Space and frequency diversity with four receivers 81
10 Prediction of total outage 82
11 Hardware failure 83
11.1 The calculation of the radio-link system’s MTBF 83
11.2 Non-redundant systems 84
11.3 Redundant systems 85
11.4 Hardware failure per path 86
12 Passive repeaters 87
12.1 The basic concepts 87
12.2 Path calculation when using passive repeaters 88
III
IV
RADIOWAVE PROPAGATION
1 The decibel
P1
A[dB] = 10. log10 (1)
P2
where P1 and P2 are the power levels being compared.
Ericsson AB 1
P
A[dBW ] = 10. log 10 (2)
1 Watt
where P is the power in Watt.
P
A[dBm] = 10. log10 (3)
1 milliWatt
where P is the power in milliWatt.
Since,
dBW
P
= 10 10 (4)
1W
And
dBm
P
= 10 10 (5)
1 mW
the result obtained following division is
dBW -dBm
1 mW
(6)
= 10 10
1W
Or
dBW -dBm
1−3 W
= 10 10 (7)
1W
Giving
dBW - dBm
−3= (8)
10
Or
(Field quantity)1
A[dB] = 20 ⋅ log10 (10)
(Field quantity )2
1.5 Power and field quantity ratios
Power and field quantities, lying between 103 and 10-3 are expressed in
their equivalent decibel values in Table 1.
• Free-space
• Diffraction
Ericsson AB 3
• Refraction
• Absorption
• Scattering
• Reflection
3.1 Definition
Fresnel zones are specified employing an ordinal number that
corresponds to the number of half-wavelength multiples that represents
the difference in radio wave propagation path from the direct path. The
first Fresnel zone is therefore an ellipsoid whose surface corresponds to
one half-wavelength path difference and represents the smallest volume
of all the other Fresnel zones.
The first Fresnel zone contains almost all the energy that is transmitted
between the antennas and is therefore of great significance in the
calculation of the attenuation caused by obstructing bodies.
4 Ericsson AB
A M B
dA dB
R
d A ⋅ (d − d A ) R = 17 . 32 ⋅
d A ⋅ (d − d A )
R = 547 ⋅
f ⋅d f ⋅d
GHz
3.3 Clearance
The refractive properties of the atmosphere are not constant. The
variations of the refraction index in the atmosphere (expressed by the
earth-radius factor k) may force terrain irregularities to totally or
partially intercept the Fresnel zone. Clearance can be described as any
criterion to insure that the antenna heights are sufficient so that in the
worst case of refraction (for which k is minimum!) the receiver antenna
is not placed in the diffraction region.
hc = LOS-clearance hc
Ericsson AB 5
The direct path between the transmitter and the receiver needs a
clearance above the ground or any obstruction of at least 60% of the
radius of the Fresnel zone in order to insure free-space propagation.
Clearance values have to fit the local climate conditions.
Advices:
1) The higher the frequency the smaller the Fresnel zone and
consequently more vulnerable to non-LOS effects (object attenuation).
2) Low k-values lower the LOS (demand higher antenna heights) but
offer better protection against interference from other stations. Higher
k-values give higher LOS (demand lower antenna heights) but expose
the link to interference from other stations.
3) The most common discrepancy arises when the radius of the first
Fresnel zone is not compensated for its vertical projection. The more
inclined the path is the more correction is required.
Re = k ⋅ R (11)
6 Ericsson AB
where
k = Earth-radius factor
R = True earth radius (6.37·106 m)
The earth-radius factor is a function of the refractive index gradient. For
normal atmosphere (i.e., atmosphere in which the refractive index
gradient decreases linearly with altitude), the k-value is 4/3 if the
refractive index gradient is -39 N-units/km.
5 Prediction models
Prediction models for the purpose of performing fading prognoses are
almost always empirical (comes from the Greek word empeiria
meaning experience), i.e., they are not founded on theoretical
considerations but are only built upon observation and experience.
Ericsson AB 7
The propagation contribution comes from the losses due to the Earth
atmosphere and the terrain, for instance, free-space as well as gas,
precipitation (mainly rain), ground reflection, and obstacle.
7.1.1 Definition
Free-space wave propagation implies that the effects caused by
disturbing objects and other obstacles that are located at sufficiently
long distances are assumed to be negligible.
8 Ericsson AB
4 ⋅π ⋅ d
Abf = 20 ⋅ log (12)
λ
where
Abf = Free-space loss, dB
d = Distance from the transmitting antenna, km
λ = Wavelength, m
Following the transformation of wavelength into frequency
(c=2.99792500·108 m/s) and entering of the actual units, the following
expression is attained
-90
-100
Free-space loss, dB
-110
-120
1 GHz
-130
-140 5
10
-150 15
20
30
40
-160 50
-170
0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance, km
Ericsson AB 9
Advices:
7.2.1 Definition
The atmosphere, up to an altitude of 30-40 km, consists of two layers:
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
An often sharply demarcated transition layer referred to as the
tropopause separates the troposphere and stratosphere.
10 Ericsson AB
Ericsson AB 11
p
rp = (14)
1013
where rp is the normalization factor and p (hPa) the pressure of the
atmosphere at a certain altitude. A “normal atmosphere” is the
atmosphere where the pressure at the see level is 760 mmHg, which
corresponds to 1 atm or 1013.25 hPa. The non-SI unity is bar (100
kPa).
288
rt = (15)
(273 + t )
where rt is the normalization factor and t is the temperature (°C).
η
ln 2
η (18)
a= 1
ln (3.5)
4a
b= (19)
η1
12 Ericsson AB
where f is the frequency and the other parameters are defined earlier.
17.502⋅t
ps = 6.1121 ⋅ e t + 240.97 (22)
p H 2O
RH = ⋅ 100 (23)
ps
Solving the above expression for the vapor pressure it is obtained
RH
p H 2O =
⋅ ps (24)
100
The water vapor content (water-vapor density) can be derived from the
general gas equation. It is given by
Ericsson AB 13
p H 2O
ρ = 216.7 (25)
t + 273.15
The following parameters are determined
g 22 = 1 +
(f − 22.235)
2
(31)
(f + 22.235)
2
g 557 = 1 +
(f − 557 )
2
(32)
(f + 557 )
2
g 557 = 1+
(f − 557 )
2
(33)
(f + 557 )
2
g 752 = 1 +
(f − 752)
2
(34)
(f
+ 752)
2
{ }
γ w = 3.13 ⋅10 −2 ⋅ r p ⋅ rt 2 + 1.76 ⋅10 −3 ⋅ ρ ⋅ rt 8.5 + rt 2.5 ⋅ [ A + B + C + D + E ] ⋅ f 2 ⋅ ρ ⋅10 −4 (35)
where
3.84 ⋅ ξ w1 ⋅ g 22 ⋅ e (2.23(1− rt ))
A= (36)
(f − 22.235) + 9.42 ⋅ ξ w1
2 2
14 Ericsson AB
AG = (γ O + γ w ) ⋅ d (41)
where
AG = Total gas attenuation, dB
γw = Specific absorption due to the effects of water vapor, dB/km
γo = Specific absorption due to the effects of oxygen (dry air),
dB/km
d = Path length, km
The specific attenuation is strongly dependent of frequency,
temperature and absolute or relative humidity of the atmosphere as is
illustrated in Figure 5.
Advices:
7.3 Reflection
Reflection on the earth surface may give rise to multipath propagation.
Depending on the path geometry, the direct ray at the receiver may be
interfered with the ground-reflected ray and the “reflection loss” can be
significant. Since the refraction properties of the atmosphere are
constantly changing (k-value changes), the reflection loss varies
(fading).
16 Ericsson AB
1) How the highest value of signal strength, AMAX, varies with the total
reflection coefficient. This case illustrates amplification, i.e., the field
strength components have the exact same direction, a phase angle of 0°.
2) How the lowest value of signal strength, AMIN, varies with the total
reflection coefficient. This case illustrates a loss, i.e., the field strength
components are directed opposite to one another, a phase angle of 180°.
18 Ericsson AB
ρs ρs
Ground-surface types
1 GHz 10 GHz
Sea, lake, mirror-face ice field 0.95-1 0.90-1
Snow & ice field, frozen soil, naked damp
0.85-0.95 0.80-0.90
ground
Damp field, flat and large scale agricultural
0.75-0.85 0.65-0.80
and cattle breeding land
Flat grass land, flat field with thin bush,
0.55-0.75 0.45-0.65
desert
Gently rolling terrain, savanna, partitioned
0.35-0.55 0.25-0.45
plowed fields and pasture
Rolling terrain, forest, thick forest against
sandy wind, wind break, medium or small
city area, area where a bank or a high way 0.18-0.35 0.09-0.25
transverses the radio path near the reflection
point
Terrain with outstanding undulation,
undulated forest, medium or small city with
high rise buildings, area with large factories, 0.08-0.18 0.04-0.09
stadiums located to transverses the radio
path near the reflection point
Mountainous area, area with a deep ridge to
0.04-0.18 <0.04
shield the reflected area
Ericsson AB 19
The value of the divergence factor may also lie around 0.90. For
example the divergence factor is 0.91, for a 30 kilometer hop and a
height difference of 30 m between the antennas and k=1.33. If the
height difference is increased to 330 m, the divergence factor increases
to 0.97 for the same k value. If the hop length is decreased to 15 km, the
divergence factor increases to 0.99 for a height difference of 30 m and a
k value of 1.33.
The value of the correction factor varies with frequency and ground
surface type in accordance with the Table 3. For very smooth surfaces,
e.g., the surface of a body of water, the correction factor is
approximately 0.90.
The total reflection coefficient for a spherical and very smooth surface
can be approximated to 0.90⋅0.90⋅0.90 ≅ 0.73. From the diagram in
Figure 6, the reflection loss is approximately 12 dB.
There are two different methods available for the calculation of the
reflection point’s position. The simplest algorithm avoids the numerical
solution of third-degree equation and is therefore employed in here. The
following intermediate parameters are calculated initially:
Intermediate parameter c
h' A − h' B
c= (42)
h' A + h' B
where
c = Intermediate parameter m
h′A = Antenna height at station A, m
h′B = Antenna height at station B, m
Intermediate parameter m
20 Ericsson AB
d2
m= (43)
4 ⋅ Re ⋅ (h' A + h' B ) ⋅ 10 −3
where
m = Intermediate parameter
d = Distance between stations A and B, km
Re = Equivalent earth radius, km
h′A = Antenna height at station A, m
h′B = Antenna height at station B, m
Intermediate parameter b
m +1 π 1 3⋅c 3 ⋅ m
b = 2⋅ ⋅ cos + ⋅ acos ⋅ (44)
3⋅ m 3 3 2 (m + 1)3
The position of the reflection point is calculated from
d
dA = ⋅ (1 + b ) (45)
2
and
dB = d − d A (46)
where
dA = The distance between station A and the reflection point, km
dB = The distance between station B and the reflection point, km
d = The distance between stations A and B, km
b = The intermediate parameter as above
Advices:
3) Vertical polarization gives less loss. For large grazing angles the
difference between vertical and horizontal polarization is substantial.
Ericsson AB 21
4) Changing the antenna heights can move the location of the reflection
point. This approach, usually known as the “Hi-Lo technique”, force the
reflection point to move closer to the lowest antenna by affecting the
height of the higher antenna. The grazing angle increases and the path
becomes less sensitive to k-value variations.
0.3 ⋅ d 1
δh A' = ⋅ 10 3 (47)
2⋅ f ' 2
dB
hB − 12.74 ⋅ k
0.3 ⋅ d 1
δhB' = ⋅ 10 3 (48)
2⋅ f ' d A2
h A − 12.74 ⋅ k
where
22 Ericsson AB
δh A'
δh A = (49)
2
δhB'
δh B = (50)
2
where
7.4 Precipitation
• Rain
• Snow
• Hail
• Fog and haze
In common for all of the above forms of precipitation is the fact that
they all consist of water particles (haze can also consist of small solid
particles). Their distinctions lie in the distribution of the size and form
of their water drops. Rain attenuation is, however, the main contributor
in the frequency range used by commercial radio links.
Ericsson AB 23
Snow cover on antennas and radomes, so-called ice coatings, can result
in two problems:
• Increased attenuation
• Deformation of the antenna’s field radiation diagram
Both cases result in the reduction of the input signal strength at the
receiving station.
Measurements made in Sweden show that the deepest fading lasted for
just under 5 minutes and was less than 10 dB.
24 Ericsson AB
NOTE: Once the proper rain zone is geographically found, then its
correspondent rain intensity expressed in mm/h for different
fractions of time (%) is obtained from the table in Chapter 14-11.
For instance, three rain zones cover Sweden, C, E and G and three rain
zones, K, N and P, cover Brazil.
1.0009
8
5256.00
rain intensity
3
%
2
time rain
is exceeded,
0.1009 525.60
of time
Minutes/yr
8
5
%
4
Percentage of
J
exceeded,
3
Percentage
2
isintensity
0.0109 52.56
Q
8
N
C E
6
D
4
L P
2
AB H K M
G F
0.001 5.26
0 50 100 150 200 250
Rain intensity, mm/h
26 Ericsson AB
The new procedure does not demand any rain zone chart and rain
intensity (rainfall rates) is directly calculated as a function of the
geographical location of the site. Rain intensity values are not any
longer representative for a certain major rain region but represent local
values.
The basic of the new ITU-rainfall model is the rain intensity data that is
now available from two different rain-data programs: 1) Global
Precipitation Climate Project (GPCP-data) and 2) European Center for
Medium-Range Weather Forecast (ECMWF-data).
− a⋅ R⋅
(1+b⋅R )
p = P0 ⋅ e (1+ c⋅R ) (51)
-0.0117⋅ S
M
P0 = Pr 6 ⋅ 1 − e Pr 6
(52)
where Ms (mm) is the annual rainfall amount of stratiform-type rains
and Pr6 (%) is the probability of rainy 6 hours periods.
The annual probability that the rain intensity R (mm/h) is obtained from
the previous expression
− B + B2 − 4 ⋅ A⋅C
R= (53)
2⋅ A
where
A = a ⋅b (54)
Ericsson AB 27
p
B = a + c ⋅ ln (55)
P0
p
C = ln (56)
P0
For p>P0, R(p)=0
a = 1.1 (57)
(M c + M s )
b= (58)
22932 ⋅ P0
where Mc (mm) is the annual rainfall amount of convective-type rains.
c = 31.5 ⋅ b (59)
The users of the new ITU rainfall rate model are, however, not forced to
calculate the parameters Ms, Mc and Prg6 since they are calculated and
stored in data files at the ITU-R. The files are as follows:
The values of the parameters Ms, Mc and Pr6 are stored as 121-rows and
241-columns matrix (121x241) corresponding to each point in a grid
system.
28 Ericsson AB
The values of the longitude and latitude for all grid points are also
stored as 121-rows and 241-columns matrix (121x241) and can be
obtained from data files at the ITU-R. The files are as follows:
For each specific grid point (LONi, LATj) there will be Msij, Mcij and Pr6ij
corresponding values.
Parameter values for other geographical locations than the grid points
given in the above matrices are obtained by two-dimensional
interpolation technique.
NOTE: Rain intensity values all over the world are displayed in the
charts presented in Chapter 15-12.
Figure 9: Distribution of rain intensity R0.01 all over the world. High
rain intensity regions are encountered in the dark regions.
k H + kV + (k H − kV ) ⋅ cos 2θ ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ τ )
kf = (60)
2
k H ⋅ α H + kV ⋅ α V + (k H ⋅ α H − kV ⋅ α V ) ⋅ cos 2θ ⋅ cos(2 ⋅ τ )
αf = (61)
2⋅kf
where
kH, αH, kV, αV = Frequency dependent coefficients.
θ = The path’s elevation angle
τ = The polarization tilt angle relative to the horizontal plane
NOTE: Frequency dependent coefficients are provided in Chapter
15-9.
αf
γR = kf ⋅R (62)
where
kf, αf = Frequency dependent coefficients
R = Rain intensity, mm/h
The specific rain attenuation that is exceeded during 0.01% of the time,
can be calculated by relating the rain intensity to the reference level
0.01%, i.e.,
α
γR 0.01
= k f ⋅ R0.01f (63)
Figure 10 illustrates specific rain attenuation (dB/km) that are exceeded
during 0.01% of the time as a function of frequency (GHz) for three
different values of rain intensity, R0.01, for both horizontal and vertical
polarization.
30 Ericsson AB
Figure 10: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time
as a function of frequency.
Figure 11: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time
as a function of rain intensity.
Ericsson AB 31
Figure 12: Specific rain attenuation exceeded during 0.01% of the time
as a function of rain intensity for a frequency of 23 GHz.
AR = γ R ⋅ d eff (64)
where
AR = Total rain attenuation, dB
γR = Specific rain attenuation, dB/km
deff = Effective path length, km
The effective path length is calculated as follows
d eff = d ⋅ r (65)
where
32 Ericsson AB
1
r=
d (66)
1+
d0
The factor 1/d0 is coupled to rain intensity for the 0.01% reference
level. d0 is then
d 0 = 35 ⋅ e −0.015⋅R0.01 (67)
The reduction factor accounts for the extensions of rain cells and
transforms actual path lengths to equivalent path lengths along which
the rain can be regarded as having a uniform distribution.
7.5.1 Definition
Diffraction is the responsible mechanism for obstacle loss/attenuation.
In fact, obstacle loss is also known in the literature as “diffraction loss”
or “diffraction attenuation”.
Ericsson AB 33
• Topography
• The antenna’s height above ground level
• The earth-radius factor, k
Different k-values result in different obstruction loss values. Small k-
values result in the greatest obstruction loss due to the fact that the
beam tends to bend more towards the ground surface, or expresses in
another manner, the obstruction penetrates deeper into the Fresnel zone.
v>0 hLOS
A v<0 r1F
B
34 Ericsson AB
hLOS
ν= (69)
r1F
where
hLOS = The obstruction’s height above the free line-of-sight
r1F = The Fresnel zone’s radius at the point of the obstruction
The parameter ν, as defined above, differs by a factor of 2 ≅ 1.41
from the definition in Rep. 715-3, vol. 5, which means a difference of
approximately 1-3 dB in obstruction loss for the particular value of ν.
The height of the obstruction over the free line-of-sight may be defined
as
AH = 16 + 20 ⋅ log(ν ) ν ≥ 10 (70)
where
AH = Obstruction loss, dB
ν = The obstruction’s relative penetration of the Fresnel zone
0 12 16 20
0 6
Figure 15: Typical loss values (dB) resulting from the knife-edge
function.
The algorithm defines those peaks in the path profile between station A
and station B that penetrate the Fresnel zone. The penetration, ν, of
every peak is calculated relative to the Fresnel zone along the free line-
of-sight, AB. The corresponding knife-edge loss, AH, is calculated as if
only one peak existed along the path. The greatest loss value that is
found along the path is returned as the sought obstruction loss value.
36 Ericsson AB
A B
Figure 16: In the single-peak method the obstruction loss is taken as the
greatest knife-edge obstruction loss lying along the path.
The path profile is then split at that the point, M, which resulted in the
largest knife-edge loss, see Figure 17. The peak of point M is regarded
as being a common antenna or termination point along the partial paths
AM and MB. If the peak consists of trees, then the mast height of the
fictitious antenna is set to the height of the trees, otherwise the mast
height is set to zero. In the event that the fictitious antenna attains a
height beneath the original free line-of-sight, AB, then the mast height is
instead set so that the antenna exactly reaches the free line-of-sight.
Ericsson AB 37
A B
The partial paths, AM and MB to the left and right of the located peak,
M, are each searched for two new paths in the same manner as was the
original path. Note that the partial paths, as illustrated in the figure
above, generally have other free lines-of-sight and Fresnel zones than
does the original path. Each partial path results in a separate knife-edge
loss value. The higher of the two values will represent the second
contribution, A2, to the total obstruction loss.
AObst = A1 + A2 + A3 (71)
38 Ericsson AB
N M
A B
• The partial paths are always shorter than the full path
• The partial paths’ free lines-of sight always lies higher than (or at
the same level as) the original full path
A shorter path results in a smaller Fresnel zone radius. Higher free line-
of-sight results in a relatively lower peak free line-of-sight. Together,
these factors result in a smaller relative penetration. The result is that
the secondary peaks cause lower obstruction losses.
Ericsson AB 39
A
hA B
hB
dA dr dB
d
d A ≅ 2 ⋅ 10 −3 ⋅ k ⋅ R ⋅ h A (72)
d B ≅ 2 ⋅ 10 −3 ⋅ k ⋅ R ⋅ hB (73)
where
dA = Distance from station A to the radio horizon, km
dB = Distance from station B to the radio horizon, km
hA = Antenna height at station A, m
hB = Antenna height at station B, m
k = Earth-radius factor
R = True earth radius (≅6370 km)
The distance between both radio horizons may be easily calculated as
d r ≅ d − (d A + d B ) (74)
where
d = Distance between station A and B, km
40 Ericsson AB
2
−
AObst ≅ 20 + 0.112 ⋅ 3 f ⋅k 3
⋅ dr (75)
where
AObst = Obstruction loss, dB
f = Frequency, MHz
40
20
10
Figure 20: Typical loss values (dB) resulting from a smoothly spherical
earth.
For grazing lines-of-sight, i.e., the antennas have the same horizon (dA +
dB = d), the loss is 20 dB, which applies regardless of frequency and
path length.
Ericsson AB 41
y=-d/2 y=d/2
d1 d2 y
hmax
h
N B
A
d1 ⋅ d 2
h= (76)
12.74 ⋅ k
where the distances d1 and d2 are normally expressed in km and h in
meters.
42 Ericsson AB
h2-x
c x-h1
θ
h2
h3
x
h1 h
d1 d2
d
h2 − h1
x= ⋅ d1 + h1 (77)
d
where h1and h2 are given in m and d and d1 in km.
h2 − h1 d ⋅d
c = h1 + ⋅ d 1 − 1 2 − h1 (78)
d 12.74 ⋅ k
where d, d1 and d2 are expressed in km and c, h1, h2 and h3 are
expressed in m.
Ericsson AB 43
d d ⋅d
H = h1 + c + h3 + 1 2 − h1 (79)
d1 12.74 ⋅ k
x = h3 + h − b (80)
Employing the above expressions, the obstacle penetration is obtained
according to
d1 ⋅ d 2 h − h1
b = h3 + − h1 − 2 ⋅d (81)
12.74 ⋅ k d
with the parameters expressed as before.
7.5.10 Vegetation
For unexpected obstacle intercepting the Fresnel zone, for instance
growing vegetation, the additional loss can be calculated using the
method recommended by the ITU-R.
Advices:
1) High-resolution path profiles and careful site (and path) surveys are
important tasks in the planning process to avoid unexpected obstacle
attenuation.
44 Ericsson AB
M = PR − PTr (83)
where
M = Fade margin, dB
PR = Receiver signal level, dBm
PTr = Receiver threshold level, dBm
Receiver signal level is calculated as the difference between the
transmitter’s output power and the path loss, i.e.,
PR = PTr − AS (84)
where
PR = Receiver signal level, dB
PTr = Transmitter output power, dBm
AS = Path loss, dB
Ericsson AB 45
Waveguide Waveguide
Splitter Antenna Antenna Splitter
Transmitter /
Transmitter / Receiver
Receiver Wave guide Wave guide
Output
in
Ga
Bra
Power nc hing
na
Los
ten
ses
An
Pro
pag
atio
Transmitted Power
nL
oss
Branc
es
hing L
os ses
Received Power
in
Ga
a
nn
te
Unfaded
An
Fade
Margin
Receiver Thresh.
Value
Figure 23: The power diagram showing possible losses from the
transmitter to the receiver. The fade margin is indicated as the
difference between the received power and the receiver’s threshold
value.
Advices:
1) The main purpose of the link budget is to calculate the fade margin
and “delivery” its value to the fading block.
8.1 Definition
Fading is often defined as a variation in signal strength over time, phase
or polarization. Fading is normally the result of changes in the physical
properties of the atmosphere or due to ground or water reflections.
• Source
• Propagation attributes
• Time variation
• Statistical distribution
Ericsson AB 47
48 Ericsson AB
In the previous ITU-model, the above expression was valid for all
values of latitude and longitude. In the new revision of the ITU-R
recommendation, however, the above expression is modified to fit
different values of the latitude. Thus, for radio links located at latitudes
equal or greater than 30° (North and South) the above expression is still
applied. On the other side, for latitudes lower than 30°N and 30°S (60°
belt along the equator), the current model is expressed as
Ap
= 0.07 ⋅ p −(0.855+0.139⋅log p ) (86)
A0.01
with the parameters defined as previously.
Compared to the previous model, the new model presented does not
provide any remarkable improvement. In addition, it seems to be
statistically inconsistent since it gives higher p values than the model
used for latitudes equal to or greater than 30°N and 30°S.
AR
11.628 − 0.546 + 0.29812 + 0.172⋅log 0.12⋅ 0.01
M
(87)
p = 10
where
p = Percentage of time that a given fade depth M (fade margin) is
exceeded in the average year, %
AR0.01 = Total rain attenuation that is exceeded 0.01% of the time,
dB
M = Fade margin, dB
The outage is finally obtained by transforming the annual value given
by the above expression from percentage to ratio as follows:
Ericsson AB 49
p
Prain = (88)
100
Where Prain is the probability (expressed in ratio) of exceeding the fade
margin M in the average year and p (expressed in %) as given by
expression (87).
pw = Q ⋅ Prain (89)
where
pw = Probability (expressed in ratio) of exceeding the fade margin
M during the average worst month
Prain = Probability (expressed in ratio) of exceeding the fade margin
M in the average year
Q = Conversion factor (climatic constant), 12> Q >1
The probability pw and Prain are referred to the same threshold level.
The conversion factor Q is expressed as a function of Prain and the
climatic parameters Q1 and β. In the range of interest for microwave
planning, Q is given by following expression
1
-β Q1 β (90)
Q = Q1 ⋅ Prain for < P < 3%
12
Substituting (90) in (89), the transformation from yearly basis to worst
month basis is given by
1− β
pw = Q1 ⋅ Prain (91)
where pw and Prain are defined as above.
50 Ericsson AB
Q1 = 2.85
β = 0.13
1 1
−
Prain = Q1 1− β ⋅ p w 1− β (92)
The selection of the climatic parameters when transforming annual
worst-month time percentage to average annual time percentages may
in some applications of microwave design have an important effect.
1010
Rain fading model
10-1 worst month
fade margin is exceeded, %
10-2
Percentage of time the
10-3
Rain fading model
10-4
annual basis
10-5
10-6
10-7
10-8
0 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 10
AR0.01/M
Figure 24: The rain fading models for worst month and on a yearly
basis.
Ericsson AB 51
Atmospheric layer
Beams that are reflected by the atmosphere or the ground travel a longer
distance than do direct beams. Dependent on the size of the time delays
and the employed channel bandwidth, fading can either be
• Flat or
• Frequency selective
In general:
A A
Flat Frequency selective
B f B f
For frequency selective fading, signal levels vary locally within the
frequency band, both in amplitude and phase. The result, in the case of
analog connections, is that a number of channels may attain signal
levels that are so low that connection within these channels is virtually
impossible. The connection can, however, be maintained at a lower
capacity.
In the case of base band, digital link connections utilize the entire
frequency band, B, of all channels in a time-multiplexed manner. This
means that every channel has a time slot and synchronism is therefore
required for system management purposes.
Ericsson AB 53
• Diversity
Diversity implies that a signal reaches the receiver via a number (at
least two) of different alternatives, the purpose being that the received
signals are to be uncorrelated. Examples of diversity are frequency,
space, path, polarization and angle.
• Adaptive equalizer
The purpose of adaptive equalizer (in both the time and frequency
domains) is the equalization of signal amplitude and phase.
• System
By modifying system parameters or other system attributes, one can
attain an improvement in system tolerance to multipath fading. For
example, improvements can, in some cases, be achieved through the
modification of path geometry or by simply changing the antenna.
8.8.1 Introduction
Flat fading, also known as single-frequency, frequency independent or
narrow-band fading, can generally be predicted for any part of the
world. The method relies on the prediction of the distribution at large
fade depths in the average worst month. Unlike the former prediction
method, the present method normally employed for large fade depths
does not take into account the path profile and, therefore, is suitable for
initial planning, licensing or design purposes.
54 Ericsson AB
F
−
p flat ∝ 10 10 (93)
where the fade depth F is normally interpreted as the fade margin (M).
F
−
p flat = p0 ⋅10 10 (94)
• The entire path profile is above 100 m altitude (with respect to mean
sea level) or beyond 50 km from the nearest coastline or
• Part or all the entire path profile is below 100 m altitude (with
respect to mean sea level) and entirely within 50 km of the
coastline, but having an intervening height of land higher than 100
m between the link and the coastline.
Ericsson AB 55
If the above conditions are not met, the link is considered as coastal link
and the parameter “coastal fraction” (rc) is employed, see 8.8.6.1.
• Plains
• Hills
• Mountains
The C0 values are displayed in Table 4 for links located on known
terrain and in Table 5 for links located on unknown terrain.
56 Ericsson AB
CLat = 0 for 53 °S ≥ ξ ≤ 53 °N
NOTE: The pL values for the entire world are obtained from the
charts presented in Chapter 15-5.
Ericsson AB 57
The highest value, expressed in %, obtained from the four maps should
be used for planning purposes. An exception is when planning for
latitudes greater than 60 °N or 60 °S when the maps of May and August
should be used.
• English Channel
• North Sea
• Large reaches of the Baltic and Mediterranean Seas
• Hudson Strait
• Other bodies of water of similar size
Normally, measured values of the geoclimatic factor K are not
available, but it can be estimated according to
−0.1⋅C0 − 0.011⋅ ξ
K cl = 2.3 ⋅ 10 −4 ⋅ 10 (97)
where Ki is given by expression (95) and C0 is obtained from Table 4.
The condition Kcl < Ki occurs in a few regions at low and mid latitudes.
Links not located in coastal areas but near vast area of lakes are
considered as coastal areas and the geoclimatic factor should be
estimated according to
Ericsson AB 59
1) Over/near large
Known bodies of water
Coastal Links 2) Over/near medium-
terrain
sized bodies of water
Links at other
regions
Figure 27: The structure of the parameter input in the flat fading
prediction function.
h A − hB
ε= (102)
d
where
ε = Path inclination, mrad
hA = Antenna height + ground elevation at the transmitter, m
60 Ericsson AB
M
−
⋅ (1 + ε ) (103)
−1.4
pω = K ⋅ d 3.6
⋅f 0.89
⋅ 10 10
where
K = Geoclimatic factor
d = Path length, km
f = Frequency, GHz
ε = Path slope, mrad
M = Fade margin, dB
The multipath occurrence factor (expressed in ratio) corresponding to
the percentage of time of exceeding M = 0 dB in the average worst
month is given by
pw
P0 = (104)
100
8.8.9 Range of values for the climatic factor pL
The range of the climatic factor and its impact on the fading results is
examined. The probability to exceed fade margin as a function of path
length is displayed for different pL settings, ranging from 1% (areas of
high latitudes) to approximately 40% (specific areas in the vicinity of
the equator). Fade margin close to 30 dB and frequency 7 GHz are
normally frequent values in many link applications. The path is
considered horizontal through all calculations, thus giving somewhat
more pessimistic probabilities to exceed fade margin.
Ericsson AB 61
10-1
#
10-6
0 10 20 30 40
Path length, km
Figure 28: The probability range to exceed fade margin for climatic
factor in the range 1% and 40%.
8.9.1.2 Parameters
The values of the longitude and latitude for all grid points are also
stored as 121-rows and 241-columns matrix (121x241) and can be
obtained from data files at the ITU-R. The files are as follows:
For each specific grid point (LONi, LATj) there will be dN1ij
corresponding values.
Values of dN1 for other geographical locations than the grid points
given in the above matrices are obtained by two-dimensional
interpolation technique.
NOTE: Values of dN1 all over the world are displayed in the charts
presented in Chapter 15-4.
Figure 29 shows the variations of the point refractivity gradient all over
the world where darker regions symbolize strong refractivity activities.
( )
M
− 0.97 0.032⋅ f − 0.00085⋅hL −
pw = K ⋅ d 3.2
⋅ 1+ ε p ⋅ 10 10 (106)
where
K = 10 −4.2−0.0029⋅dN1 (107)
64 Ericsson AB
( )
M
−1.2 0.033⋅ f − 0.001⋅hL −
p w = K ⋅ d 3.0 ⋅ 1 + ε p ⋅ 10 10 (108)
pw
Pns = (109)
100
where Pns is expressed in ratio and pw (%) is determined by (106) or
(108), as appropriate.
Ericsson AB 65
10-1
ε = 0 deg C Lon = 3 dB
10-5
10-6
0 10 20 30 40
Path length, km
1) The outage due to flat fading given by equation (106) and (108) is a
function of the fade margin M. In this first step the intercept of the
deep-fading distribution is obtained by setting M = 0. The multipath
occurrence factors for detailed and quick design are p0, respectively
(
p 0 = K ⋅ d 3.2 ⋅ 1 + ε p )−0.97
⋅ 10 0.032⋅ f −0.00085⋅hL (110)
(
p 0 = K ⋅ d 3.0 ⋅ 1 + ε p )−1.2
⋅ 10 0.033⋅ f −0.001⋅hL (111)
where p0, is expressed in percentage (%) and the other parameters are
specified as above.
M
−
p w = p 0 ⋅ 10 10 (113)
At
−
pt = p 0 ⋅ 10 10 (114)
4) For the transition given by the coordinate (At, pt), the parameter qa’ is
calculated as follows
20 (100 − p t )
q a' = − ⋅ log − ln (115)
At 100
5) A new parameter qt is obtained from qa’ and the transition fade At.
qt =
(q '
a −2 ) − At A
− 4.3 ⋅ 10 20 + t
− t
A
800 (116)
20
1 + 0.3 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10
− 0.016⋅ At
6) The parameter qa corresponding to the required fade margin M is
determined as follows
M
− 20
M
M
−
q a = 2 + 1 + 0.3 ⋅ 10 ⋅ 10
20 − 0.016⋅ M
[ ]
⋅ qt + 4.3 ⋅ 10 +
800 (117)
7) Finally, the percentage of time pw (%) for which the fade margin M is
exceeded in the average worst month is calculated as follows
Ericsson AB 67
20
q ⋅M
− a
102
Probability to exceed fade margin, %
Various percentages
of time d = 20 km C 0 = 0 dB
101 ε = 0 deg C Lon = 0 dB
f = 7 GHz C Lat = 0 dB
100
pL = 5%
10-1
10-2
Small percentages
10-3 of time
10-4
10-5
0 10 20 30 40 50
Fade margin, dB
185 ≥ d ≥ 7.5 km
37 ≥ f ≥ 0.45 GHz
68 Ericsson AB
37 ≥ ε
2 300 ≥ hL ≥ 17 m
15
f min = (119)
d
8.10 Reduction of cross-polar discrimination
Cross-polar discrimination (XPD) maybe reduced when a fraction of
the energy transmitted in one polarization state is transferred to the
orthogonal polarization state. The consequence of this effect is to cause
interference between two channels. In addition, cross-polarization may
arise from characteristics of the antenna systems in each terminal.
η = 1 - e- 0.2⋅( P )
0 .75
0
(121)
Ericsson AB 69
k ⋅η
Q = − 10 ⋅ log XP (122)
P0
where η and P0 are given as described above and kXP is given as follows
0.2997925
λ= (124)
f
Where λ is expressed in m and f in GHz.
C = XPD0 + Q (125)
where XPD0 is given by equation (120) and Q by equation (122).
M XPD
−
PXP = P0 ⋅ 10 10 (126)
C0
C − I without XPIC
M XPD = (127)
C − C 0 + XPIF with XPIC
I
70 Ericsson AB
U = U 0 − 30 ⋅ log( f ) (129)
U −C0
+ XPIF
I
V (132)
AP = 10
where AP is expressed in dB, U and V(f) are given by (129), (130) and
(131), respectively. C0/I is the carrier-to-interference ratio for a given
reference BER and XPIF (dB) is the cross-polarized improvement
factor for the reference BER. If an XPIC equipment is not employed,
XPIF=0.
Ericsson AB 71
AP
23.26 ⋅ log if m ≤ 40
m= 0.12 ⋅ A0.01 (133)
40 otherwise
where AP is given by equation (132) and A0.01 is given by equation (68)
− 12.7 + 161.23 − 4 ⋅ m
n= (134)
2
The values of n must be in the range –3 and 0.
PXPR = 10 (n − 2 ) (135)
72 Ericsson AB
50
τ≥ (136)
B
where
τ = Relative delay, ns
B = Bandwidth, MHz
The choice of the 0.22 dB/MHz threshold for the transfer function’s
slope is directly related to the fact that in-band distortion has proven to
cause system outage at values as low as 0.2 dB/MHz.
p s = η ⋅ Ps / mp (137)
where
Ps/mp = Probability of the occurrence of fading caused by
intersymbol interference during multipath fading
η = Probability of the occurrence of multipath fading
Ericsson AB 73
3
− 0.2⋅ P0 4
(138)
η = 1− e
n
d
τ m = τ m0 ⋅ (139)
50
where
τm = Mean value of the echo delay, ns
τm0 = Mean relative delay for a standard path of 50 km, ns
D = Path length, km
n = normalization exponent with values in the range of 1.3 and 1.5.
The mean relative delay for a standard path, τm0, is usually about 0.7
seconds for exponentially distributed delays.
B
−
C ⋅ pb (1) ⋅ W ⋅ 10 20
⋅ 2 ⋅ τ m2 (140)
Ps / mp =
τr
where
Ps/mp = Probability of the occurrence of fading due to intersymbol
interference during multipath fading
C = Constant factor
pb(1) = The value of pb when b=1
W = Signature width, GHz
B = Signature depth, dB
τr = Reference delay for λa (average of linear signature), ns
74 Ericsson AB
The value of the product C⋅pb(1) is usually 2.16 and the value of the
reference delay τr is 6.3 ns.
B
−
η ⋅ C ⋅ pb (1) ⋅ W ⋅ 10 20
⋅ 2 ⋅ τ m2 (141)
Ps =
τr
where the parameters are as previously defined.
Ericsson AB 75
9 Diversity
Random signal variations often occur during very short periods of time
and may very well be described with the aid of the Rayleigh
distribution. One utilizes the fact that deep fade in radio channels that
transmit the same information but are sufficiently separated in, for
example, frequency and/or space, have low correlation. The lower the
correlation, the higher is the improvement gained by the use of
diversity. In practice, good improvement can already be noticed at a
correlation of 0.6. Diversity is therefore a method that provides
statistically independent multipath components at the receiver.
76 Ericsson AB
C
-10
Fading depth, dB
Without diversity
-20
gain
With diversity
-30
improvement B
-40 A
-50
10-2 10-3 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7
Probability of exceeding the fading depth, %
Figure 32: Two fade-depth statistical distributions for one and the same
path, without and with diversity.
Pwithout (M )
I= (142)
Pwith (M )
where
I = Improvement factor
Pwithout(M) = Probability that the fading depth will be greater than
or equal to M dB during the worst month for a path without
diversity, (%)
Ericsson AB 77
[ ]
M − ∆G
I = 1 − e (− 0.04⋅ S ) ⋅ 10 (143)
− 0.12
0.87
⋅f ⋅ d 0.48 ⋅ p 0−1.04 10
where
I = Improvement factor for analog and digital links
s = Vertical separation between the antennas, m
f = Frequency, GHz
d = Path length, km
M = Fade margin, dB
∆G= Difference in antenna gain between the two antennas, dB
The multipath occurrence factor p0 (%) is calculated by the expression
(110) or (111), as appropriate.
3 ≤ S ≤ 23 m
2 ≤ f ≤ 11 GHz
43 ≤ d ≤ 240 km
M
80 ∆f
I ns = ⋅ ⋅ 10 10 (144)
f ⋅d f
where
Ia = Improvement factor
78 Ericsson AB
30 ≤ d ≤ 70 km
2 ≤ f ≤ 11 GHz
∆f /f ≤ 5 %
Pwithout (M )
Pwith (M ) = (145)
I
9.6 Prediction of outage using diversity
In what follows, methods for the calculation of outage due to multipath
fading using space and frequency diversity are presented. The basic for
both methods is the principle illustrated in Figure 32 and given by
equation (142).
Ericsson AB 79
I ns ⋅ Pns
k ns = 1 − (146)
η
where Ins (improvement factor) and Pns (expressed in ratio) are given by
equation (143) and (109), respectively. The multipath activity factor as
given by equation (121).
4) Applying equation (145), determine the outage for flat fading (non-
selective fading) using space diversity
Pns
Pdns = (149)
I ns
where Pdns is the outage (expressed in ratio) for flat fading when using
diversity, Pns (expressed in ratio) is the outage for flat fading without
space diversity given by equation (109) and Ins the improvement factor
given by equation (143).
Ps2
Pds =
(
η ⋅ 1 − k s2 ) (150)
80 Ericsson AB
( )
4
Pd = Pds0.75 + Pdns
0.75 3 (151)
where Pd is expressed in ratio.
All the other steps follow the method described in the previous section
for space diversity.
k ns = k ns , s ⋅ k ns , f (152)
where kns,s and kns,f are the non-selective correlation coefficients for
space and frequency diversity, respectively. The correlation coefficient
kns,s is obtained by using equation (146) using Ins as given by equation
(143) and kns,f is also obtained by using equation (146) but employing
Ins as given by equation (144).
All the other steps follow the method described section 9.6.1 for space
diversity.
Ericsson AB 81
m ns = η 3
( )(
⋅ 1 − k ns2 , s ⋅ 1 − k ns2 , f ) (153)
Where the correlation coefficients kns,s and kns,f are obtained as
described in the previous section.
Pns4
Pdns = (154)
mns
where Pdns is expressed as ratio, Pns (expressed in ratio) is obtained
from equation (109) and the parameter mns is given by (153).
( )(
k ns2 = 1 − η ⋅ 1 − k ns2 , s ⋅ 1 − k ns2 , f ) (155)
Where η is given by equation (121) and the correlation coefficients kns,s
and kns,f as before.
2
Ps2
Pdns = (156)
( 2
η ⋅ 1 − k s )
where Ps (expressed in ratio) is the outage for frequency selective
fading without diversity given by equation (141).
11 Hardware failure
Hardware failure is calculated for systems with and without
redundancy. Passive redundancy applies to redundant systems
configurations including monitored hot standby.
Ericsson AB 83
1
MTBFS = n
1 (158)
∑ MTBF
i =1 i
where
MTBFs = System’s total mean time between failure, years
MTBFi= Component’s individual mean time between failure, years
n = Number of components in the system
MTTR
ps = 8760 ⋅ 100 (159)
MTTR
MTBFS +
8760
where
ps = Probability of hardware failure for a non-redundant system, %
MTBFs = System’s total mean time between failure, years
MTTR = The mean time to restore, hours
The factor (1/8760) transforms MTTR from hours into years and
consequently has the same units as MTBFS. Mean time to repair, MTTR
(Mean Time To Restore), is defined as the duration of the interruption.
As a rule, this time consists of the travel time required between a
manned supervising station and the station containing the failed
equipment plus the actual repair time. It is important to note that the
waiting time that always arises in connection with the ordering and
delivery of spare parts is often not included in MTTR. The mean time to
restore concept assumes that spare parts are always available when
failure occur.
84 Ericsson AB
0.10
0.10
MTTR= 48 hours
0.06
MTTR= 24 hours
0.04
MTTR= 12 hours
MTTR= 6 hours
0.02
0.00
0 3 6 9 12 15
MTBF, years
MTTRu
MTTR MTTR MTBFu ⋅ 8760
ps = ⋅ + ⋅ 100 (160)
MTBFS ⋅ 8760 MTBFS ⋅ 8760 MTTR
1+
MTTRu
where
pr = Probability of hardware failure of a redundant system, %
MTBFs = System’s total mean time between failure of one the
duplicated equipment, years
MTBFu = Mean time between failure of the non-doubled (non
redundant) equipment (base-band distributor + switch), years
MTTR = Mean time to restore of one of the doubled (redundant)
units of a redundant system, hours
MTTRu = Mean time to restore of the non-doubled (non redundant)
equipment (base-band distributor + switch), hours
Ericsson AB 85
10-4
Probability of hardware failure, %
MTTR= 48 hours
-5
10-4
MTTR= 24 hours
MTTR= 12 hours
MTTR= 6 hours
10-6
0 3 6 9 12 15
MTBF, years
12 Passive repeaters
Ericsson AB 87
B
A
dA dB
Before calculating the added attenuation, one must first calculate the
received and the radiated power of the repeater.
1
PR = PA ⋅ G A ⋅ G R ⋅ (161)
Lbf , AR
where
PR = Power received by the receiving antenna at R (the repeater)
PA = Radiated power of the transmitting antenna at A
GA = Antenna gain of the transmitting antenna at A
GR = Antenna gain of the repeater R
Lbf,AR = Free-space loss between the transmitting antenna and the
repeater
88 Ericsson AB
2
4 ⋅π ⋅ d A
Lbf , AR = (162)
λ
where
λ = Wavelength, m
dA = Distance between the transmitter antenna and the repeater, m
If the repeater reflects the received power, PR, in the direction of the
receiver, B, the received power at B is
1
PR ' = PR ⋅ G R ⋅ G B ⋅ (163)
Lbf , RB
where
PR’ = Power at the receiver antenna B
PR = Radiated power of the repeater
GR = Antenna gain of the repeater R
GB = Antenna gain of the receiver B
Lbf,RM = Free-space loss between the repeater and the receiver
antennas
Free-space loss Lbf,RM between R and B can be written as
2
4 ⋅π ⋅ d B
Lbf , RB = (164)
λ
where
dB = Distance between the repeater and the receiver antennas, m
λ = Wavelength, m
Note that free-space loss, Lbf,AR and Lbf,RB are transformed to dB
following logarithmic conversion, see equation (12).
AS = Abf , AR + Abf , RB + AH − AR + AH − RB + AG − AR + AG − RB +
(165)
AKA + AKB − G A − G B − −G AR − G RB
where
AS = Total path attenuation, dB
Ericsson AB 89
90 Ericsson AB