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Introduction
The electron avalanche is concentrated near the central wire while the
positive ions, being much heavier, drift slowly toward the cathode. For
a G.M. tube with a cathode of radius 1cm, the time of flight of the
positive ions is roughly about 100 microseconds, which is about 100
times longer than the time necessary to build up the electron
avalanche. The consequence of this is that after the initiation of an
electron avalanche by an entering particle the slowly moving positive
ion sheath around the anode wire increases the effective radius of the
anodes. The electric field round the wire therefore drops to a value
below that which is capable of supporting ionization by collision. The
electron avalanche ceases and a pulse of current due to this avalanche
is subsequently produced.
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The object of the counter is to produce a single pulse for each
particle entering the tube. This can only be achieved if spurious
pulses due to secondary electrons released from the cathode surface by
the bombardment of ions are completely suppressed so that the tube can
recover as quickly as possible to be in a state when it is able to
record the next entering particle. A quenching gas (it must be both
polyatomic and of low ionization potential) introduced into the tube is
to serve this purpose. The idea is to allow the inert gas ions on their
way to the cathode to collide with the heavy molecules thereby transfer
their charges to the molecules and become neutralized - a process known
as quenching. The molecular ions thus produced move slowly to the
cathode and on reaching there, capture electrons from the cathode
surface to become neutral molecules. Any excess energy that the neutral
molecules have will cause them to dissociate into individual atoms
rather than be imparted to the cathode to produce fresh electrons that
would take part in further ionizing collisions.
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recording the number of pulses. The register is usually composed of
decade counting tubes. Sometimes, in additional to decade counting
tubes, mechanical registers are also used.
(i) Would the counter perform its normal duty if the polarities of the
central wire and the inner wall of the tube were interchanged?
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Experiment
Using handling forceps, place the radium source on the lowest shelf of
the lead castle directly below the window of the G.M. tube. Switch on
the counter and allow it to warm up for a couple of minutes. Increase
the applied voltage from 320V in steps of 10V up to 450V. At each
setting, note down the number of counts over a period of 2 minutes.
Plot a graph of count rate per minute against the applied voltage.
Indicate on your graph the plateau, the Geiger threshold voltage and
the operating voltage (i.e. the voltage at the middle of the plateau).
Remove all radioactive sources from the vicinity of the G.M. tube. Set
the counter voltage at the operating voltage and take a 5-minute
background count.
Note: The background count rate per minute should be subtracted from
all counts in subsequent experiments in order to obtain the true count
rates due to radioactive sources alone.
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For a tube having a resolution time t, it means that for each single
count registered. The tube is inoperative for t sec. Thus if we have n
record sounds registered per sec., the lost time in one sec is nt and
the effective operating time is (1 − nt ) sec. Following from this, if we
assume that the corrected count rate is N counts per sec. Then
n
N= (1)
(1 − nt )
The resolution time can be found readily using the "two-source" method.
This is carried out experimentally by counting the two sources one at a
time and then both together. If n1 , n 2 , n s are the counts registered per
minute for the first source, the second source and the combination of
the two sources respectively, we can write:
n1
N1 = ( 2)
(1 − n 1 t )
n2
N2 = (3)
(1 − n 2 t )
ns
and Ns = ( 4)
(1 − n s t )
Since N s = N 1 + N 2
which follows
n1 n2
Ns = + (5 )
(1 − n 1 t ) (1 − n 2 t )
From ( 4 ) , we have
Ns
ns = (6)
(1 + N s t )
Substituting (5) into ( 6) , we obtain after manipulating:
n 1 + n 2 − 2n 1 n 2 t
ns = (7)
1 − n 1n 2 t 2
5
Normally
n 1n 2 t 〈 1
2
〈
, we can approximate ( 7 ) to
n s = n1 + n 2 − 2n1 n 2 t
which yields
n1 + n 2 − n s
t= (8)
2n 1 n 2
Using forceps, place a radium source left of center on the bottom shelf
of the lead castle. Then add another radium source symmetrically to the
right of center on the same shaft and finally remove the first source
without disturbing the second source. At each of these stages make a
two-minute count. Correct all the observed counts for background and
calculate the resolution time of the counter.
Remove the G.M. tube from the lead castle and attach it horizontally to
a stand provided. Using forceps, a place a radium source ( 5µC ) on
another stand and align it until its active face faces the tube window
and lies along the axis of the tube. Starting with a separation d
between the window and the source equal to 10cm and thereafter increase
d successively by 10cm until it reaches 70cm, note down the number of
counts per minute at each setting.
Correct the observed counts for background and resolution time using
1
equation (1), and hence plot the corrected count rate against to
d2
verify the inverse square law.
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square law for the 60
Co − source and hence from the gradients of the two
µ
I = Ioe−
N = N o e −µ
Place the 60
Co − source at a distance of about 20cm from the window of
the G.M. tube. Take a one-minute count to determine the initial count
rate. Without disturbing the setup, take a series of one-minute counts
as a succession of aluminum sheets is placed vertically in the region
between the G.M. tube and the source using the data obtained, plot a
suitable graph and hence deduce the μ and HVL for 60
Co − source .
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References
(1) J.B.A. England, Techniques in Nuclear Structure Physics,
Part 1, Chapter 1.
(2) W.E. Burcham, Nuclear Physics An Introduction,
Second Edition, Chapter 6.
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Appendix A
Source in the proper storage box. Source to be handled by spincer only and
and face downwards or away from people
Source Face
Use pincer to remove source from storage Picture of radioactive source. Do not face
box radioactive source towards yourself or
anybody. Source must be put back into
proper storage box after use.