Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Advantages of
concretes: they are
more stable and
concentrated than
pure essential oils.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 6
POMADES
True pomades are (volatile
oil) products of a process
known as enfleurage (hot
or cold).
Enfleurage is used for
obtaining aromatic
materials from flowers
containing volatile oils to
produce perfume long
after they were cut.
Uses: in perfumery as
fixatives to prolong
the effect of a
fragrance.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 10
ABSOLUTES
Obtained from a concrete,
pomade, or a resinoid by
alcoholic extraction.
Functional
Classification:
Unsaturated HC
Functional
classification: Alcohol
Occurrence:
Peppermint
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 23
iii. BORNEOL
Functional
Classification: ////
Occurrence: Cinnamon
E.g. Vanillin
i. By expression
ii. Other Methods
i. SOLVENT EXTRACTION
Extraction is generally preceded by a
process of: bruising the fresh, wilted or
semi-desiccated organs, chopping
herbaceous drugs, pounding roots &
rhizomes or turning wood into chips or
shavings.
The procedure is conducted in specialized
facilities e.g.Dr.Soxhlet-type
Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
extractor.
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 35
SOLVENT EXTRACTION
The solvent selection is influenced by technical &
economical factors
ADVANTAGES:
- obtain extracts which are very close in
composition to the natural product.
- It is possible to adjust the selectivity &
viscosity, etc by fine tuning the temperature &
pressure
- All result in the increase of popularity of this
type of method
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 41
EXTRACTION BY
SUPERCRITICAL GASSES
USES
Initially developed to decaffeinate coffees, prepare
hops extracts or to remove nicotine from tobacco,
the method is now used to
- Prepare spice extracts (ginger, paprika, celery)
- Specific flavours (black tea, oak wood smoke)
- Plant oils
- To produce specified types of a certain product,
e.g. thujoneless wormwood oil.
Common Names:
Jamaican ginger, Ginger
HISTORY
Cultivated in India from the
earliest times. Used by
Greeks and Romans and
was a common article of
commerce in the European
Middle Ages.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 52
CULTIVATION & PREPARATION
Grows well in subtropical
temperatures with high
rainfall.
Grown by vegetative means.
Mulching or is necessary as
the plant rapidly exhausts
minerals from the soil.
When the stems wither, the
rhizomes are ready for
collection.
Dried.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 53
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Scraped/peeled herb has little
resemblance to the fresh herb
(loss in weight & shrinkage).
Occurs in branched pieces
“hands” or “races”.
Buds
No cork
Aromatic odour & pungent
taste.
Unscraped rhizome:
resembles scraped herb –
Covered with cork (brownish
layers)
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 54
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Sesquiterpene HC’s
Zingiberene & Zingiberol (Sesquiterpene alcohol)
Resins
Starch
Mucilage Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 56
Zingiber officinale
VARIETIES
Chinese Ginger – sliced
African ginger – darker (cortex is
grey – black in colour); lacks the
odour but more pungent than
Jamaican herb.
ALLIED DRUGS
Japanese ginger – Z. mioga
Preserved ginger – undried rhizomes
preserved by boiling in syrup.
ADULTERANTS
Spent ginger
Vegetable adulterants (detected with
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
microscopical examination).
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 57
USES & ACTIONS
ACTIONS
Carminative
Stimulant
Anti-emetic
Anti-bacterial & Anti-fungal
Sesquiterpene lactones – Anti-ulcer
Gingerol – pungent component –
Anti-inflammatory
Shogaols– increases bile secretion
& enhanced GIT activity
USES
Motion Sickness
Morning Sickness
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 58
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 59
CARDAMOM FRUIT & OIL
DEFINITION: Cardamom
consists of the dried, nearly
dried ripe fruits of Elettaria
cardamomum var miniscula
(Zingiberaceae).
HISTORY
Traditional Indian
ceremonies
(powdered).
ALLIED HERBS
Official variety – E. cardamomum var miniscula
Liqueur manufacture
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Cultivated in Sri Lanka,
South India, Seychelles,
Madagascar, Martinique,
Cayenne, Jamaica &
Brazil.
Individually scraped
barks are placed
inside each other.
Compound quills are
dried on wooden
frames in the open air
without exposure to
direct sunlight.
Sorted into grades.
Allied Herbs
• Cayenne Cinnamon – C. zeylanicum grown in
Brazil – not used in Britain
• C. loureirii – from Vietnam – Closely resembles
C. cassia
Oil: Carminative
Germicide
Botanical Description:
Small tree, growing to 3-5 m
in height.
Geographical Sources
Mediterranean Regions
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 77
Limonis Cortex –
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
Lemons are collected in
January, August &
November, before the
green colour changes to
yellow.
The smaller fruit, which
would not be sold on the
produce market, are used
in the preparation of oil of
lemon - the peel is
removed with a sharp
knife in the form of a
spiral band. Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 78
Limonis Cortex –
CHARACTERISTICS
Dried lemon peel occurs
in spiral bands (2 cm
wide; 2-3 mm thick).
The outer surface is
rough & yellow; the
inner surface is pulpy
& white (anatomically
similar to that of an
orange peel).
Odour: Strong &
characteristic
Taste: aromatic &Dr.bitter
Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 79
Limonis Cortex –
CONSTITUENTS & USES
CONSTITUENTS
Should contain at least
2.5% volatile oil
Vitamin C
Hesperidin (Flavonoid)
Mucilage
Calcium Oxalate
USES
Flavouring purposes
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 80
LEMON OILS - Oleum limonis
Definition: Lemon oil is the oil expressed from the outer part of
the fresh pericarp of the ripe or nearly ripe fruit of Citrus limon
(Rutaceae).
Much oil is derived via steam distillation, but this process yields
oil of inferior quality.
iii.Distilled Oils
Although not official, some lemon oils are produced by distillation,
mainly from the residue of the expression processes. It is
much cheaper than hand-pressed or machine-made oil.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 83
Oleum limonis - CONSTITUENTS
Terpenes – mainly limonene
Sesquiterpenes
Aldehydes (Citral & Citronella)
Esters
USES
Perfumery
Flavouring
12/09/21
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 85
TERPENELESS LEMON OIL
Definition: Oil prepared by
concentrating lemon oil in
vacuum until most of the
terpenes have been
removed, or by solvent
partition. The
concentrate is a
terpeneless oil, which has
a citral content of 40-50
%.
It is equal in flavouring to
10-15 times its volume of
lemon oil
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 86
BUCHU – Agathosma betulina
USES/ACTIONS
Diuretic Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
Urinary
12/09/21 Tract Anti-SepticKakrani
– Used& Purvi for UTI’s
Kakrani 88
NUTMEG & NUTMEG OIL
Definition: Nutmeg is the
dried kernel of the seed
of Myristica fragrans
(Myristicaceae).
Geographical Sources
Indigenous to the Molucca
Islands (Spice Islands)
Cultivated in Indonesia,
Malaysia & the West
Indies.
Bombay nutmegs –
M. malabarica (India)
– lack the
characteristic odour of
the genuine herb.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 94
NUTMEG OIL
Nutmeg oil is distilled from the
kernels of Myristica fragrans.
CONSTITUENTS
Pinene
Sabinene
Camphene
Dipentene
Safrole
Eugenol & eugenol derivatives
Myristicin – a benzene: toxic to
humans (large does of nutmeg
or nutmeg oil may cause
convulsions).
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 95
MACE
Common mace or Banda
mace consists of the
dried arillus or arillode of
M. fragrans.
Geographical Sources
Molucca or Clove Islands,
Zanzibar, Pemba,
Madagascar, Indonesia &
Brazil.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 98
HISTORY OF CLOVE
Cloves were used in China as
early as 266 BC, and by the
4th century, they were known
in Europe, although very
expensive.
Same as with nutmeg, the
Dutch also destroyed all trees
from surrounding native
islands to secure a
monopoly, and cultivated
them only in a small group of
islands.
In 1770, the French managed to
introduce clove trees to
Mauritius, and started
cultivating them there, as well
as in Zanzibar, Penang
Dr. Harishand
Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
Sumatra.
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 99
COLLECTION & PREPARATION
The flower buds are collected
when the lower part turns
green-crimson. The cloves
are dried in the open air on
mats & separated from
their peduncles (forming
clove stalks which are also
sold commercially).
Tannins
Triterpene acids & esters
Glycosides
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 103
USES OF CLOVE
Stimulant aromatic
Spice
For the preparation of
volatile oil
Sesquiterpenes:
potential anti-
carcinogenic
compounds
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Portugal, SA, Spain, China,
Brazil, Australia, India &
Paraguay.
MICROSCOPIC
• Epidermal cells have a
thick cuticle.
• Anisocytic stomata
• Mesophyll has
schizogenous oil glands
• Calcium oxalate crystals:
Prisms
12/09/21
& Cluster crystals
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 110
Eucalyptus - CONSTITUENTS
Volatile Oil (at least 2
%)
sesquiterpene - Anti-
bacterial action
against oral
pathogens.
CONSTITUENTS
At least 70 volatile oils
(mainly cineole).
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 113
EUCALYPTUS OIL - USES
Alleviating the symptoms of
nasopharyngeal
infections
Treating coughs
Decongestant.
Official preparations
Mixtures, inhalations,
lozenges and pastilles;
also applied externally as
ointments and liniments.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 114
FENNEL
DEFINITION: Fennel
consists of the dried ripe
fruits of Foeniculum
vulgare (Umbelliferae).
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Europe, India, China &
Egypt. Mediterranean
origin.
USES
Flatulence
Dyspepsia
Chronic coughs & catarrh
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Wild & Cultivated in Central
& Northern Europe,
Holland, Denmark,
Germany, Russia,
Finland, Poland,
Hungary, Britain, Egypt,
Morocco, AustraliaDr.&Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
China
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 120
MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
A biennial herb growing up
to 1 m in height.
Herb: Normally consists of
mericarps separated from
the pedicels. Fruits are
slightly curved, brown &
glabrous.
Size: 4-7 mm long, 1-3 mm
wide
Often the stigma & style are
still attached.
Characteristic aromatic Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
odour & taste
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 121
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Pitted sclerenchyma
secretory canals
Dark, red-brown cells
containing a pale
yellow or colourless
oleoresin
Thick cellulose walls
Calcium oxalate crystals
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES
Indigenous to Italy. Also
cultivated in Holland,
Central & Eastern
Europe, Mediterranean
(Morocco, Malta &
Egypt), China, India &
Bagladesh.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 124
MACROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Annual herb growing 0.7 m
in height with white or
pink flowers.
Drug: Normally consists of
whole cremocarps –
straw yellow & 2-4 mm in
diameter when ripe.
Considerable variation
occurs (e.g. Indian variety
> oval).
Apex has 2 styles.
Fruits have an aromatic
odour & spicy taste.
Unripe plant: unpleasant
mousy odour same
odour oil has when made
from unripe fruit. Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 125
MICROSCOPICAL FEATURES
Outer pericarp: stomata
& calcium oxalte
prisms.
Thick sclerenchyma
Testa:= brown flattened
cells
Endosperm is curved &
consists of
parenchymous cells
containing fixed oils.
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 126
ACTIVE CONSTITUENTS
1.8 % Volatile oils
• Linalool/coriandrol
• Pinene
• Terpinene
• Limonene
• Cymene
• Non-linalool alchols & esters
Flavonoids
Coumarins
Phenolic acids
High fat content (16-28%)
Protein (11-17%)
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 127
Coriandrum sativum - USES
Domestic purposes
(cooking - curries)
Pharmaceutically:
flavouring agent &
Carminative
GEOGRAPHICAL
SOURCES:
Europe
12/09/21
& America
Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 129
MACROSCOPICAL
FEATURES
All mints have a square
stem & creeping rhizome.
Black mint, which is the
most commonly cultivated
variety in England, has
purple stems and dark
green petiolate leaves
tinged with purple. Leaf
blades are 3-9 cm long
with a grooved petiolate
up to 1 cm long.
Pinnate venation.
Glandular trichomes: bright
yellow points (hand lens)
Small purple flowers appear
in late summer. Dr. Harish Kakrani, Dr. Bhanu
12/09/21 Kakrani & Purvi Kakrani 130
MICROSCOPIC FEATURES
Diacytic stomata
Multicellular clothing
trichomes
2 types of glandular
trichomes (one with a
unicellar head; with a
multicellular head).
Calcium oxalate is
absent.
HERB: Carminative