Catedra de Limba si Literatura engleza

ELT Methodology

ERROR AND CORRECTION

Error is now seen as an inevitable and necessary part of the learning process. In
learning English, our pupils are involved in a creative construction process, in which
they constantly form, test and adjust hypotheses. This process involves them in making
errors, too.
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
• explain what is an error;
• what are the causes of error;
• discuss how and when error should be corrected;
• put in practice some practical principles and suggestions for error
correction in the classroom.

1 What Is Error?
Generally speaking, error is a “deviation from the norm”. By ‘norm’ we mean a
language system shared by a language community, in our case, English. However, the
answer to the question ‘What is error?’ will vary with who gives the answer and why. For
instance, one teacher may see error as an important source of data for the study of
internal psychological language processes. Another may see it as a source of
information about the relative success of teaching. To the pupil, error may or may not be
a thing to be avoided, a source of failure and inhibition, or a source of amusement, if not
a fact of life.
Not all errors are all of equal importance, however.

1.1 The Status of Error

Today, errors are rarely seen as ‘failure’. That is why you need to coach your
pupils into believing that:
• errors are positive as they form an indispensable part of learning;
• native speakers of English make errors, too;
• very often errors do not interfere with the intended message in the
communicative process (e.g. “*Pardon, is possible I can use phone?”).

1.2 Some Causes of Error

A few central causes of error could be outlined as follows:
• the interference of Romanian (also called ‘negative transfer’*);
• the interference of English (e.g. overgeneralisation*, as in “*He must to be
careful”);
• the process of learning. For instance, pupils may forget previously learnt
rules and these become again areas of confusion as new rules are introduced
into the system;
• the process of teaching. For instance controlled practice activities may put
such pressure on pupils that they make errors of stress, for instance, because
they are concentrating on the structures;
• distraction, carelessness, etc.;

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 • bad teaching.
It is important for a teacher to establish the causes of an error in order to become
more able to deal with it.

1.3 Types of Errors

Classification is an important aspect of error analysis*. You can categorise errors
in several different ways according to your purpose. For instance, you might want to
categorise errors in terms of causes (as above). Or you might prefer to categorise errors
in terms of type and in terms of priority considerations, which will lead you to category
lists such as the following:
• Language categories
general language errors errors specific to errors specific to written
spoken language language
• grammar • sounds • punctuation
• lexis • stress and rhythm • spelling
• style and register • intonation • spacing and layout
(appropriacy) • paralinguistics* • coherence
• discourse-linking
• formulaic expressions
• functional exponents

• Behavioural categories
These involve culturally specific routines (e.g. how and when to greet people, take your
leave, respond to gratitude, etc.), ways of not causing offence, and ways of behaving in
conversation (e.g. turn-taking, interrupting, etc.).
• Priority considerations
These considerations concern whether or not to deal with an error during a given
classroom activity, addressing the question “How important is the error?” This aspect of
error analysis is often dealt with immediately by the teacher, but it is important for you to
be aware of the dimensions of the issue in order to make those systematically.
Here are some of these priority considerations:
• Is the activity controlled or communicative?
• Is the error frequent or infrequent?
• Is the error global* or local*?
• Is it a mistake/slip or a competence error?
• Is the error linguistic or behavioural/sociolinguistic?
Applying these considerations, you can isolate different angles from which to
view the importance of your pupils’ errors. Your decision as to how and when to correct
will be largely a matter of common sense and sensitivity.

1.4 Feedback and Error Correction

One essential feature of the language learning process is ‘feedback’. This allows
pupils to know how successful their efforts are. There are two sides to feedback –
confirmatory feedback and corrective feedback. Confirmatory feedback tells them when
they are right, and corrective feedback tells them when they are wrong. Both you and
the other pupils in the class are a constant source of both types of feedback during
lessons.

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 If we concentrate on corrective feedback, two questions arise: when should we
correct and what should we correct?

1.5 When and What Should We Correct?

These questions are interdependent. In general, we need firstly to be aware of
when it is appropriate to correct, and when it is not appropriate to do so. In more
specific instances, when your pupils produce language errors, you need to assess
whether and what items it is necessary to correct. As a guiding principle, you can adopt
a general corrective or non-corrective stance according to the aim of the activity you
have engaged the pupils in.
You need to adopt a corrective stance during accuracy activities, where the focus
is on the form of the language. On the other hand, you do not need to adopt a corrective
stance during fluency activities, where the focus is on effective communication and the
achievement of a task-based objective.
So, for example, the controlled oral practice of a new grammatical structure may
need correction and attention to accuracy. By contrast, a pupil’s presentation of a match
that he watched the night before will be followed by the correction of the global errors
which impeded the communication of the message.
As far as correction of specific errors is concerned, remember that you need to
be selective. In other words, you need to choose which types of error you are going to
focus on in any particular activity.

SAQ 1
What would happen if you did not apply the principle of selectivity
to specific errors in accuracy activities?

In an accuracy activity, correction emphasis may be on word form, syntax or

rhythm. In another activity, the emphasis may be on correct production of sounds or
intonation.
In a semi-controlled activity (where there may be revision and practice of a wider range
of language items), correction emphasis may be on general rhythm and intonation, on
lexis, and on other errors which are frequent among the learners.
In a fluency activity, where you are taking a generally non-corrective stance, the only
interventions will be in cases where your pupils are unable to make themselves
understood. In other words, these corrections will focus on global errors.
You can take note of errors which occur in group or class work, focusing on
general areas of weakness, and then feed these back to the pupils afterwards for
comment and correction.
Always bear in mind the priority considerations. Is the error a careless slip or an
as-yet-unlearnt rule? Is it a word or a structure that has recently been taught and is
therefore in the process of being assimilated? Is it a frequent error or an infrequent one?
Is the activity controlled or free?

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 2 How Should We Correct Errors?
Whether during written work or oral work, correction can be carried out by:
• the teacher;
• the pupil her-/himself;
• another pupil;
• the whole class (through discussion).
The most desirable correctors are the pupils her-/himself and another pupil. But
you will often need to do the correction yourself as consolidation, as pupils often do not
trust each other to be able to provide the best solution. The whole class is asked to do
the correction when a common problem seems to be worth making into a class
problem-solving activity.
In controlled oral work one possible procedure is to:
• stop the pupil who is speaking and make sure s/he knows there is a
mistake (e.g. "Is that right?");
• give the pupil a chance to reconsider;
• if this does not help, isolate the error (e.g. by counting off the previous
words with fingers and highlighting position of error in the pupil’s
utterance), or…
• say "Grammar?, Pronunciation?, Stress?, Is that the right word?", etc.;
• if this is still no good, ask the class "Can anybody help?" and encourage
intensive listening of pupils;
• if this does not work either, tell the pupils what the correct form is and…
• get the pupils to practise the correct version.

SAQ 2
In no more than 50 words, explain whether you would use a
similar error correction procedure for oral fluency work.

When dealing with errors in written work, essentially the same principles apply:
• accuracy activities vs. fluency activities
• important errors vs. less important errors
Many of the writing activities that you set are probably controlled or guided
exercises, because these are easy to mark, and your pupils make fewer errors.
However, when you set fluency-based writing (i.e. communicative writing), it is important
to be selective about the types of error you want to focus on.
Perhaps one of the best ways to correct written work is to make the pupils work it out for
themselves. This means that you need to isolate the error (by underlining) and
categorise it (by a code in the margin). Here is an example of such a code:

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 Gr = grammar T = tense
WO = word order St = style
WW = wrong word ? = I don't understand
SP = spelling L = linking not logical
?? = word omitted NP = new paragraph
P = punctuation etc.
Do not forget that your pupils may also enjoy helping each other with the
correction of their work!
When a group of errors becomes common in the class, it is time for remedial
work*. One of the best ways of dealing with remedial work is to write 10 wrong
sentences on the blackboard and the pupils (in pairs or groups) have to find the errors.

3 Errors and Mistakes

An error is a ‘deviation from the norm’. This definition includes the performance
of mistakes. So what is the difference between a mistake and an error?
A mistake can also be called a ‘slip of the tongue’. The speaker/writer knows
perfectly well what s/he wants to say but the message just does not come out right. This
is often true of time-pressurised speaking, but also of writing at speed or under
pressure. Often our thoughts run ahead of our speaking or writing and we may leave
words out. Or, when we are tired, we tend to drop sounds or letters or to switch the
sounds or letters around in words.
Your pupils are vulnerable to the same kind of pressures. If you take this into
account, you can avoid hyper-correction*.

3.1 Error or Mistake?

How do you know if your pupils are making a mistake or an error?
A possible answer is that slips of the tongue produce a different kind of ‘deviation
from the norm’ from those resulting from a lack of knowledge of the system.
Another answer is that you base your decision on whether the pupil usually uses this
word or item with facility or not.
Moreover, people often realise immediately when they make slips of the tongue
and correct themselves immediately.

3.2 Categories of Mistakes

Linguists have looked into ‘slips of the tongue’ in some detail. Here are some of
the categories they found:
• reversals or spoonerisms: e.g. *I’m catching the town drain (instead of
down train)
• blends: e.g. *"The road was very slickery" (slick + slippery).
• substitutions: e.g. "Give me a black coffee – I mean white", even
sometimes grammatical substitutions e.g. "I had my photo took" (from “I
had my photo taken + Someone took my photo”). Such substitutions are
common for native speakers and language learners alike.

3.3 Production and Reception Mistakes

We have considered so far only production mistakes, that is, the kind of mistakes
made by the speaker or writer when producing sentences or utterances. But mistakes

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can also be made by listeners or readers; these are called reception mistakes.
Reception mistakes are less easy to detect but they are usually due to:
• mumbled or badly written input;
• the listener/reader has a different interpretation;
• the listener/reader has made wrong assumptions about the content or
topic;
• the title, the topic or a word causes misunderstanding;
• lack of attention (which may cause putting together wrong bits of
information);
• bad hearing or eyesight or distraction;
• ‘blends’ and ‘substitutions’ that occur in listening/reading.

These factors are true for native speakers and foreign pupils alike.

4 Errors and the Language Learning Process

Another factor which will influence the way you correct errors and the kind of
feedback you give, is the stage that the pupils have arrived at in learning a particular
language item. You need to take account of the extent of knowledge they have, and of
when and how they use it. It may therefore be helpful to look at what Pit Corder
suggests are three stages in error making: pre-systematic, systematic and post-
systematic. At the pre-systematic stage, errors are due to the ignorance of the rule; at
the systematic stage, they are due to the use of a wrong rule, and at the post-
systematic stage, they are due to lapses in the use of correct rule.

4.1 Pre-systematic Stage Errors

In this stage, the pupils are not aware of a certain rule, or they are confused
about the rule. They will either transfer a rule from Romanian, or use their limited
knowledge of English. For instance, beginners without knowledge of simple past tense
may say:
*Yesterday I go early in the school.
Beginners with no knowledge of question-form inversion may say:
*You can write it?
Such errors tend to be random guesses with no system. During the same class,
a pupil who is not sure how to mark the 3rd person may produce: *"I gets up early" or
*"He’s gets up" just to see which is right.

SAQ 3
Could you think of the instances when pupils tend to make such
errors? Write your explanation (no more than 30 words) in the
space provided below.

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 4.2 Systematic Stage Errors
In this stage, pupils are still constantly making errors but each of the errors has a
definite pattern. A pupil may have discovered and transferred a rule (not the rule), s/he
is applying it consistently, and s/he cannot correct this alone. This means that pupils are
consistently wrong, unlike in the pre-systemic stage where by chance they could come
upon the right form.
The important difference is that in this systematic stage, the pupils can give a
reason for using the language item in the way they have used it. Therefore, you can
give the pupils feedback focused on the particular problem.
This is also the stage when pupils may ask you or each other questions about
rules to check hypotheses, e.g. ‘Is the question “Did you went” or “Did you go”’? or “The
negative of ‘must’ is ‘mustn’t’?”
Your response is to correct, explain, re-present, re-situationalise. Pupils rarely
remain in this stage with a particular language item for long. Systematic errors occur as
a natural part of the learning of a new item, and show you what to do for remedial work
or for further practice activities.

4.3 Post-systematic Stage Errors

In this stage, the pupils have internalised the correct rule; however, the use of the
respective rule is not yet automatic, and errors occur in less controlled activities. So
practice, but not remedial work, is still needed.
When you point out the error, the pupils can correct it immediately. You can
correct this kind of error by simply drawing attention to the fact that there is an error, by
a look; by a shake of the head; by saying ‘stress’ or ‘grammar’ or ’question’, or by
underlining the written form.
Post-systematic errors tend to occur in freer activities. They will appear as the
pupils move on to learn new items, shifting their focus on to new rules and
concentrating less on the old. Post-systematic errors are practically the same thing as
‘mistakes’. However, mistakes are more widespread than post-systematic errors in that
they occur randomly and with language that may have been learnt long ago.
These three stages refer to individual language items at any level of proficiency.
In a sense, learning is a process by which the new becomes the familiar, which in turn is
disrupted by the new again. The best you can do is to be sympathetic to your pupils’
feelings in these different stages of error-making, and bear in mind that they need a
space between the learning of one major item and the learning of the next.

5 Error Analysis
Error analysis is a process which has four steps:
• identifying the error;
• reconstructing;
• classifying;
• explaining possible causes of the error.

5.1 Identifying an Error

Identifying errors is not always an easy task. For instance, it is always easier to
identify production than reception errors. Reception errors may often go unnoticed as
we often remain ignorant of pupils’ reception errors until these errors reach the

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production stage. That is why error analysis research has limited itself to analysing
production errors.

SAQ 4

Look at the following errors. Some are easier to identify than

others. Why is it so? Explain your reasons in the space
provided below.
a. *I have saw him recently.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………….......
......

b. *I’ve seen him yesterday.

…………………………………………………………………………
....................................................................................................
......

c. *I took the jacket back – it didn’t suit me.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
……

d. *I don’t want to go to Spain this year. I prefer going to Italy.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…..

e. *I clean my teeth twice a week.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…..

f. *There are cinemas from 10 p.m. until 2 a.m.

…………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………
…..
There are two kinds of errors: overt and covert. Overt errors are easily
recognisable as the sentence where they appear provides enough context. Covert
errors are the more difficult to recognise as they require greater sensitivity to the wider
context and to what the pupil is trying to say. Examples (a), (b) and (f) in SAQ 4 contain
overt errors. Examples (c), (d) and (e) are ‘covert’ errors. Such covert errors may either
pass by altogether or are realised as errors because we have some extralinguistic
knowledge about the pupil who is speaking or the situation s/he is referring to. Covert
errors involve the wider context of the discourse.

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 5.2 Reconstructing an Error
Reconstruction means deciding what the pupil really wanted to say, and involves
interpretation. It is almost simultaneous with identification, as in the act of identifying we
almost always replace the error with what we think the pupil wanted to say.

SAQ 5

Have another look at the examples in SAQ 4. What did you

replace the erroneous sentences with?

a. *I have saw him recently.

…………………………………………………….
b. *I’ve seen him yesterday.
……………………………………………………..
c. *I took the jacket back – it didn’t suit me.
………………………………………………………
d. *I don’t want to go to Spain this year. I prefer going to Italy.
d. ……………………………………………………….
e. *I clean my teeth twice a week.
…………………………………………………………
f. *There are cinemas from 10 a.m. until 12 p.m.
…………………………………………………………

To reconstruct covert errors you have to look behind the immediate context. In
order to correct covert errors you may have to ask the pupil if s/he meant what s/he said
or not, and if not, what s/he wanted to say. Questioning may also be needed when a
combination of errors occurs in one utterance.
Moreover, overt errors can very often conceal covert errors. In reconstructing an
overt error such as *‘I clean rarely my teeth’ or *‘I want speak to you’, the impulse to
correct the word-order in *‘rarely my teeth’ may obscure the fact that it doesn’t really
make sense. In *‘I want speak you’ you might insert the ‘to’ but not notice the stylistic
error. So, whether you are marking written work or listening to pupils’ oral work, you
shouldn’t miss important covert errors in your attempts to correct the overt ones.

5.3 Classifying Errors

Classifying or describing errors refers to putting an error into one of the
categories. This happens almost simultaneously with the first two processes. Assigning
errors to categories is dependent on what you think the pupil is aiming at or what a
native speaker would say, and on your reconstruction of the correct version.

5.4 Explaining Errors

This is the most speculative part of the process of error analysis. Once an error is
identified, reconstructed and categorised, you are in a position to consider its possible
cause(s). Broadly speaking, errors will be either interlingual*, and stem from negative
transfers from Romanian or another language the pupil speaks, or intralingual*, and
stem from negative transfer within English.

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 • Interlingual errors
Inter-lingual errors are comparatively few in number compared to intra-lingual
errors. This suggests that the traditional ‘contrastive analysis’ is useful to explain only
those errors that are caused by the interference of Romanian. As a teacher of English,
you are already familiar with the areas of interference between Romanian and English.
• Intralingual errors
Many errors are common to pupils with different native languages. However, the
pupils in a certain group do not necessarily make the same errors. So error analysts
looked at the errors made within the context of English and of the students’ learning
experience. They attempted to work out what influences could cause error apart from
the learner’s mother tongue. Below are some of the most common causes of intra-
lingual errors:
• Overgeneralisation
An overgeneralisation error appears when the pupil has learnt a rule (e.g. –ed
marks the past tense) and s/he overextends the rule to exceptions. Hence *comed,
*goed, *maked or *"I must to buy this book", etc. Native English children also do this
when acquiring English.
• Early learning
The language pupils learn first has to cover a multitude of functions and they must
‘make do’ with the little language that they know. For instance, the present simple may
serve as past: *"Yesterday I come to school by bus". The errors produced in such
circumstances could be called ‘communicative’, and they are gradually removed as the
pupils learn more English.
• Errors deriving from the nature of teaching
What is practised most in class or is needed most for classroom communication is
used most, even when inappropriate. For instance, very often a question like "What’s he
doing?" may get an answer like: *"He’s doing reading a book".
Such errors are often linked to the verbal prompts used by the teacher or by written
prompts used in written exercises (as in the example above). They show the need for
more careful teaching and more practice.
• Teacher-induced errors
Some mistakes may be caused by overloading, which may lead to mixing or
confusing, or even erasing. Also, the teacher’s failure to highlight the relevant details of
a rule, may determine the pupils’ production commission of errors. For instance a
question like *"Is she gone out?" may be caused by the teacher’s failure to show that
she’s gone out stands for she has gone out in the affirmative.
• Cross-association
Pupils may confuse two different uses of similar forms or concepts as in:
*It’s mine book.
*The book was very interested.
*He asked me to borrow my car to him.
Any of the above-mentioned causes could contribute to such errors. Whatever the
cause though, the pupils are not associating the right form to the right concept or
function.

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 • Hypercorrection
The pupils may transfer a correction to areas where it does not apply, and in which
they previously made no errors or different errors, e.g.:
*He always is late.
After the teacher has insisted a lot on structures like ‘He always arrives late’ or
‘My father’s car’, the overcompensation begins. The pupils may say things like ‘*He
always is late’ or ‘*The chair’s legs’.
• Distraction
When a pupil is thinking about one aspect of language, he may lose concentration
in another. This is especially true of intonation, as practice of structural accuracy may
lead to flat intonation.
• Communication strategies
Communication strategies include simplification, translating, borrowing, guessing,
over-generalising, etc. Each strategy brings with it several types of error. For most
pupils, true communication in English (i.e. fluency) is inaccurate. However, the errors
that occur will be considered significant only if they lead to communication breakdown.
These ‘breakdowns’ must be noticed and quickly repaired. Here are some examples:
simplification: *I like a tea. (for ‘I’d like a tea.’)
borrowing: *He is terrible. (for ‘He is terrific.’)
guessing: *We can meet together at the… the… car
station. OK? (*'car station’ for ‘bus stop’)
There is always some speculating in talking of the possible causes of error.
Nevertheless, knowledge of and sensitivity to the causes of error should make you more
vigilant about your teaching, and about the false corrections that pupils often make in
the learning of English.

5.5 Teacher’s Response to Error

The final link in the chain of error analysis is response to error, that is, what you
can do to rectify errors. You have two main courses of action: correction and remedial
work. Correction is done on the spot or shortly afterwards. Remedial work is a more
thorough and systematic recapitulation of the language which is causing particular
difficulty.
• Correction
A difficult problem teachers are confronted with is how to make your pupils notice
and concentrate on your corrections. You can never be sure of your pupils’ commitment
to correction, because they learn in the way that suits them best. For instance, some
pupils will benefit from homework, if you attach a good deal of importance to it, and give
them corrections and comments in it.
When the pupils are motivated, you may ask them to self-correct using a ‘correction
code’. An introduction to self-correction is to get the pupils correcting each other’s work
after it has been coded by you and handed back.
• Remedial action
The systematic diagnosis of language weaknesses can pay dividends. When
diagnosing areas of weakness, especially from written work, it is important to end up
with:
• a list of all errors made

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 • a list of the common errors made by both individuals and the class as a
whole. The errors in the list can be categorised: errors with articles, punctuation, modal
auxiliaries, etc. Such a list can help you devise a step-by-step approach to remedial
work.

5.6 Correction or Reformulation?

It is interesting to note that parents seldom correct their young children’s
pronunciation or grammar in their mother tongue. Parental correction tends to
concentrate on conventions of politeness (e.g. Say ‘please’) or on correcting the truth
value of an utterance (e.g. That’s not a chair, is it? It’s a stool). The child’s grammatical
system develops with little parental attention. It seems that parents do two things:
• They reformulate what the child tries to say, and in so doing, they confirm that they
have understood. In reformulation, no attention is drawn to an error.
• They extend what the child is talking about, thereby providing relevant and
comprehensible new input.

SAQ 6

What are the implications of these two parental strategies for

classroom teaching? What questions do they raise?

In the classrooms where exposure to English is intensive and frequent, pupils

could accept the idea that a lot of fluency work will benefit them. In such circumstances,
such an approach to correction would be valid. But, in general, most pupils would only
accept such an approach as part of a particular freer-style activity, or at higher levels of
study where some fluency has already been attained.

Summary
To conclude, you need to be aware of various types of mistakes: slips, lapses,
and errors and be able to say in which category or subcategory of errors they belong. In
addition, you need to identify the causes of errors and say if they originate in Romanian
or in English.
Your responses to error will depend on the medium: in speech, you will have to opt for
either correction or reformulation, while in writing you will have to decide on a coding
system.

Key Concepts

• error • identifying error

• mistake • reconstructing error
• negative transfer • classifying error
• overgeneralisation • explaining error
• error analysis • inter-lingual errors

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 • production and reception • intra-lingual errors
mistakes
• pre-systematic stage errors • correction
• systematic stage errors • remedial action/work
• post-systematic stage errors • reformulation

Further Reading

1. Norrish, J. Language Learners and their Errors, Macmillan

2. Swan, M. and Smith, B., 1987, Learner English, Cambridge University Press

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