Sikkim Manipal University

- MBA MB0050 Research Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Question 1: Why should a manger know about research when the job entails managing people, products, events, environments, and the like? Answer: The manager, while managing people, products, events, and environments will invariably face problems, big and small, and will have to seek ways to find long lasting effective solutions. This can be achieved only through knowledge of research even if consultants are engaged to solve problems. The primary purpose for applied research (as opposed to basic research) is discovering, interpreting, and the development of methods and systems for the advancement of human knowledge on a wide variety of scientific matters of our world and the universe. Research can use the scientific method, but need not do so. The goal of the research process is to produce new nowledge, which takes three main forms (although, as previously discussed, the boundaries between them may be fuzzy): Exploratory research, which structures and identifies new problems Constructive research, which develops solutions to a problem Empirical research, which tests the feasibility of a solution using empirical evidence. The research room at the New York Public Library, an example of secondary research in progress. Research can also fall into two distinct types: 1) Primary research 2) Secondary research In social sciences and later in other disciplines, the following two research methods can be applied, depending on the properties of the subject matter and on the objective of the research: Quantitative research :Research is often conducted using the hourglass model Structure of Research. The hourglass model starts with a broad spectrum for research, focusing in on the required information through the methodology of the project (like the neck of the hourglass), then expands the research in the form of discussion and results. Research and development is nowadays of great importance in business as the level of competition, production processes and methods are rapidly increasing. It is of special importance in the field of marketing where companies keep an eagle eye on competitors and customers in order to keep pace with modern trends and analyze the needs, demands and desires of their customers. Unfortunately, research and development are very difficult to manage, since the defining feature of research is that the researchers do not know in advance exactly how to accomplish the desired result. As a result, higher R&D spending does not guarantee "more creativity, higher profit or a greater market share. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Question 2: a. How do you evolve research design for exploratory research? Briefly analyze. b. Briefly explain Independent, dependent and extraneous variables in a research design. Answer: A The central purpose is to formulate hypotheses regarding potential problems and opportunities present in the decision situation. The hypotheses can be tested at a later phase with a conclusive research design (Leinhardt and Leinhardt, 1980). Exploratory research design applies when the research objectives include the following: a. identifying problems (threats or opportunities) b. developing a more precise formulation of a vaguely identified problem(threat or opportunity) c. gaining perspective regarding the breath of variables operating in a situation d. establishing priorities regarding the potential significance of various problems (threats or opportunities) e. gaining management and researcher perspective concerning the character of the problem situation f. identifying and formulating alternative courses of action; and g. gathering information on the problems associated with doing conclusive research. h. identification of problems (threats or opportunities) can be assisted through the following: i) Searching secondary sources ii) Interviewing knowledgeable persons iii) Compiling case histories. Answer B. Independent and dependent and extraneous variables in a research design: The research designer understandably cannot hold all his decisions in his head. Even if he could, he would have difficulty in understanding how these are inter-related. Therefore, he records his decisions on paper or record disc by using relevant symbols or concepts. Such a symbolic construction may be called the research design or model. A research design is a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. Dependent and Independent variables: A magnitude that varies is known as a variable. The concept may assume different quantitative values, like height, weight, income, etc. Qualitative variables are not quantifiable in the strictest sense of objectivity. However, the qualitative phenomena may also be quantified in terms of the presence or absence of the attribute considered. Phenomena that assume different values quantitatively even in decimal points are known as continuous variables. But, all variables need not be continuous. Values that can be expressed only in integer values are called non-continuous variables. In statistical term, they are also known as discrete variable. For example, age is a continuous variable; whereas the number of children is a non-continuous variable. When changes in one variable depends upon the changes in one or more other variables, it is known as a dependent or endogenous variable, and the variables that cause the changes in the dependent variable are known as the independent or explanatory

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== or exogenous variables. For example, if demand depends upon price, then demand is a dependent variable, while price is the independent variable. And if, more variables determine demand, like income and prices of substitute commodity, then demand also depends upon them in addition to the own price. Then, demand is a dependent variable which is determined by the independent variables like own price, income and price of substitute. Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For instance, assume that a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former, the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as an extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables. Independent Variable: A variable that you believe might influence your outcome measure. This might be a variable that you control, like a treatment, or a variable not under your control, like an exposure. It also might represent a demographic factor like age or gender. Contrast this with the definition of the dependent variable. An independent variable is a hypothesized cause or influence on a dependent variable. One way to distinguish these variables is to ask yourself what you are want to learn from this research. The dependent variable is a variable you are trying to predict. Any variable that you are using to make those predictions is an independent variable. A recently published research study examined the relationship of dietary fat consumption and the development of ischemic stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free of cardiovascular disease at baseline (1966-1969) and who were followed for a twenty year period. In this study, the independent variables were: percentage of total fat in the diet, percentage of saturated fat, and the percentage of monounsaturated fat.

Dependent variable: In a research study, the variable that you believe might be influenced or modified by some treatment or exposure. It may also represent the variable you are trying to predict. Contrast this with the definition of an independent variable. Sometimes the dependent variable is called the outcome variable. This definition depends on the context of the study. In a study of ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 3 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== prenatal care, the birthweight is an outcome or dependent variable, but in neonatology, it is more likely to be an independent variable. A recently published research study examined the relationship of dietary fat consumption and the development of ischemic stroke in a cohort of 832 men who were free of cardiovascular disease at baseline (1966-1969) and who were followed for a twenty year period. In this study, the dependent variable was: incidence of ischemic stroke.

Extraneous variable: The independent variables which are not directly related to the purpose of the study but affect the dependent variable are known as extraneous variables. For eg, if a researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is relationship between childrens school performance and their self-concepts, in which case the latter is an independent variable and the former is the dependent variable. In this context, intelligence may also influence the school performance. However, since it is not directly related to the purpose of the study undertaken by the researcher, it would be known as extraneous variable. The influence caused by the extraneous variable on the dependent variable is technically called as an experimental error. Therefore, a research study should always be framed in such a manner that the dependent variable completely influences the change in the independent variable and any other extraneous variable or variables.

Question 3: a. Differentiate between Census survey and Sample Survey b. Analyse multi-stage and sequential sampling. Answer: a. Difference between Census survey and Sample Survey Difference between Census and Sampling Practically every country in the world conducts censuses and sampling surveys on a regular basis in order to get valuable data from and about their populations. This data is used by the federal and state governments in making numerous decisions with regard to various health care, housing, and educational issues, among others. While both these two data-gathering methods essentially serve the same purpose, they have a number of differences with regard to approach and methodology, as well as scope. These two methods may also differ in terms of the variance in the data gathered, as you will see later. Scope:- A census involves the gathering of information from every person in a certain group. This may include information on age, sex and language among others. A sample survey on the other hand commonly involves gathering data from only a certain section of a particular group. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 4 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Sampling Variance The main advantage of a census is a virtually zero sampling variance, mainly because the data used is drawn from the whole population. In addition, more precise detail can generally be gathered about smaller groups of the population. As for sampling, there is a possibility of sampling variance, since the data used is drawn from only a small section of the population. This makes sampling a much less accurate form of data collection than a census. In addition, the sample may be too small to provide an accurate picture of the population. Cost And Timetable A census can be quite expensive to conduct, particularly for large populations. In most cases, they are also a lot more time-consuming than sample surveys. Adding considerably to the timetable is the necessity of gathering data from every single member of the population. The huge scope of a census also makes it harder to maintain control of the quality of the data. For instance, anyone who does not complete a census form will be visited by a government representative whos only job to is to gather census data. A sample survey for its part costs quite a bit less than a census, since data is gathered from a much smaller group of people. In addition, sample surveys generally take a much shorter time to conduct, again given the smaller scope. This also means reduced requirements for respondents, which in turn leads to better data monitoring and quality control. Summary Census Gathers information from every individual in a certain group Since data from the entire population is used, there is no sampling variance Provides detailed information about smaller groups Can be quite costly, particularly for large populations, due to census tally workers as well as hiring temporary census home visitors Includes an uncomfortable visit from a government worker if the census is not filled out on time

Sampling Gathers information from only a section of the population May have a significant degree of sample variance, since the data is derived from only a small section of a population May not provide enough information about smaller groups or smaller geographical sections of a place Costs much less than a census, since data is gathered from only a small section of a group

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== b. Analyse multi-stage and sequential sampling:

Multi-stage sampling: In multi-stage sampling method, sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is regarded as being composed of a number of second stage units and so forth. That is, at each stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage. First, a sample of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is drawn. The procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage. It is appropriate where the population is scattered over a wider geographical area and no frame or list is available for sampling. It is also useful when a survey has to be made within a limited time and cost budget. The major disadvantage is that the procedure of estimating sampling error and cost advantage is complicated. Sequential sampling: Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyses the results then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on. This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing. There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive. This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope of approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large sample size significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population. Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot be used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population. Question 4: List down various measures of central tendency and explain the difference between them? Answer: Arithmetic Mean The arithmetic mean is the most common measure of central tendency. It simply the sum of the numbers divided by the number of numbers. The symbol m is used for the mean of a population. The symbol M is used for the mean of a sample. The formula for m is shown below:

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== where X is the sum of all the numbers in the numbers in the sample and of numbers in the sample. As an example, the mean of the numbers N is the number

regardless of whether the numbers constitute the entire population or just a sample from the population. The table, Number of touchdown passes, shows the number of touchdown (TD) passes thrown by each of the 31 teams in the National Football League in the 2000 season. The mean number of touchdown passes thrown is 20.4516 as shown below.

Although the arithmetic mean is not the only "mean" (there is also a geometic mean), it is by far the most commonly used. Therefore, if the term "mean" is used without specifying whether it is the arithmetic mean, the geometic mean, or some other mean, it is assumed to refer to the arithmetic mean. Median The median is also a frequently used measure of central tendency. The median is the midpoint of a distribution: the same numbers of scores are above the median as below it. For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, there are 31 scores. The 16th highest score (which equals 20) is the median because there are 15 scores below the 16th score and 15 scores above the 16th score. The median can also be thought of as the 50th percentile. Let's return to the made up example of the quiz on which you made a three discussed previously in the module Introduction to Central Tendency and shown in Table 2.

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 =====================================================

For Dataset 1, the median is three, the same as your score. For Dataset 2, the median is 4. Therefore, your score is below the median. This means you are in the lower half of the class. Finally for Dataset 3, the median is 2. For this dataset, your score is above the median and therefore in the upper half of the distribution. Computation of the Median: When there is an odd number of numbers, the median is simply the middle number. For example, the median of 2, 4, and 7 is 4. When there is an even number of numbers, the median is the mean of the two middle numbers. Thus, the median of the numbers

Mode The mode is the most frequently occuring value.For the data in the table, Number of touchdown passes, the mode is 18 since more teams (4) had 18 touchdown passes than any other number of touchdown passes. With continuous data such as response time measured to many decimals, the frequency of each value is one since no two scores will be exactly the same. Therefore the mode of continuous data is normally computed from a grouped frequency distribution. The Grouped frequency distribution table shows a grouped frequency distribution for the target response time data. Since the interval with the highest frequency is 600-700, the mode is the middle of that interval (650).

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 =====================================================

Difference between Mean and Median: Mean (Mathematical averages) When the sample size is large and does not include outliers, the mean score usually provides a better measure of central tendency. The mean is the most commonly-used measure of central tendency. When we talk about an "average", we usually are referring to the mean The mean is simply the sum of the values divided by the total number of items in the set

Median (Positional averages) The median may be a better indicator of the most typical value if a set of scores has an outlier. An outlier is an extreme value that differs greatly from other values. The median often is used when there are a few extreme values that could greatly influence the mean and distort what might be considered typical. The median is determined by sorting the data set from lowest to highest values and taking the data point in the middle of the sequence

Question 5: Select any topic for research and explain how you will use both secondary and primary sources to gather the required information. Answer: For performing research on the literacy levels among families, the primary and secondary sources of data can be used very effectively. More specifically the primary sources of data ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 9 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== collection is suggested in this regard. Because personal data or data related to human beings consist of: 1. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals: Age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation income, family size, location of the household life style etc. 2. Behavioral variables: Attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc. 3. Organizational data consist of data relating to an organizations origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth. 4. Territorial data are related to geo-physical characteristics, resource endowment, population, occupational pattern infrastructure degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, talluks, districts, state and the nation. The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guess work cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study. Data form the basis for testing the hypothesis formulated in a study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus, the scientific process of measurements, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence, the importance of data for any research studies The sources of data may be classified into: a. Primary sources b. Secondary sources. Primary Sources of Data: Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected e.g.., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from as ample of consumers by interviewing them,. Primary data are first-hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc. Advantage of Primary Data: It is original source of data It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time. It flexible to the advantage of researcher. Extensive research study is based of primary data Disadvantage of Primary Data: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 10 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Primary data is expensive to obtain It is time consuming It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled. It is difficult to administer

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: Primary data are directly collected by the researcher from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required date precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources. In such cases where the available data are in appropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. They include: socioeconomic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions. Marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm managements studies, business management studies etc. There are various methods of data collection. A Method is different from a Tool while a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instruments used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing,(c)mail survey,(d)experimentation,(e) simulation and (f) projective technique. Each of these methods is discussed in detail in the subsequent sections in the later chapters. Secondary Sources of Data: These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consists of readily compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census reports , annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of Government Departments, Annual reports of currency and finance published by the Reserve Bank of India, Statistical statements relating to Co-operatives and Regional Banks, published by the NABARD, Reports of the National sample survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organizations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by the firms and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records etc. Features of Secondary Sources:

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain common characteristics. First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them Second, they consist of data which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Both the form and the content of secondary sources are shaped by others. Clearly, this is a feature which can limit the research value of secondary sources. Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered Use of Secondary Data: The second data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purpose. For example, the general statistical information in the number of co-operative credit societies in the country, their coverage of villages, their capital structure, volume of business etc., may be taken from published reports and quoted as background information in a study on the evaluation of performance of cooperative credit societies in a selected district/state. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of research maybe tested, e.g., the findings of a local or regional survey may be compared with the national averages; the performance indicators of a particular bank may be tested against the corresponding indicators of the banking industry as a whole; and so on. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of companies, Trade in credit allocation in commercial banks, sociological studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like, depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, statistical reports of government departments, report of public organizations of Bureau of Public Enterprises, Censes Reports etc., and serve as major data sources for such research studies Advantages of Secondary Data: Secondary sources have some advantages: Secondary data, if available can be secured quickly and cheaply. Once their source of documents and reports are located, collection of data is just matter of desk work. Event he tediousness of copying the data from the source can now be avoided, thanks to Xeroxing facilities. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus, the use of secondary data extends the researchers space and time reach. The use of secondary data broadens the data base from which scientific generalizations can be made. Environmental and cultural settings are required for the study.

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings bases on primary data. It readily meets the need for additional empirical support. The researcher needs not wait the time when additional primary data can be collected.

Disadvantages of Secondary Data: The use of a secondary data has its own limitations. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet our specific needs. The definitions adopted by those who collected those data may be different; units of measure may not match; and time periods may also be different. The available data may not be as accurate as desired. To assess their accuracy we need to know how the data were collected. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them. For example, population census data are published two or three years later after compilation and no new figures will be available for another ten years. Finally, information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists. Even if the location of the source is known, the accessibility depends primarily on proximity. For example, most of the unpublished official records and compilations are located in the capital city, and they are not within the easy reach of researchers based in far off places. Evaluation of Secondary Data: When a researcher wants to use secondary data for his research, he should evaluate them before deciding to use them. 1) Data Pertinence: The first consideration in evaluation is to examine the pertinence of the available secondary data to the research problem under study. The following questions should be considered. What are the definitions and classifications employed? Are they consistent? What are the measurements of variables used? What is the degree to which they conform to the requirements of our research? On the basis of above consideration, the pertinence of the secondary data to the research on hand should be determined, as a researcher who is imaginative and flexible may be able to redefine his research problem so as to make use of otherwise unusable available data. 2) Data Quality:

If the researcher is convinced about the available secondary data for his needs, the next step is to examine the quality of the data. The quality of data refers to their accuracy, reliability and completeness. The assurance and reliability of the available secondary data depends on the organization which collected them and the purpose for which they were collected. What is the ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 13 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== authority and prestige of the organization? Is it well recognized? Is it noted for reliability? It is capable of collecting reliable data? Does it use trained and well qualified investigators? The answers to these questions determine the degree of confidence we can have in the data and their accuracy. It is important to go to the original source of the secondary data rather than to use an immediate source which has quoted from the original. Then only, the researcher can review the cautionary and other comments that were made in the original source. 3) Data Completeness: The completeness refers to the actual coverage of the published data. This depends on the methodology and sampling design adopted by the original organization. Is the methodology sound? Is the sample size small or large? Is the sampling method appropriate? Answers to these questions may indicate the appropriateness and adequacy of the data for the problem under study. The question of possible bias should also be examined. Whether the purpose for which the original organization collected the data had a particular orientation? Has the study been made to promote the organizations own interest? How the study was conducted? These are important clues. The researcher must be on guard when the source does not report the methodology and sampling design. Then it is not possible to determine the adequacy of the secondary data for the researchers study. Question 6: a. Explain the role of Graphs and Diagrams? b. What are the Types and General rules for graphical representation of data? Answer: a) Role of Graphs and Diagrams: In presenting the data of frequency distributions and statistical computations, it is often desirable to use appropriate forms of graphic presentations. In additions to tabular forms, graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices such as diagrams. These forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly understood at the glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the mind to grasp or retain. Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply. They, by emphasizing new and significant relationship, are also useful in discovering new facts and in developing hypothesis. The device of graphic presentation is particularly useful when the prospective readers are nontechnical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for dramatizing certain points about data; for important points can be more effectively captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables, but are additional tools for the researcher to emphasize the research findings. Graphic presentation must be planned with utmost care and diligence. Graphic forms used should be simple, clear and accurate and also be appropriate to the data. In planning this work, the following questions must be considered. a. What is the purpose of the diagram? ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 14 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== b. c. d. e. What facts are to be emphasized? What is the educational level of the audience? How much time is available for the preparation of the diagram? What kind of chart will portray the data most clearly and accurately?

Role of Graphs: Because graphs provide a compact, rhetorically powerful way of representing research findings, recent theories of science have postulated their use as a distinguishing feature of science. Studies have shown that the use of graphs in journal articles correlates highly with the hardness of scientific fields, both across disciplines and across subfields of psychology. Role of Diagrams: Recent technological advances have enabled the large-scale adoption of diagrams in a diverse range of areas. Increasingly sophisticated visual representations are emerging and, to enable effective communication, insight is required into how diagrams are used and when they are appropriate for use. The pervasive, everyday use of diagrams for communicating information and ideas serves to illustrate the importance of providing a sound understanding of the role that diagrams can, and do, play. Research in the field of diagrams aims to improve our understanding of the role of diagrams, sketches and other visualizations in communication, computation, cognition, creative thought, and problem solving. These concerns have triggered a surge of interest in the study of diagrams. The study of diagrammatic communication as a whole must be pursued as an interdisciplinary endeavor. Diagrams attract a large number of researchers from virtually all related fields, placing the conference as a major international event in the area. b) Types and General rules for graphical representation of data: Graphical representation is done of the data available. This is very important step of statistical analysis. We will be discussing the organization of data. The word 'Data' is plural for 'datum'; datum means facts. Statistically the term is used for numerical facts such as measures of height, weight and scores on achievement and intelligence tests. Graphs and diagram leave a lasting impression on the mind and make intelligible and easily understandable the salient features of the data. Forecasting also becomes easier with the help of graph. Thus it is of interest to study the graphical representation of data. The graphical representation of data is categorized as basic five types: 1) Bar graph 2) Pie graph 3) Line graph 4) Scatter plot 5) Histogram Examples of graphical representation of data: Let us see some examples of graphical representation of data. 1) Bar chart:

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== A Bar chart (or diagram) is a graphical representation of data using bars (rectangles of same width). It is one dimensional in which case only the height of the rectangle matters. year 1931 1941 1951 1961 1971 1981 population 6000 7600 8900 12000 13500 18000 of a place Solution: scale: Y axis 1 cm = 1000 years

2) Graphical Representation of Histogram: A histogram (or rectangular diagram or block diagram) is a graphical representation of a frequency distribution in the form of rectangles one after the other with height proportional to the frequencies. It is two dimensional in which case the height as well as width of the rectangle matters. Que:Represent the following data by means of a Histogram: Age( in years) Number of workers 20-25 3 25-30 4 30-35 5 35-40 6 40-45 5 45-50 4 50-55 3

3) Frequency Polygon of a Line Graph: A frequency polygon can be constructed for a grouped frequency distribution, with equalinterval, in two different ways: Method I: ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 16 of 19

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Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== Represent the class-marks along the x-axis. Represent the frequencies along y-axis. Join these points, in order, by straight lines. The points at each end is joined to the immediate higher(or lower) class mark at zero frequency so as to complete the polygon. Method II: Represent a histogram of the given data. Join the mid points of the tops of the adjacent rectangles by straight lines. The mid points at each end are joined to the immediate higher (or lower) at zero frequency so as to complete the polygon. The two classes, one at each end, are to be included. Construct a frequency polygon for the following data: Monthly pocket expenses 0-5 5-10 10-15 of a student Number of students 10 16 30 Solution:Here we have Monthly pocket expenses of a student(in $) 0-5 5-10 10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40 15-20 42 20-25 50 25-30 30 30-35 16 35-40 12

class- marks 2.5 7.5 12.5 17.5 22.5 27.5 32.5 37.5

Number of students 10 16 30 42 50 30 16 12

4) Cumulative Frequency Curve(ogive): The Cumulative frequency curve for a grouped frequency distribution is obtained by plotting the points and then joining them by a free-hand smooth curve. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 17 of 19

Sikkim Manipal University

- MBA MB0050 Research Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== This is also known as ogive. Method: Form the cumulative frequency table. Mark the upper class limits along the x-axis. Mark the cumulative frequencies along the y-axis. Plot the points and join them by a free-hand smooth curve. Draw a cumulative frequency curve for the following data: Marks Number of students 0-4 4 4-8 6 8-12 10 12-16 8 16-20 4

The cumulative frequency table is as follows: Marks 0-4 4-8 8-12 12-16 16-20 Total Number of students 4 6 10 8 4 32 cumulative frequency 4 4+6=10 10+10=20 20+8=28 28+4=32

Joining these points by a free-hand smooth curve, we have the following cumulative frequency curve:

5) Pie-chart or Pie-graph: It is drawn by first drawing a circle of a suitable radius and then dividing the angle of 360 degree at its centre in proportion to the figures given under various heads. Solution: <AOB = 14 x 360 /100 = 50.4 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Pankaj Chourey Reg. No. 521036344 Page 18 of 19

Sikkim Manipal University

- MBA MB0050 Research Methodology ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Semester: 3 - Assignment Set: 1 ===================================================== <COD = 29 x 360 /100 = 104.4 <EOF = 16 x 360 /100 = 57.6 <BOC = 16 x 360 /100 = 57.6 <DOE = 17 x 360 /100 = 61.2 <FOA = 8 x 360 /100 = 28.8 Take a circle with centre O and unit radius.

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