THE SOVIET / RUSSIAN SCENE

Despite the Americans having taken the lead in the space race and today being the only country to invest vast resources in the space technology sector, the Soviets/Russians have to be credited with many a firsts, when the Soviet Union was in power. Despite that, even today Russia s contribution to the space technology and logistics sector has been invaluable. This is especially true in recent years, as the Russian Progress unmanned spacecraft was the only spacecraft that has been servicing the ISS, in the presence and absence of the space shuttle of the Americans. Given below is the list of achievements of the Soviets/Russians, the people involved and their developed launch systems. The Soviet space program refers to the rocketry and space exploration programs conducted by the Soviet Union (USSR) from the 1930s until its dissolution in 1991. Over its sixty-year history, this primarily classified military program was responsible for a number of pioneering accomplishments in space flight, including the first intercontinental ballistic missile (1957), first satellite (Sputnik 1), first animal in space (the dog Laika on Sputnik 2), first human in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1), first woman in space and Earth orbit (cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova on Vostok 6), first spacewalk (cosmonaut Alexey Leonov on Voskhod 2), first Moon impact (Luna 2) and unmanned lunar soft landing (Luna 9), first space rover, first space station, and first interplanetary probe. The rocket and space program of the USSR, initially boosted by the assistance of captured scientists from the advanced German rocket program, was performed mainly by Soviet engineers and scientists after 1955, and was based on some unique Soviet and Imperial Russian theoretical developments, many derived by Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovskii, sometimes known as the father of theoretical astronautics. Sergey Korolyov (also transliterated as Korolev) was the head of the principal design group; his official title was "chief designer" (a standard title for similar positions in the USSR). Unlike its American competitor in the "space race," which had NASA as a single coordinating agency, the USSR's program was split among several competing design groups led by Korolyov, Mikhail Yangel, Valentin Glushko, and Vladimir Chelomei. Because of the program's classified status, and for propaganda value, announcements of the outcomes of missions were delayed until success was certain, and failures were sometimes kept secret. Ultimately, as a result of Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost in the 1980s, many facts about the space program were declassified. Notable setbacks included the deaths of Korolyov, Vladimir Komarov (in the Soyuz 1 crash), and Yuri Gagarin (on a routine fighter jet mission) between 1966 and 1968, and disastrous experiences with the huge N-1 rocket intended to power a manned lunar landing, and which exploded shortly after launch on each of four unmanned tests. The Soviet Space Program was dissolved with the fall of the Soviet Union, with Russia and Ukraine becoming its immediate heirs. Russia created the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, now known as the Russian Federal Space Agency (ROSCOSMOS), while Ukraine created the National Space Agency of Ukraine (NSAU).

Chronology of the Russian/Soviet Achievements

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1957: First intercontinental ballistic missile, the R-7 Semyorka 1957: First satellite, Sputnik 1 1957: First animal in Earth orbit, the dog Laika on Sputnik 2 1959: First rocket ignition in Earth orbit, first man-made object to escape Earth's gravity, Luna 1 1959: First data communications, or telemetry, to and from outer space, Luna 1. 1959: First man-made object to pass near the Moon, first man-made object in Heliocentric orbit, Luna 1 1959: First probe to impact the Moon, Luna 2 1959: First images of the moon's far side, Luna 3 1960: First animals to safely return from Earth orbit, the dogs Belka and Strelka on Sputnik 5. 1961: First probe launched to Venus, Venera 1 1961: First person in space (International definition) and in Earth orbit, Yuri Gagarin on Vostok 1, Vostok programme 1961: First person to spend over 24 hours in space Gherman Titov, Vostok 2 (also first person to sleep in space). 1962: First dual manned spaceflight, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 1962: First probe launched to Mars, Mars 1 1963: First woman in space, Valentina Tereshkova, Vostok 6 1964: First multi-person crew (3), Voskhod 1 1965: First extra-vehicular activity (EVA), by Aleksei Leonov, Voskhod 2 1965: First probe to hit another planet of the Solar system (Venus), Venera 3 1966: First probe to make a soft landing on and transmit from the surface of the moon, Luna 9 1966: First probe in lunar orbit, Luna 10 1967: First unmanned rendezvous and docking, Cosmos 186/Cosmos 188. (Until 2006, this had remained the only major space achievement that the US had not duplicated.) 1969: First docking between two manned craft in Earth orbit and exchange of crews, Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 1970: First soil samples automatically extracted and returned to Earth from another celestial body, Luna 16 1970: First robotic space rover, Lunokhod 1 on the Moon. 1970: First data received from the surface of another planet of the Solar system (Venus), Venera 7 1971: First space station, Salyut 1 1971: First probe to reach surface and make soft landing on Mars, Mars 2 1975: First probe to orbit Venus, to make soft landing on Venus, first photos from surface of Venus, Venera 9 1980: First Hispanic and Black person in space, Arnaldo Tamayo Mndez on Soyuz 38 1984: First woman to walk in space, Svetlana Savitskaya (Salyut 7 space station)

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1986: First crew to visit two separate space stations (Mir and Salyut 7) 1986: First probes to deploy robotic balloons into Venus atmosphere and to return pictures of a comet during close flyby Vega 1, Vega 2 1986: First permanently manned space station, Mir, 1986 2001, with permanent presence on board (1989 1999) 1987: First crew to spend over one year in space, Vladimir Titov and Musa Manarov on board of Soyuz TM-4 - Mir

Origins
Prewar efforts
The theory of space exploration was well established in the Russian Empire before the First World War from the writings of Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, who published pioneering papers in the late 19th and early 20th centuries and in 1929 even introduced the concept of the multistaged rocket. Similarly the practical aspects were established by early experiments carried out by the reactive propulsion study group, GIRD in the 1920s and 1930s, where such pioneers as Sergey Korolyov who dreamed of traveling to Mars and German-Russian engineer Friedrich Zander worked. On August 18, 1933, GIRD launched the first Soviet liquid-fueled rocket Gird-09, and on November 25, 1933, the first hybrid-fueled rocket GIRD-X. In 1940-41 another advance in the reactive propulsion field was made: the development and serial production of the Katyusha multiple rocket launcher.

The Germans
During the 1930s Soviet rocket technology was comparable to Germany's, but Joseph Stalin's Great Purge severely damaged its progress. Many leading engineers were killed, and Korolyov and others were imprisoned in the Gulag. Although the Katyusha was very effective on the Eastern Front during World War II, the advanced state of the German rocket program amazed Russian engineers who inspected its remains at Peenemnde and Mittelwerk after the end of the war in Europe. Although the Americans had secretly moved most leading German scientists and 100 V-2 rockets to the United States in Operation Paperclip the Russian program greatly benefited from captured German records and scientists, in particular drawings obtained from the V-2 production sites. Under the direction of Dimitri Ustinov, Korolyov and others inspected the drawings. Helped by rocket scientist Helmut Grttrup and other captured Germans until the early 1950s, they built a replica of the V-2 called the R-1, although the weight of Soviet nuclear warheads required a more powerful booster. Korolyov's OKB-1 design bureau was dedicated to the liquid-fueled cryogenic rockets he had been experimenting with in the late 1930s. Ultimately, this work resulted in the design of the R-7 Semyorka intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM) which was successfully tested in August 1957.

Sputnik and Vostok

The Soviet space program was tied to the USSR's Five-Year Plans and from the start was reliant on support from the Soviet military. Although he was "single-mindedly driven by the dream of space travel", Korolyov generally kept this a secret while working on military projects especially, after the Soviet Union's first atomic bomb test in 1949, a missile capable of carrying a nuclear warhead to the United States as many mocked the idea of launching satellites and manned spacecraft. Nonetheless, the first Soviet rocket with animals aboard launched in July 1951; the two dogs were recovered alive after reaching 101 km in altitude. Two months ahead

of America's first such achievement, this and subsequent flights gave the Soviets valuable experience with space medicine. Because of its global range and large payload of approximately five tons, the reliable R-7 was not only effective as a strategic delivery system for nuclear warheads, but also as an excellent basis for a space vehicle. The United States' announcement in July 1955 of its plan to launch a satellite during the International Geophysical Year greatly benefited Korolyov in persuading Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev to support his plans in January 1956, in order to surpass the Americans. Plans were approved for Earth-orbiting satellites (Sputnik) to gain knowledge of space, and four unmanned military reconnaissance satellites, Zenit. Further planned developments called for a manned Earth orbit flight by 1964 and an unmanned lunar mission at an earlier date. After the first Sputnik proved to be a successful propaganda coup, Korolyov now known publicly only as the mysterious "Chief Designer of Rocket-Space Systems" was charged to accelerate the manned program, the design of which was combined with the Zenit program to produce the Vostok spacecraft. Still influenced by Tsiolkovsky who had chosen Mars as the most important goal for space travel in the early 1960s the Russian program under Korolyov created substantial plans for manned trips to Mars as early as 1968 to 1970. With closed-loop life support systems and electrical rocket engines, and launched from large orbiting space stations, these plans were much more ambitious than America's goal of landing on the moon.

Funding and support

Despite the Soviet space program's achievements, it was "neither a high priority nor a central tool of Soviet state policy." Khrushchev had decided that the Soviet military's funding would focus on the Strategic Rocket Forces' ICBMs, and the space program "rode its coattails". While the West believed that Khrushchev personally ordered each new space mission for propaganda purposes, and the Soviet leader did have an unusually close relationship with Korolyov and other chief designers, he "was more concerned about money and missiles than he was about cosmonauts and the cosmos...[H]e was never particularly interested in competing with Apollo." While the government and the Communist Party used the program's successes as propaganda tools after they occurred, systematic plans for missions based on political reasons were rare, one exception being Valentina Tereshkova, the first woman in space, on Vostok 6 in 1963.[8]:351 Missions were planned based on rocket availability or ad hoc reasons, rather than scientific purposes. For example, the government in February 1962 abruptly ordered an ambitious mission involving two Vostoks simultaneously in orbit launched "in ten days time" to obscure John Glenn's Mercury-Atlas 6 that month; the program could not do so with Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 until August.

Internal competition
Unlike the American Space program which had NASA as a single coordinating structure directed by its Administrator, James Webb through most of the 1960s, the USSR's program was split between several competing design groups. Despite the remarkable successes of the Sputniks between 1957 and 1961 and Vostoks between 1961 and 1964, after 1958 Korolyov's OKB-1 design bureau faced increasing competition from his rival chief designers, Mikhail Yangel, Valentin Glushko, and Vladimir Chelomei. Korolyov planned to move forward with the Soyuz craft and N-1 heavy booster that would be the basis of a permanent manned space station and manned exploration of the Moon. However, Ustinov directed him to focus on near-Earth

missions using the very reliable Voskhod spacecraft, a modified Vostok, as well as on interplanetary unmanned missions to nearby planets Venus and Mars. Yangel had been Korolyov's assistant but with the support of the military was given his own design bureau in 1954 to work primarily on the military space program. This had the stronger rocket engine design team including the use of hypergolic fuels but following the Nedelin catastrophe in 1960 Yangel was directed to concentrate on ICBM development. He also continued to develop his own heavy booster designs similar to Korolyov's N-1 both for military applications and for cargo flights into space to build future space stations. Glushko was the chief rocket engine designer but had a personal friction with Korolyov and refused to develop the large single chamber cryogenic engines that Korolyov needed to build heavy boosters. Chelomei benefited from the patronage of Khrushchev and in 1960 was given the plum jobs of developing a rocket to send a manned craft around the moon and a manned military space station. With limited space experience, his development was slow. The Apollo program's progress alarmed the chief designers, who each advocated for his own programs as response. Multiple, overlapping designs received approval, and new proposals threatened already approved projects. Due to Korolyov's "singular persistence", in August 1964 more than three years after the United States declared its intentions the Soviet Union finally decided to compete for the moon. It set the goal of a lunar landing in 1967 the 50th anniversary of the October Revolution or 1968. At one stage in the early 1960s the Soviet space program was actively developing 30 projects for launchers and spacecraft. With the fall of Krushchev in 1964 Korolyov was given complete control of the manned space program.

After Korolyov
Korolyov died in January 1966 following a routine operation that uncovered colon cancer and from complications from heart disease and severe hemorraging. Kerim Kerimov, who was formerly an architect of Vostok 1, was appointed Chairman of the State Commission on Piloted Flights and headed it for the next 25 years (1966 1991). He supervised every stage of development and operation of both manned space complexes as well as unmanned interplanetary stations for the former Soviet Union. One of Kerimov's greatest achievements was the launch of Mir in 1986. Leadership of the OKB-1 design bureau was given to Vasili Mishin, who had the task of sending a man around the moon in 1967 and landing a man on it in 1968. Mishin lacked Korolyov's political authority and still faced competition from other chief designers. Under pressure Mishin approved the launch of the Soyuz 1 flight in 1967, even though the craft had never been successfully tested on an unmanned flight. The mission launched with known design problems and ended with the vehicle crashing to the ground, killing Vladimir Komarov. This was the first in-flight fatality. Following this disaster and under new pressures, Mishin developed a drinking problem. The Soviets were narrowly beaten in sending the first manned flight around the moon in 1968 by Apollo 8, but Mishin pressed ahead with development of the problematic N1 rocket in the hope that the Americans would have a setback, leaving enough time to make the N-1 workable and land a man on the moon first. There was a success with the joint flight of Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5 in January 1969 that tested the rendezvous, docking and crew transfer techniques that would be used for the landing, and the LK Lander was tested successfully in earth orbit. But after four

unmanned test launches of the N-1 ended in failure, the heavy booster was abandoned and with it any chance of the Soviets landing men on the moon in a single launch. Following this setback, Chelomei convinced Ustinov to approve a program in 1970 to advance his Almaz military space station as a means of beating the US's announced Skylab. Mishin remained in control of the project that became Salyut but the decision backed by Mishin to fly a three-man crew without pressure suits rather than a two-man crew with suits to Salyut 1 in 1971 proved fatal when the re-entry capsule depressurized killing the crew on their return to Earth. Mishin was removed from many projects, with Chelomei regaining control of Salyut. After working with NASA on the Apollo Soyuz Test Project, the Soviet leadership decided a new management approach was needed and in 1974 the N-1 was cancelled and Mishin dismissed. A single design bureau was created NPO Energia with Glushko as chief designer.

TECHNOLOGICAL ACHEIVEMENTS
Completed
The Soviet space program has undertaken a number of projects, including, Vostok I capsule used by Yuri Gagarin on the first manned space flight, now on display at the RKK Energiya Museum outside of Moscow.
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Almaz space stations Buran program Cosmos satellites Energia Foton N1-L3 Manned Moon landing program Luna Moon flybys, orbiters, impacts, landers, rovers, sample returns Mars probe program Meteor meteorological satellites Molniya communications satellites Mir space station Proton satellite satellites Phobos Mars probes program Salyut space stations Soyuz program spacecraft Sputnik program satellites TKS spacecraft Venera Venus probes program Vega program Venus and comet Halley probes program Vostok program spacecraft Voskhod program spacecraft Zond program

Untapped potential
Buran
The Soviet space program produced the Space Shuttle Buran based on the Energia launcher. Energia would be used as the base for a manned Mars mission. Buran was intended to operate in support of large space based military platforms as a response first to the US Space

Shuttle and then the Strategic Defense Initiative. By the time the system was operational, in 1988, strategic arms reduction treaties and the end of the Cold War made Buran redundant. On November 15, 1988, the Buran orbiter and its Energia rocket were launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, and after three hours and two orbits, glided to a landing a few miles from its launch pad.[15] Several vehicles were built, but only the one flew an unmanned test flight; it was found too expensive to operate as a civilian launcher.

Canceled projects: Vesta

The Vesta mission would have consisted of two identical probes to be launched in 1991. It was intended to fly-by Mars and then study four small bodies, including asteroids belonging to different classes. At 4 Vesta a penetrator would be released.

Russian Aerospace Engineers

Georgi Nikolaevich Babakin. 1914-1971. From1965 and until his death in 1971, Babakin led the development of planetary spacecraft at the Lavochkin design bureau. Vladimir Pavlovich Barmin. 1909-1993. Pioneer of the rocket program in the USSR. He led the development of launch infrastructure for Russian rocketry. Oleg Valerievich Biushkin. Director General, Miass Mashinebuilding Plant (As of 2006) Alexei Fedorovich Bogomolov, Born in 1913. Chief Designer of OKB MEI (Moscow Energy Institute), developer of flight control systems for Russian rocketry. Vladimir Nikolaevich Chelomei

1914-1984. Soviet rocket scientist and Chief Designer of OKB-52 (later TsKBM, NPO Mashinostroenia), He led the development of several generations of Soviet cruise missiles, and of the Proton rocket, the UR-200 and UR-100 ICBMs, and the Almaz space station. Boris Efseevich Chertok Born in 1912. Pioneer of the Soviet rocket development program. He worked as deputy to Korolev at OKB-1, where he was responsible for flight control systems. Gerbert Aleksandrovich Efremov Born in 1933. Veteran of OKB-52, a major developer of and space technology, cruise and ballistic missiles. Since 1984, Efremov has served as Director General of NPO Mashinostroenia, the successor to OKB-52. Valentin Petrovich Glushko

1908-1989. Pioneer of Soviet rocketry. From 1946 to 1974 he led OKB-456, a primary developer of rocket engines in the USSR. From 1974 to 1989, Glushko led NPO Energia. Alexei Mikhailovich Isaev 1908-1971. Pioneer of Soviet rocketry and developer of rocket engines. Mstislav Vsevolodovich Keldush 1911-1978. Mathematician and physicist, director of the NII-1 research institute. Soviet historians regarded him as a theoretician of Soviet cosmonautics. Viktor Vladimirovich Khartov Born in 1955. Doctor of Technical Sciences, an expert in spacecraft electrical systems. Head of NPO Lavochkin since Jan. 21, 2010. Previously worked as an engineer and chief designer of development and testing of spacecraft electric systems at NPO PM (ISS Reshetnev). Nikolai Ivanovich Kibalchich

1853-1881. Russian revolutionary activist, who was considered to be an author of one of the earliest proposals for a rocket-powered manned flying apparatus. Kibalchich was executed for his role in the conspiracy to assassinate Tsar Alexander II. Anatoly Ivanovich Kiselev Born in 1938. Veteran of the Khrunichev production plant since 1964. Director General of the Khrunichev enterprise. Ivan Terentievich Kleimenov 1898-1938. Military engineer who led RNII, one of the first Soviet institutions specialized in jetpropulsion research. Like many other representatives of the Soviet intelligentsia, Kleimenov fell victim to Stalin's repressions. Yuri Vasilievich Kondratyuk 1897-1941. A visionary writer and pioneer of space exploration and interplanetary travel. Yuri Nikolaevich Koptev Born in 1940. Veteran of the Soviet space industry. Since 1992, Koptev has served as Director General of the Russian Aviation and Space Agency, Rosaviacosmos. Koptev was sent to retirement on March 11, 2004.

Sergei Pavlovich Korolev

1907-1966. Korolev is widely regarded as a founder of the Soviet space program. Involved in pre-World War II studies of rocketry in the USSR, Korolev, like many of his colleagues, went through Stalin's prisons and later participated in the search for rocket technology in occupied Germany. His incredible energy, intelligence, belief in the prospects of rocket technology, managerial abilities and almost mythical skills in decision-making made him the head of the first Soviet rocket development center, known today as RKK Energia. He deserves the most credits for turning rocket weapons into an instrument of space exploration and making the Soviet Union the world's first space-faring nation. Semen Arievich Kosberg 1903-1965. Developer of rocket propulsion technology. Vyacheslav Mikhailovich Kovtunenko 1921-1995. Designer of space technology. Kovtunenko led the KB-3 design bureau, responsible for the development of space technology at the KB Yuzhnoe development center in Dnepropetrovsk. He later led spacecraft development at NPO Lavochkin in Moscow. Dmitri Il'ich Kozlov Born in 1919. Pioneer of the Soviet rocket development program and Korolev's associate. Since 1958, Kozlov has led the TsSKB production and development center in the city of Kuibushev (currently Samara). Nikolai Dmitrievich Kuznetsov 1910-1995. Developer of aviation and rocket propulsion systems, including the engines for the N-1 moon rocket. Viktor Ivanovich Kuznetsov 1913-1991. Developer of flight control systems for rocket technology. Semen Alekseevich Lavochkin 1900-1960. Aviation and missile designer, head of the OKB-301 development center, currently NPO Lavochkin. Gleb Evgenievich Lozino-Lozinskiy

1909-2001. A key figure in the development of Buran, the Soviet equivalent of the US Space Shuttle.

Viktor Petrovich Makeev

1924-1985. One of Sergei Korolev's associates and, later, chief-designer of submarine-launched ballistic missiles. Aleksandr Alekseevich Medvedev Born in 1952. A veteran of the Khrunichev enterprise since 1975. He has served as a director of Khrunichev since February 2001. On Nov. 25, 2005, President Putin fired Medvedev (order No. 569rp). Vasili Pavlovich Mishin 1917-2001. Pioneer of the Soviet rocket development program, deputy to Korolev at OKB-1. Mishin led the development of the R-7 and R-9 ICBMs and the N-1 moon rocket. Armen Sergeevich Mnatsyakyan 1918-1992. Developer of radio equipment for rocketry and spacecraft. Yuri Alexandrovich Mozhorin 1920-1998. Veteran of the Soviet rocket development program. He led the NII-4 research institute and during 1961-1990 served as a director of the TsNIIMash research institute. Aleksandr Davydovich Nadiradze 1914-1987. Developer of solid-fueled ballistic missiles. Anatoly Konstantinovich Nedaivoda Born in 1938. Veteran of KB Salyut, the development arm of the Khrunichev enterprise. Since 1994, he has served as Designer General at KB Salyut. Nikolai Alekseevich Pilyugin 1908-1982. Developer of flight control and navigation systems for Soviet rocket and space technology. Boris Ivanovich Poletaev Born in 1946. Veteran of KB Arsenal since 1946. Director General of KB Arsenal since 1997. Dmitri Alexeevich Polukhin 1927-1993. Since 1981, Polukhin has served as the head of KB Salyut, (currently the development arm of the Khrunichev enterprise). Mikhail Mikhailovich Pomortsev 1851-1916. A Russian artillery engineer, who actively experimented with rockets at the turn of the 20th century. Aleksandr Andreevich Raspletin 1908-1967. Developer of anti-aircraft missiles. Mikhail Fedorovich Reshetnev 1924-1996. Since 1959, Reshetnev led the production and development branch of the OKB-1 in Zheleznogorosk (Krasnoyarsk-26), which became the primary developer of communications satellites in Russia.

Mikhail Sergeevich Ryazanski 1909-1987. Developer of radio-control systems for Soviet rocketry and spacecraft. Roald Zinnurovich Sagdeev Born in 1932. Soviet physicist. From 1973 to 1988, Sagdeev served as a director of the Institute for Space Research, IKI, the developer of experiments and instruments for Soviet planetary probes and science spacecraft. Anatoly Ivanovich Savin Born in 1920. Director of the TsNII Kometa enterprise, developer of military space technology. Yuri Pavlovich Semenov Born in 1935. Veteran of OKB-1 since 1964. Since 1989, Semenov has served as Designer General of NPO Energia, currently RKK Energia, the developer of Russian manned spacecraft. Russian government sent him to retirement on May 28, 2005. Nikolai Nikolaevich Sevastyanov Born in 1961. Served as Deputy President of RKK Energia Yuri Semenov and was responsible for development of the Yamal communications satellites. In May 2005, replaced Semenov as president of RKK Energia. Gai Il'ich Severin

Born in 1926. Since 1964, Severin has worked as Chief Designer of the Zvezda enterprise, a developer of spacesuits, and life-support and safety systems for Soviet spacecraft. Nikolai Alekseevich Testoedov Director General of NPO PM. (As of 2006) Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov

1900 - 1974. Pioneer of the Russian rocketry and space program Viktor Grigorievich Tolmachev Director General, Votkinskiy Zavod (As of 2006) Fridrikh Arturovich Tsander

1887-1933. Writer and visionary enthusiast of space exploration.

Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky

1857-1935. Russian scientist, philosopher and science writer. He is recognized around the world as the founder of the modern theory of space flight. Vladimir Fedorovich Utkin 1923-2000. Veteran of the Soviet rocket industry. From 1971 to 1990, Utkin served as Designer General of KB Yuzhnoe, in Dnepropetrovsk, Ukraine, a major developer of rocket and space technology. From 1990 until his death in 2000, he served as a director of the TsNIIMash research institute. Mikhail Kuzmich Yangel 1911-1971. from 1954 until his death in 1971, Yangel served as Chief Designer at KB Yuzhnoe, a major developer of rocket and space technology.

The program goals and generations

Soviet Space History - Era of the Chief Designers The theoretical and ideological basis for spaceflight in Russia - were established by Tsiolkovskiy. Between 1883 and 1932 he worked out the basic theoretical concepts of rocketry and space flight. His visions of man leaving the earth and colonising space became a kind of space ideology that inspired and guided Soviet rocket engineers and space scientists. There was no real comparable ideological underpinning in the West. Tsiolkovskiy's work led groups of enthusiasts to begin work on basic rocket technology. These young engineers - among them Korolev in Moscow, Glushko in Leningrad, and Tikhonravov would become the chief designers who led the Soviet Union into space. Many of these talents were caught up in Stalinist purges in 1937-1938 and ended up in work camps in Siberia. Wartime necessity drove Stalin to bring the survivors back into 'sharashkas' - prison engineering design bureaux. Soviet military rocket research during World War II concentrated mainly on JetAssisted Take-off (JATO) units for combat aircraft and the RP-318, BI-1, and Malyutka rocket interceptors. Only toward the end of the war was work begun on long range rockets (Tikhonravov MK 4-stage rocket and Korolev's D-1 and D-2). The huge German technical advances in rocketry during the war rendered this indigenous work obsolete. Stalin was determined to leapfrog the West by assimilating this new technology as quickly as possible. A decree of 13 March 1946 set up a number of research institutes to exploit the technology, and several thousand Germans were brought to Russia for this purpose. Young engineers were named to head the institutes, and more future chief space designers - Keldysh, Isayev, Chelomei, Reshetnev - began work on rocket technology. Keldysh pursued one of Stalin's pet projects - the Keldysh Bomber, an intercontinental rocket based on the German Saenger spaceplane design. This work eventually lead to the Buran / M-42 / M-44 and Burya intercontinental cruise missiles, but was a dead end as far as spaceflight was concerned. Similarly, tests were conducted with rocket-powered aircraft (LL, I-270, Samolyot 5, 346) but these did not lead to operational air or spacecraft.

Tikhonravov wrote a seminal paper on 15 March 1950 on the potential uses of artificial satellites. A decree of 26 May 1954 ordered preliminary studies of such systems. The technological basis was the N-3 project, which covered various engine and propulsion approaches. In August 1955 a unit was formed by Korolev to co-ordinate with Tikhonravov development of the first artificial satellite, for launch by the R-7 8K71 ICBM. In two hours of key discussions in January 1956 the Soviet General Staff were briefed on the future uses of satellites - communications, reconnaissance, navigation, meteorology, geodesy. The fantastic vistas presented resulted in considerable scepticism. Nevertheless the first official plan for future Soviet spaceflight was contained in a decree of 30 January 1956. This set forth the following objectives: y Orbiting of satellites of 1.8 to 2.5 tonnes mass by 1958. This first artificial earth satellite (ISZ) was intended to be a physics laboratory that would characterise the space environment for design of future spacecraft. In July 1956 Tikhonravov completed the ISZ draft project. The go-ahead to build the spacecraft and the necessary KIK tracking system came in a decree of 3 September 1956. In the event, Tikhonravov's ISZ was not ready in time to beat the Americans into orbit, and small substitute satellites (Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2) were hurriedly built to make the Soviet Union first in orbit. The ISZ was finally launched in 1958 as Sputnik 3. y Unmanned reconnaissance satellite by 1970. Following the decree work began on a satellite for military reconnaissance, and throughout the year 1956 the Ministry of Defence issued a series of specifications for satellite manoeuvring, orientation, control, photographic, and ELINT systems. A decree in August 1956 authorised design of a military reconnaissance satellite (code named Zenit). y One week flight of a manned spacecraft by 1964. In the spring of 1957 Tikhonravov began study of manned spacecraft. By April 1958 the preliminary design was completed, essentially the Vostok 3KA spacecraft that would put the first human being into space. The effort spent on this was at the expense of work underway on the Zenit reconnaissance satellite. After the success of Sputnik, Korolev advocated that manned spaceflight should have first priority. After bitter disputes with the military, a compromise solution was reached. Korolev was authorised to proceed with development of a spacecraft to achieve manned flights at the earliest possible date. However the design would be such that the same spacecraft could be used to fulfil the military's unmanned photo reconnaissance satellite requirement. In November 1958 the Council of Chief designers approved the combined Zenit/Vostok program. The official decree to begin development of the Vostok was issued only on 22 May 1959. This was followed by a decree of 25 May 1959 that authorised development of the Zenit-2 and Zenit-4 reconnaissance satellites based on the Vostok design. In parallel with the ballistic capsule Vostok approach, the Myasishchev and Tsybin aeronautical design bureaux worked on designs for a manned spaceplane. This work began in 1957 and culminated in competing draft projects for the Tsybin PKA and Myasishchev M-48, VKA Myasishchev 1957, VKA-23 Design 1 and VKA-23 Design 2 in 1957-1960. These were found to be beyond the immediately-available technology and never reached the hardware stage.

Rocket capable of 12 tonne escape velocity payload by 1970. This was pursued to the draft project stage as the nuclear powered Yakhr-2. Work on this was abandoned in 1959. y Rocket with 100 tonne low earth orbit payload, capable of placing 2 to 3 men on the moon- no date set. This requirement was to be fulfilled by the nuclear powered Superraket, abandoned in 1959 in favour of the conventional propulsion N1. A major objective of this period was military control of ballistic missiles and satellites, as well as development of specifications for launch vehicles and spacecraft. For this purpose the military co-operated with scientific institutes. The Fourth Scientific Research Institute of the Ministry of Defence (MO 4-NII) completed the first draft project for the KIK ground control system and use of satellites for military purposes. A combination of modest updates to selected PVO Air Defence sites and ICBM tracking stations made up the KIK network. Raw tracking information was fed into the 'Centre' for orbital calculations. Sputnik-1's launch on October 4, 1957 caused a tremendous sensation throughout the world and marked the beginning of the space race. The casual plan of 1956 was accelerated, and Korolev was authorised to develop new upper stages for the R-7 that would allow launches of unmanned probes to the moon and planets. Korolev was not only in competition with the Americans, but other Soviet Chief Designers who wanted a 'piece of the action' in the space race. Korolev's chief rival was Chelomei, a designer of naval cruise missiles. It was apparent that the ballistic missile was superior to the cruise missile as a weapon system at intercontinental ranges and also would allow the exploration and colonisation of space. Chelomei hired Nikita Khrushchev's son on March 8, 1958. This gave Chelomei sudden and immediate access to the highest possible patron in the hierarchy. He was rewarded with his own design bureau, OKB-52, in 1959. In this period Khrushchev was pursuing a major cutback of the military and consolidation of the defence industry. As part of this the Myasishchev and Tsybin aeronautical design bureaux were closed and the staff ended up being included Chelomei's organisation. Chelomei's cruise missiles were designed for long-term storage in environmentally-controlled capsules. Chelomei saw that this technology could be applied to ballistic missiles and spacecraft as well. A whole family of unmanned spacecraft, dubbed Kosmoplans and Raketoplans, would be built using modular elements. The spacecraft would be launched by Chelomei's equally modular family of UR universal rockets, capable of both ICBM and space launch missions. The UR-200 would be used for launch of smaller earth orbital Kosmoplans, and the UR-500 Proton 8K82 would be used for launch of manned, lunar landing, and interplanetary Kosmoplan / Raketoplan designs. In 1959, as Chelomei laid out these plans, he knew a tremendous struggle would be required to wrest any part of the space programme from Korolev. Korolev was interested in military projects only so far as they provided financing for his dreams of space exploration. He jealously wished to keep all manned, lunar, and planetary space projects to himself. In a letter to the Central Committee of the Communist Part in January 1960 he proposed an aggressive program for Communist conquest of space. He declared: y That the design bureaux of the Soviet Union must make a broad swift assault on space research y That a new rocket of 1,000 to 2,000 tonnes gross lift-off mass with a 60 to 80 tonne payload must be developed at the earliest possible date
y

That advanced propulsion systems - nuclear, Lox/LH2, low thrust liquid, ion, and plasma engines and correction rockets - be developed as quickly as possible y That new automatic and radio guidance systems be developed to support these objectives As payloads for this enormous rocket, Korolev proposed the following spacecraft be developed for launch in the period 1963 to 1965: y Geostationary communications satellites of 2 to 3 tonnes mass for global communications y Heavy OS manned space stations (25 to 70 tonnes) with a crew of 3 to 5, orbited at 350 to 400 km altitude. The station would conduct military reconnaissance, control other spacecraft in orbit, and undertake basic space research. y Heliocentric satellite for solar studies of 1 to 2 tonnes mass y Spacecraft with 2 to 3 men for flyby of the moon, entry into lunar orbit (L4-1960), and return to earth. y MK interplanetary spacecraft with 2 to 3 crew on 2 to 3 year flyby missions to Mars and Venus. Automatic probes would be landed on the planets during the flyby manoeuvres. y Group flight of eight crew aboard four 30 tonne spacecraft on expeditions to land on Mars and Venus. Crew per spacecraft would be 2 to 3. y Global rockets that could bombard any point on earth with showers of nuclear warheads totalling 40 to 100 tonnes mass at ranges of 3,000 to 12,000 km y Potential to establish a defensive space infrastructure that would annihilate any enemy satellites or rockets that flew over the territory of the USSR y Photographic and electronic reconnaissance of every part of the earth y Precision military navigation For his part, Korolev and the other chief designers would pledge to support this overall effort by the development of draft projects and fundamental research work to validate and mature the necessary technologies. They would place before the Central Committee in the third quarter of 1960 comprehensive plans for development of the new projects. It was requested that that the Central Committee authorise the design bureaux to undertake these draft projects, and that the Ministry of Finance be directed to allow the bureaux to use reserve funds to finance the work. This letter was followed by a meeting with Khruschchev on the subject on 3 March 1960. Korolev believed it would be truly possible with backing from the very top to have a large rocket in the USSR in a very short span of time. Unfortunately at the meeting Korolev made a slip of the tongue he would always regret, admitting that his plan had not been agreed among all of the Chief Designers. This resulted in Khrushchev throwing the matter back for a consensus plan. By 30 May 1960 Korolev was back with a plan that now included participation of his rivals, Chelomei and Yangel. The military, however, had not been fully consulted or reached any final conclusions as to its needs. The consolidated plan was as follows: Launch Vehicles y R-7 - Four-stage version of R-7- (Korolev) - 300 tonne gross lift-off mass, available from 1960 for robotic lunar and interplanetary flights (this would be the Molniya 8K78 booster). Removal of the fourth stage resulted in the Voskhod 11A57 launch vehicle used for launch of later, heavier Zenit and Vostok spacecraft.
y

R-7L - (Korolev) - Develop in 1960 to 1962 a 4 stage version of the R-7, utilising R-9 technology, with a 300 tonne gross lift-off mass and high specific impulse engines in the last stage. Payload 10 tonnes to low earth orbit and 3 tonnes to escape. Draft project to be completed in 1961 (this booster, later called the Molniya 8K78L, was never developed). y UR-500 - (Chelomei) - Develop a 600 tonne gross lift-off mass rocket using new chemical propellants for sending spacecraft to nearby planets. Draft project to be completed in 1962. (This would become the UR-500 Proton booster) y N-I - (Korolev) - to be developed in 1960 - 1962. Booster with 40 to 50 tonnes payload to low earth orbit and 10 to 20 tonnes to Mars. Draft project to be completed by second quarter 1961. y N-II - (Korolev) - to be completed in 1963 - 1967. Booster of 60 to 80 tonne payload to low earth orbit and 20 to 40 tonnes to Mars. Draft project to be completed in 1962. Manned Spacecraft y Vostok recoverable spacecraft (Korolev) : o Photo and electronic reconnaissance versions to be developed in 1960 to 1962 (these would be the Zenit-2 reconnaissance satellites. They would end up flying after, not before, the Vostok manned flights) o Manned version to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these flew on schedule) o Scientific research version to be developed in 1960 to 1962 (these were designed but never flown) o Maneuverable rendezvous and docking version to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (this was the Vostok-Zh - never flown, replaced by Soyuz) y KS - (Korolev) - Heavy manned spacecraft, 2-3 crew, to demonstrate rendezvous, docking, and controlled flight. To be developed in 1961 to 1963 (this would become Soyuz A). y KL - (Korolev) - Manned spacecraft for lunar flyby. To be developed in 1961 to 1964 (this would go through may design iterations and political intrigues - ranging from the L11960, L1-1962, to the Soyuz A. However Chelomei would be assigned the project (LK-1), only to have Korolev get it back in 1965 and finally reach flight status as the Soyuz 7KL1). Korolev also studied lunar automatic crawlers (L2-1963), manned lunar landers (L31963), manned lunar orbiters (L4-1963), and manned lunar crawlers (L5-1963). The Lunar L3 lander project was authorized in 1964 and the L2 emerged as the Luna Ye-8 Lunokhod. y KMV - (Korolev) - Interplanetary manned spacecraft for 2-3 crew, flyby of Mars and Venus. To be developed in 1962 to 1965 (this was the TMK-1. This design would evolve into full-blown Mars landing expeditions during the course of the 1960's ( TMK-E, Mavr, KK). Scientific and Planetary Spacecraft y M - (Korolev) - Launch of Mars 1M robot probes in September - October 1960 and 2MV probes in 1962 (these Mars flights were attempted on this schedule). These used the three stage Luna 8K72 version of the R-7 authorised in 1959. y V - (Korolev) - Launch of Venera 1VA probes in January 1961 and 2MV probes in 1962 (these Venus flights were attempted on this schedule). These used the three stage Luna 8K72 rocket.
y

E - (Korolev) - Launch to the moon (as per the decree of 10 December 1959) of Luna E-1 / Luna E-1A impacter probes in 1960 to 1961 and Luna E-3 orbiters in 1961. These used the three stage Luna 8K72 rocket. They were followed by heavier Luna E-6 lunar soft landers launched by the Molniya 8K78 booster. y K - (Chelomei) - Development of unpiloted Kosmoplans for flight to Mars and Venus with return to earth and landing at conventional airfields. These would use new exotic chemical systems, low thrust nuclear engines (nuclear-plasma, ion, atomic hydrogen). Sub-variants with a total mass of 10 to 12 tonnes and 25 tonnes would be developed in 1965-1966. Draft project to be completed in 1962. y Elektron - (Korolev) - high apogee radiation belt research Elektron-A and Elektron-B satellites, developed according to decree of 10 December 1959, to be launched in 1960 to 1961 (these flew late to schedule) Military Spacecraft y US-A - (Chelomei) - Naval reconnaissance satellite using P6 nuclear reactor. Derivative of the Kosmoplan to be developed in 1962 to 1964 (these flew late to schedule) y R - (Chelomei) - Manned Raketoplan spacecraft for orbital manoeuvring flight and recovery at conventional airfields. Total mass to be 10 to 12 tonnes, total gliding range during re-entry 2,500 to 3,000 km. Unpiloted version to be developed in 1960 to 1961, followed by piloted version in 1963 to 1965. Satellite interceptor operational version to be tested in 1962 to 1964 (only suborbital subscale tests were conducted on this program before it would be cancelled. One variant became the LK-1 manned circumlunar craft, cancelled in turn before it flew) y Meteorological satellites - (Korolev) - Meteor R-7 launched satellites to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these would fly, but behind schedule), to be followed by heavy-rocket satellites in 1963 to 1964 (designer not decided). y Communications satellites - (Korolev) - R-7 launched satellites to be developed in 1961 to 1963 (these would fly, behind schedule, as the Molniya-1 series), to be followed by heavy rocket satellites in 1962 to 1964 (designer not decided). y DS - Small satellites / launchers - (Yangel) to be developed in 1961 to 1965, together with the Kosmos-2 and Kosmos-3 launch vehicles derived from the R-12 and R-14 ballistic missiles (this program flew on schedule - early flight tests included 1MS / 2MS prototypes from another design bureau). y OS - (Korolev) - Space stations - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by the fourth quarter of 1960 whether it can utilise military stations with multiple independent rocket-warheads. This design was iterated through many versions - TKS Heavy Space Station, OP, OS-1 (1965), OS-1 (1969) into the MKBS space station during the course of the 1960's. The cancellation of th N1 in 1974 would finally kill further work on large space stations in Russia until later versions of Mir-2 in the mid-1980's. y IS - Antisatellites - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by July 1960 whether to develop an R-7 launched system for annihilation of enemy reconnaissance satellites (this project was conducted, but given to Chelomei for launch on the UR-200. Eventually flew in the late 1960's, as the IS-A, launched by Yangel Tsyklon 2 rockets) y Military Communications Satellites - the Ministry of Defence was to decide by the fourth quarter of 1960 whether to proceed with development of military communications satellites (this was done - the Strela-1M and Strela-2 series).
y

The final government decree 715-296 of 23 June 1960 'On the Production of Various Launch Vehicles, Satellites, Spacecraft for the Military Space Forces in 1960-1967', authorised draft project work to begin on this massive agenda. Meanwhile the projects authorised in the 1950's were underway, maintaining the Soviet lead in the space race. In January 1960 Star City, the Cosmonaut Training Centre, was founded by the Soviet Air Force and Kamanin was made the head. The first cosmonaut candidates arrived in March 1960. Following unmanned flight tests of Vostok 1KP, Vostok 1K and Vostok 3KA configurations, Yuri Gagarin made the first manned space flight on 12 April 1961. Five further manned Vostok flights maintained the Soviet lead in the space race. In order to keep up with the Americans, Korolev developed and flew a multi-crew version of Vostok (the Voskhod 3KV) and a Vostok with an airlock to accomplish the first spacewalk (the Voskhod 3KD). Further Vostok and Voskhod flights (such as the Voskhod 3KV Tether experiment) were planned but cancelled in order to concentrate on the more capable Soyuz spacecraft. In parallel with Vostok the more sophisticated Zenit-2 and Zenit-4 photo-reconnaissance variants of the spacecraft reached service. Zenit-2 flights began in December 1961; 13 were flown in two years. The system was accepted into the military service in 1964. Zenit-4, the high resolution version, followed in 1965. First Generation Soviet Space Systems The Soviet military realised that having the Chief Designers define space systems was a 'bottom up' approach that did not address the country's real needs. They were faced with an immense American build-up of ballistic missiles which they could not hope to match if resources were squandered on grandiose space projects. Therefore measures were taken to obtain control of the situation. A July 1960 declaration listed the military systems to be developed in 1966 to 1970. Military research programs of 1962 to 1964 code-named Shchit (space systems), Osnova (space equipment), and Ediniy KIK (ground systems) defined the first generation of Soviet operational space systems, deployed in 1966-1975. First generation systems were often developed by Korolev, then spun off to other design bureaux for production. At the beginning of the 1960's an unwieldy total of thirty space systems were in development. In the early 1960's Russian strategic nuclear forces on land, sea, and air were already in place. The military wished to integrate military space forces with these in a systematic manner as soon as possible. These requirements resulted in definition of an SKV - Space Military System. The SKV would exploit the global range of orbital systems; determine the precise location of mobile and fixed targets for strike by strategic forces, precisely hit such targets, and quickly and securely transmit targeting information. A hallmark of the early 1960's was militarisation of space under the shadow of Kennedy's policy of massive retaliation. Both the US and USSR deployed unmanned and developed manned systems to identify, track, and destroy the enemy's satellites. ABM systems could also be used to hit satellites in orbits up to 200 km. This process of militarisation of space was only averted, in the Soviet view, by actions taken by Nixon in the 1970's (the SALT-I treaty, the ABM treaty, and secret understandings to stop development of anti-satellite systems). The period 1966-1970 featured the first practical use of space systems of the first generation.

First generation satellites were very unreliable. One problem was unrealistic specifications, another a lack of proven space-worthy components. The first solution was redundant systems, and these were tried on an experimental basis in the Meteor, Strela, and Tsiklon satellites. Flight demonstrations proved use of better construction methods would allow guaranteed satellite lifetimes of two to three years. Meanwhile the operational situation reached a crisis point. The USA had faced the same problem, and developed a strong reliable component basis for spacecraft. This had increased individual American satellite lifetimes to 3 to 5 years and system operational lives to 5 to 7 years (through use of on-orbit reserve spacecraft). But in the Soviet Union, due to the urgency to deploy, there was no time to develop such a technical basis for first generation systems. Only in the 1970's were reliability problems solved through use of qualified standard components, standard means of documentation, and quality assurance. While the reliability of first generation systems was poor, they still met the needs of the Rocket Forces and General Staff. Quick reaction (10 to 12 day) launch times were achieved, and the new systems allowed precise targeting of long range rockets and naval forces. The Korund space communications system provided reliable command and control of the strategic forces. Military space operations began in 1961 with the 'Provisional Rocket-Engineering Auxiliary' VNIRS-61. This initially developed military operational plans for launch sites and command and control activities, including regularly scheduled maintenance operations. This first phase, which prepared the military to execute space operations and conduct trials of systems, was completed by 1965. The first military space operations plans were prepared for the Zenit reconnaissance satellite system in 1964 to 1965, and subsequently used by the General Staff in the operation of that system. The following lists the missions identified in Shchit/Osnova and the subsequent history of firstgeneration systems used to fulfil these missions. Target Identification and Location y Photo reconnaissance / cartography: While Korolev had designed the first such satellite, the Zenit-2, detailed design of the Zenit-4 high-resolution model and production of all follow-on spacecraft was handled by Kozlov. In mid-1967 plans were approved for further development of these models through 1975, taking into account work then underway. The results were the improved Zenit 2M and Zenit 4M satellites, taken into military service in 1970 and 1971. y Yantar follow-on reconnaissance satellite: Originally Yangel was to handle Yantar, but his design bureau was too busy building higher-priority ICBM's for the RSVN Rocket Forces. So Kozlov took up the project in 1969. Yantar-1KF and Yantar-2K test-construction work began in 1970, but the new series of satellites would be completed only as second and third generations systems. y Manned Photo-reconnaissance: Draft projects for two such designs, Kozlov's Soyuz-R and Chelomei's Almaz APOS, were authorised in 1964. Soyuz-R was cancelled when it became too heavy for the planned launch vehicle. The Almaz, a dedicated platform for manned high-resolution multispectral study of specific targets, continued. The flight trials were intended to prove the effectiveness of manned orbital reconnaissance operations. The program was to take place in two phases. Phase 1 would man the space station using crews shuttled by Korolev's Soyuz 7K-T/A9 spacecraft. Phase 2 would be the operational system, serviced by Chelomei's much larger TKS manned resupply spacecraft. The program was delayed for two years when Almaz hulls were diverted for

the Salyut 1 DOS crash programme to launch a space station before the American Skylab. Finally the first Almaz was launched in April 1973. It depressurised and was abandoned before a crew could be launched. Salyut 3 in 1974 and Salyut 5 in 1975 to 1976 were successfully manned. But the results of the flights showed that manned reconnaissance was not worth the expense. There was minimal time to operate the equipment after the crew took the necessary time for maintenance of station housekeeping and environmental control systems. y ELINT (Electronic and Signals Intelligence): An initial capability was provided by the Zenit-2, which carried the Kust ELINT apparatus. From 1965 to 1967 two dedicated ELINT systems were tested: the Tselina and the Navy's US. Both reached service, since the Ministry of Defence could not force a single system on the military services. Tselina was developed by Yuzhnoye and consisted of two satellites: Tselina-O for general observations and Tselina-D for detailed observations. ELINT systems for Tselina were first tested under the Cosmos designation in 1962 to 1965. The first Tselina-O was launched in 1970. The Tselina-D took a long time to enter service due to delays in payload development and weight growth. The Navy's US radio intelligence satellites were built in US-P (passive detection) and USA (nuclear powered active radar) variants. Development was begun in 1960. They were descended from Chelomei's Kosmoplan modular spacecraft design, and were part of an integrated naval war-fighting system, feeding locations of enemy naval forces to Chelomei-built ship-launched cruise missiles. Both satellites were designed for launch by Chelomei's UR-200 rocket. On October 13, 1964, Khrushchev, Chelomei's patron, was ousted from power. The new leadership decided to assign the US project to Savin, with Chelomei in the sub-contractor role, to be launched by Yuzhnoye's Tsiklon-2 rocket. Delays resulted in the US being implemented as a second generation systems in the 1970's. y Television reconnaissance: Chelomei began project work in 1963 on the Space Television Reconnaissance System (TGR). Savin had developed the original concept. But it was found that the technology did not yet exist for even a draft project to be completed. The concept would not enter operation until the Yantar series in the 1980's. y Navigation: Tsiklon, the first Soviet navigation satellite system, was designed by Reshetnev. Experimental flights began in 1967 in order to develop a system meeting the required tactical and operational characteristics. The Tsiklon-B operational system provided not only navigation information but also store-dump radio communications for Soviet naval forces. The system was accepted into military service in 1976. y Meteorology: The Meteor satellites were developed as per a decree of 30 October 1960. Work began in 1961 at Yuzhnoye; in 1962 it was transferred to VNIIEM. Final development was completed in 1964. The system went into operation in 1969. y Geodesy: Reshetnev's Sfera geodetic spacecraft allowed measurement of geodetic points leading to improved accuracy of long range weapons. Flight tests were from 1968 to 1972, and operational flights were from 1973 to 1980. The Kosmos 3M launcher was used. Strategic and Tactical Communications y Strategic Communications: The strategic communications requirement was met by the Molniya-1, developed by Korolev. This used an elliptical 12 hour orbit that could be

reached by existing launch vehicles and was better suited than geosynchronous orbit for communication with polar areas of the Soviet Union. The experimental version of the spacecraft proved so successful that it was put into service. Reshetnev was responsible for production and follow-on models. The entire system, designated Korund, using existing Gorizont military tropospheric communication ground stations, went into partial operation in 1968. The Molniya-2 model was developed to accommodate the Orbita television system, and was operational by 1972. The Ruchey Command and Control System communications stations for the Rocket Forces, Air Force, and Navy were completely in place by 1975. Korund allowed strategic communications and telephony with military units in Siberia and the Far East. The system finally included 8 spacecraft, replaced at increasing intervals as reliability improved over the 20 year life of the system. y Tactical Communications: Reshetnev's Strela medium earth-orbit store-dump survivable communications system was developed experimentally in the 1960's, with flight tests from 1964 to 1965. Production system flight tests began in 1970. In 1973 and 1974 the Strela 1M and Strela 2M systems were accepted by the military. This system proved the basic concepts used in the Iridium and Globalstar commercial satellite constellations decades later. Space Combat y Fractional Orbital Bombing System (OGCh): In the early 1960's the Soviet planners pursued the concept of a 'global rocket' - a missile that would place nuclear warheads into low earth orbit, where they could approach the enemy from any direction, under the existing ballistic missile detection radars, and strike with little warning. Competitors for the single-warhead GR-1 requirement were Chelomei's UR-200, Korolev's GR-1, and Yangels' R-36-O. Only Yangel's design went into production and was in service until 1992. For the GR-2 multiple warhead requirement Yangel's R-56 and Korolev's N-11GR / N-11 1963 designs were rejected in favour of Chelomei's Proton 8K82. The Chelomei design was tested but never went into service. American development of orbiting infrared warning systems that could detect missiles on launch negated the surprise attack element at the core of the concept. y Anti-Satellite: The original IS anti-satellite design was to be a Kosmoplan built by Chelomei and launched by his UR-200 booster. It was tested by him as Polyot. After the fall of Khrushchev the satellite project was handed to Savin with the launcher changed to Yuzhnoye's Tsyklon 2. The first test series of the IS-A ASAT was conducted in 19681972 using two different targets ( IS-P, DS-P1-M). These tests were wholly inconclusive, and a second test series in 1972-1975 was necessary to complete the state trials. The system was finally accepted into military service in February 1973 as the IS system. In connection with the 1972 Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty further operational trials were discontinued. y Training/target objects: These were designed by Kovtunenko at Yuzhnoye as part of the 'DS' light satellite series and first tested under the Cosmos designation in 1962 to 1965. The DS-P1-Yu and DS-P1-I spacecraft were for radar tests of the PVO Air Defence and ABM systems. They were accepted into the military in 1968 and 1970 as the 'Raduga' complex and remained in service until 1978. The DS-P1-M 'Lira' target for PKO Antisatellite Forces systems was designed for both anti-ballistic missile and anti-satellite

testing. It was more than a passive target, including an impact registration system that returned data on the elements of the hit (direction, velocity, etc.). First flight trials began in August 1970 and the target was in service from 1973 to 1983. y Manned combat spacecraft: An initial draft project for the Soyuz-P manned interceptor was approved in 1964. Studies showed the complexity and danger of such an approach. But American military experiments aboard Gemini flights and pursuit of the military Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL) lead to work being resumed on a crash program of a new design in 1965. This Soyuz VI was to conduct space military research not covered by Almaz - manned earth observation, orbital inspection and destruction of enemy satellites. Soyuz VI was supposed to fly quickly, but fell victim to defects in the basic Soyuz design and internal politics at Korolev's design bureau. By 1970 the American MOL had been cancelled and Soviet flight tests had provided convincing evidence that near-earth manned operations were better suited to solution of national economic problems than military ones. So Soyuz VI was cancelled. y Manned Spaceplane: Chelomei's Raketoplan manned spaceplane interceptor was cancelled in 1965 and replaced by the Mikoyan Spiral OS. This reached flight test status (MiG 105-11 and BOR-4) in the 1970's before being replaced by the Buran space shuttle. Support Systems Monitoring/ Characterisation of Near-Earth Space: Two Energia spacecraft, adapted from the Zenit reconnaissance satellite, were launched in the 1970's to study high-energy cosmic rays. These were supplemented by the Lavochkin Prognoz series, launched in 1972 to 1976, for study of geomagnetic fields, radiation, and solar physics. They continued the work of the Elektron-A and Elektron-B spacecraft of 1964. Biological studies on the effects of radiation: The Bion satellite, based on the Zenit reconnaissance satellite, was developed for this purpose. Launches began in 1973 with primary emphasis on the problems of radiation effects on human beings. Bions were launched from 1973 to 1996. Small related experiments were carried in Nauka modules on Zenit-2M reconnaissance spacecraft. Systems tests and scientific experiments: From 1968 Nauka attached containers or free-flying sub-satellites were used on Zenit reconnaissance satellites to develop methods to study radiation belts; establish radiation standards; establish the characteristics of the earth-space interface; and develop new instruments. 23 autonomous sub-satellites conducted methodical research into geophysics, meteorology, and cosmic rays. The DS series of light satellites developed by Yangel also provided platforms for a wide range of technology equipment tests and space environment monitoring. They flew under the 'Cosmos' satellite program ('Cosmos' name was also used as the cover name for any military satellite or launch failure). This program was managed by the Third Directorate of the GURVO Rocket Forces, consisting of four sections of 36 officers and 5 civilians. National Prestige Programs Although they represented only 20% of launches, national prestige projects (manned and planetary missions) represented 50% of the effort of the military, which was responsible for the launch facilities and operations. This was due to their scale and use of non-standard launch vehicles and spacecraft. y Manned Earth Orbit Rendezvous and Docking - Korolev obtained approval for development of the Soyuz 7K-OK in December 1963. The spacecraft was to prove out

systems for automatic rendezvous and docking of spacecraft, extra-vehicular activity, and scientific research. The Soyuz had severe development problems during its first flight series from 1966 to 1970. The only completely successful missions were Soyuz 4/Soyuz 5 in January 1969 (first docking and crew transfer between two manned spacecraft) and Soyuz 9 in June 1970 (record 17 day mission). Versions were designed but never flown to test artificial-G in earth orbit ( Soyuz 7K-OK Tether) and to test the Kontakt docking system for the lunar landing program ( Soyuz Kontakt). Manned Lunar Projects - The Soviet government waited until 1964 before deciding to take on the 1961 American moon race challenge. The secret Russian program failed to beat the Americans to a landing on the moon. There were three parallel projects: the Lunar L1 (LK-1) program, assigned to Chelomei, to beat the Americans to a circumlunar flight; the Lunar L3 (Soyuz 7K-LOK / LK) program, assigned to Korolev, to land a Soviet man on the moon; and the Zvezda permanent lunar base (built from DLB Modules), assigned to Barmin. The key element of the last two projects was the N1 launch vehicle. It was decided in the second half of 1965 that Chelomei would no longer be responsible for high-priority projects, and the L1 project was assigned to Korolev. A month later Korolev died suddenly, a crippling blow to the entire program. Mishin was named as Korolev's successor after a long delay. Korolev's Soyuz 7K-L1 was flown in several versions to support the L1 and L3 projects (Soyuz 7K-L1P, Soyuz 7K-L1E, Soyuz 7K-L1A) but could not be qualified for manned flight before Apollo 8 orbited the moon and ended the first lap of the moon race. The first N1 launch was to be in 1967 but was delayed to 1969 due to serious deficiencies in organisation and co-operation. Chelomei and Glushko advocated dumping the N1/L3 design and using their UR-700 / LK-700 for a direct lunar landing. These alternates were rejected, but the first two N1 launches, in January and July 1969, resulted in the explosion of the launch vehicle. In retrospect a fatal error was made in deciding to launch a vehicle of this size from the remote Baikonur cosmodrome. Since Korolev rejected modular designs, the vehicle could not be transported by rail or water to the selected launch site; it had to be built at the site itself. Budget limitations meant that the enormous first stage was not static tested before flight. Lunar probes: Babakin, at the Lavochkin bureau, had been assigned development of heavy unmanned probes to support manned lunar base construction. Ten of these Luna Ye-8 probes were launched from 1969 to 1974, and they successfully returned lunar soil to earth and roved the surface. The success of these probes allowed the Soviet Union to promulgate the myth that they had never been in the moon race. Planetary probes: The 2MV probes were replaced first by the 3MV series. To match ambitious American plans for robot exploration of Mars in the 1970's, the four-timesheavier 4MV bus was introduced, requiring launch by a Proton rocket. This continued to be used for Soviet planetary probes, and some heavy scientific satellites (Granat, Astron, Prognoz), to the end of the century. Soviet probes to Venus were generally successful. None of the six probes sent to Mars returned any significant data. Intercosmos and international programs - Launches of payloads developed by countries friendly to the Soviet Union aboard DS satellites from Yuzhnoye began in April 1967. Intercosmos-1, the first dedicated launch, came in October 1969. The last launch of the first generation of the series was in 1976. Launch of similar Soviet-French Oreol

satellites, code named Arkad, were made in 1971 and 1973. The Soviet Union also assisted India in development of its Aryabhata satellite, launched by a Russian rocket in 1975. Booster developments: y R-7 derivatives: The original R-7A 8K74 ICBM had been adapted on a crash basis in the late 1950's with addition of third and fourth stages. The design was productionised and standardised by Kozlov in the mid-1960's, using common elements between the configurations, resulting in the following versions: two stage Polyot 11A59, with singleengine third stage Vostok 8A92, with four-engine third stage Soyuz 11A511, and four stages Molniya 8K78. y Light launch vehicle: To provide a more economical launcher than the R-7 , Yangel developed the Kosmos 63S1, using the R-12 IRBM as the first stage, with a 300 kg payload. It had a relatively poor record of 40 launches with 12 failures. It was replaced by the Kosmos-2/Kosmos 11K63, with a 450 kg payload. From 1966 to 1977, it had a record of 123 launches with 8 failures. y Light medium launch vehicle: In 1961 Isayev and Reshetnev developed the two stage Kosmos-1 / Kosmos 65S3 / 'Voskhod' launch system on the basis of the Yangel R-14 IRBM. Test launches were conducted from 1965 from the R-16 ICBM Launch Complex 41 at Baikonur. The serial production version was the Kosmos-3 / Kosmos 11K65, built at the Krasnoryarsk Machine Factory. After further development at NPO Polyot, work on the modified Kosmos-3M / Kosmos 11K65M began in 1967. This added a restartable second stage with an orientation system. Flight trials from the Voskhod complex at Plesetsk began in 1967 and it was accepted into military service in December 1971. This booster was launched form two Cusovaya launch complexes from Plesetsk after 1987. y Medium Launch Vehicle: Chelomei flight tested his UR-200 booster for launch of IS and US satellites, but this was cancelled in 1965. In its place Yangel began development of a launch vehicle derived from his R-36 ICBM with an upper stage. This could put a 3 tonne payload into low earth orbit and was designated Tsyklon-2. Launches began in Baikonur in 1969, and in February 1973 the Tsyklon-2 was accepted into service. y Heavy Launch Vehicle: Chelomei had developed the Proton 8K82 as a super-ICBM from 1962. The three stage Proton 8K82K and four stage Proton 8K82K / 11S824 versions were developed from 1964 for the manned circumlunar flight program and for launch of heavy probes to Mars and Venus. The booster was not used by the military until 1978. Development was difficult due to the high degree of automation and numerous factory mistakes. Test launches of the boosters were used to orbit the heavy N-4 and N-6 physics satellites. Mature First Generation Soviet Space Systems. Mature first generation space systems provided targeting and communications support for the Soviet strategic forces. These systems were developed in the Ninth Five Year Plan (1971-1975) and deployed in the Tenth Five Year Plan (1976-1980). However initial planning began in November 1966 when TsUKOS MO (Central Directorate of the Space Forces of the Ministry of Defence) formed the first permanent unit for military space operations with Col A I Udaltsov as its Chief. In the period 1966 to 1969 the unit prepared and put into operation formal technical

procedures. These were issued in June 1969 in the manual, 'Organisation, Maintenance, and Military Operation of Space Systems'. Plans Epokha (1965), Koltso (1968), and Oblako (1970) formalised the military-political structures for space operations, and determined the optimal groupings of earth- and spacebased forces in military operations. The theoretical plan Koltso (1966-1968) defined an organised method for scientific development of space forces and showed that they could be operated in fundamentally the same way as other arms of the military. In 1968 4 NII MO (Fourth Scientific Research Institute of the Ministry of Defence) formed Filial 4 for scientific research. In April 1970 two directorates were formed, one for Military Space Units Research and the other for Mathematical-Modelling Military Research. These consisted of five new science units, and 12 laboratories. They conducted ballistic calculations for the RVSN Rocket Forces and Space Forces and prepared the TTT and TTZ specifications for new projects. A Defence Ministry directive of 6 November 1968 laid out the actions to be taken in the late 1960's and early 1970's for unit programming for military utilisation (Plans Mars, Osnova, Orion). The objective was to integrate space forces into overall military planning, taking into account the most cost-effective use of resources. This included basic space research for military and national economy purposes. Methodical operations planning was begun by Filial 4 NII MO from 1967, and was completed in 1970 with Plans Prognoz and Sirius Phase I. These established the development plans for the space forces in the period 1971-1980. These plans set the following objectives: y Utilisation of spacecraft constellations to carry out extremely complex operations in solving military, scientific, and national-economic problems; y Production of new on-board systems of increased size, satellite buses of increased size and payload, improved radio technology and materials y Three launch vehicles in place of ten y Improved KIK tracking stations y Increased survivability of the tracking network through dispersal of centre operations to regional centres, using central co-ordination and planning, and use of mobile as well as stationary KIK points The plans included not just systems and spacecraft, but also infrastructure improvements. The military program 'Space Military Units 1971-1980' laid out recommendations for space units, tactical-technical characteristics, and stages of development. It included 27 space systems, 22 unmanned and 5 manned. Sirius Phase I was the first space project based on recommendations of the Scientific-Technical Committee of the Rocket Forces, headed by General N N Alekseyev. This first project plan was include in the ninth Soviet Five Year Plan (1971-1975). The Soviet military units responsible for space operations went through several reorganisations. From October 1964, the Third Directorate of the GURVO (Main Directorate of the Rocket Forces), was responsible for Baikonur and Plesetsk operations. From March 1970 GUKOS MO (Main Directorate of the Space Forces of the Military of Defence) was formed and took over this responsibility. It reported directly to the General Staff. GUKOS was able to wrest control of the MKRTs electronic surveillance system from the Russian Navy but ASAT and SPRN Early Warning Systems remained the responsibility of the PVO Air Defence Forces. In 1971-1976 trials of all first generation systems were completed and the phase of implementation and full utilisation of these systems began. Of the 30 systems authorised for

draft project stage, only 14 systems entered service. Those eliminated included almost all of the elaborate manned military and space exploration designs of Korolev and Chelomei. In 1970 to 1976 standard manuals and norms were developed for the operation of the space forces. Launch and tracking facilities became more standardised and steps were taken to make the space forces more resilient in combat. Measures taken included development of autonomously-operating satellites, orbiting of reserve satellites, and deployment of mobile reserve tracking stations. Systems were developed for operation in difficult conditions, including enemy jamming environments. Both ground stations and satellites were provided with the capability to manoeuvre whenever possible. By the end of the 1970's space systems were in place that were integrated into the country's military doctrine and plans, fully supported Soviet strategic communications, and provided command and control of continental and oceanic military forces. Development of the first nine systems of the first generation was completed in 1974-1975 and flight trials were conducted in the second half of the 1970's. The second group of first generation systems were developed in the second half of the 1970's and deployed in the first half of the 1980's. They provided crucial intelligence that helped maintain the USA-USSR balance of power. First generation systems were designed for practical application of space technology by all parts of the state (military, economic, science, control, agricultural, international co-operation, etc.). These were a result of the following policy decisions: y Space units were to be national systems, applicable to multiple solutions y Development and realisation of increased reliability and survivability of space systems, including use of anti-satellites of various types. y Development of autonomous operating systems that best used the resources of the satellite, including digital computers for control, diagnostics, and guidance y Common modular systems that could be used in all series of satellites (KAUR at Reshetnev's KBPM, AUOS at KB Yuzhnoye, Yantar at Kozlov's TsSKB, etc.) y Highly effective control units. y New launch vehicles, using automatic guidance systems, that could place a range of payloads in various orbits without redesign of the booster. y New technologies; improved reliability, communications; digital devices in place of analogue; defined common systems. Assigned missions were: y Recognise preparations for an attack on the Soviet Union y Strategic and tactical reconnaissance for land, sea, air, and space forces y Identify attacking units y Military-political communications with strategic and tactical units y Navigation of military units y Topographic and hydrographic support of the armed forces y Control of forces during a nuclear strike and during preparation for retaliation y Support exercise and test of military systems The spacecraft used to accomplish these missions were: y Space Reconnaissance Systems Photo-Reconnaissance: A series of new design reconnaissance satellites using the Yantar bus were intended to replace the Zenit series. The Yantar-2K featured

double the duration and film capacity of earlier systems. This was combined with improved operational dissemination and use of information. Development work was started in 1971, flight tests began in 1974, and the Yantar-2K flew until 1983. However development of other members of the Yantar series was protracted and test of the Yantar-2K showed it did not have the resolution to provide strategic warning of attack. Therefore improved Zenit models filled the gap. The Zenit design was modernised 4 times by Kozlov in 1972, 1976, 1978, and 1983 with better photo apparatus and film. The final versions could manoeuvre in orbit and photograph small objects. These variants were:  Zenit-4MK - Modernised high resolution version of the satellite that went into service in 1972.  Zenit-4MKM - A further modification, entered service in 1978.  Zenit-6U - A universal variant, used in two altitude ranges, for both observation and high resolution missions. Accepted for military service in 1978. Electronic Intelligence: The first Tselina-O survey satellite had been launched in 1970. The Tselina-D was required to complete the constellation but took a long time to enter service due to delays in payload development and weight growth. The whole Tselina system was not operational until 1976. It not only localised and classified radio emitters but also characterised their functional regimes. This allowed it to identify command traffic from military units, allowing targeting of those units by photo reconnaissance satellites. Constant improvement resulted in Tselina-O being abandoned in 1984 and all systems being put on Tselina-D. Ballistic Missile Early Warning System Work on the Oko satellite in Molniya-type elliptical orbits began in 1967 as the USK - space system to observe rocket launches. Using multi-spectral sensors they provided the Soviet Union with warning-on-launch of enemy ballistic missile attacks (15 to 30 minutes earlier than radar systems). Four experimental versions of the satellite were launched from 1972-1976, beginning with Kosmos 520. Three of these were put into operation, resulting in an initial useable system in 1977. But even with a four satellite constellation 24 hour observation of all possible enemy launch locations was not possible. MKRTs - Naval Space Reconnaissance and Targeting System The Navy's US radio intelligence and targeting satellites were built in US-P (passive detection) and US-A (nuclear powered active radar) variants. The projects were moved from Chelomei to Savin at KB Arsenal in 1967. Launch vehicle was changed to Yuzhnoye's Tsiklon-2 rocket. Following a crash redevelopment programme the US-P entered service in 1971 and the US-A in 1975. TGKS - Topographic / Geodetic Space System, operational 1976 The Yantar-1KF first generation cartographic system began development in 1968. While it used systems from the Yantar-2K, it retained a re-entry vehicle of the Zenit type. However it became impossible to keep the spacecraft within the payload capability of the Soyuz-U launch vehicle. Therefore the design was

abandoned and modifications of the Zenit were put into service as an interim measure:  Zenit-4MT for topographical photography. Accepted into service in 1976.  Zenit-8 for military cartography. Accepted into military service in 1983. Reshetnev's Sfera geodetic spacecraft allowed measurement of geodetic points leading to improved accuracy of long range weapons. Flight tests were from 1968 to 1972, and operational flights were from 1973 to 1980. The Kosmos-3M launcher was used. y Navigation Systems The Tsikada updated first generation navigation system represented a collaboration between the Navy, Academy of Sciences, and Ministry of Shipping. The basis was the Tsiklon-B doppler navigation system, but Tsikada was designed for asynchronous operation of on-board equipment with only essential equipment receiving a timer interrupt. Development began in 1974 and flight trials began from Plesetsk in 1976. The launch of Kosmos 1000 on 31 March 1978 marked the beginning of deployment of the operational system. The system was accepted for military service in 1979 by the Soviet Army and Navy. The complete constellation entered service in 1986. The satellite could be launched one per Kosmos-3M or four per Tsyklon-3 booster. y Meteorological Systems Work began in 1967 to develop solutions for a mature hydrographic and meteorological observation systems. Compared to Meteor-1, the Meteor-2 had a longer design operational life (one year vs. six months) and the capability to transfer data automatically to military APPI stations (Autonomous Points of Information Collection). Prime contractor was VNIIEM Mineletrotekhprom (A G Yosifiyan). In 1969 the TTZ specification was issued by the Ministry of Defence and the Main Hydrometeorological Office of the Soviet Ministers. The draft project was completed in 1971. Due to difficulties in development of spectrometer equipment, flight trials did not commence until July 1975. As an interim measure, an improved Meteor-1 (Meteor M) began flying in 1977. Meteors were launched into 81.2 degree orbits, at 850 km altitude, allowing a revisit of every location at 6 and 12 hour intervals by a constellation of three satellites at 90 to 180 degree intervals. Each satellite could observe 30,000 sq. km at a time. Data was processed at hydro-meteorological offices at Moscow, Novosibirsk, and Khabarovsk. YeSSS- Unified System of Satellite Communications This system was designed to provide services to both military and civilian users. On 5 April 1972 the YeSSS was defined as the Molniya-2 and Molniya-3 satellites in elliptical orbit and Raduga (Statsionar) in geosynchronous orbit. The complete first generation communications system was accepted into military service in December 1979. Over the next five years, though 1985, 35 Molniya and 17 Raduga satellites were launched to keep the system operational. Russian geosynchronous spacecraft differed from Western equivalents in their greater mass (2.0-2.5 metric tons), their lesser communications capacity, and, their lack north-south stationkeeping ability. The latter resulted in a continual variation of orbital inclinations (typically between 0 to 5 degrees) of Russian geosynchronous satellites during their operational lifetimes. To minimise this effect new satellites were launched with initial geosynchronous orbital

inclinations of 1-2 degrees under strict conditions which took advantage of solar-lunar perturbations to reduce the inclination to zero over a period of one to two years before it increased. East-West station-keeping was accomplished with liquid propellant thrusters. All geosynchronous satellites were launched from Baikonur by the Proton booster. With rare exceptions the spacecraft were inserted into geosynchronous near 90 degrees East and allowed to drift east or west to their intended stations. y Molniya: Flight trials of the Molniya-2 were conducted in 1971-1974. Operational flights came in 1974-1977. Molniya-2, like Molniya-1, consisted of four pairs of spacecraft with orbits at ninety degrees to one another. Development of Molniya-3, initially designated Molniya-2M, began in 1972. Flight trials began in November 1974. The Molniya-3 was used to create the 'Orbita' television system for northern regions, with groups of four satellites. y Raduga: Development of Soviet geosynchronous satellites began at the end of the 1960's. In July 1974 a Proton DM boosted a Molniya-1 into geosynchronous orbit. This was a test for the specialised military Raduga satellites that were to be stationed at 35 degrees and 85 degrees East. Construction of the first Raduga was completed in 1975. A single orbital group of two such satellites could handle all of the military communications of the Soviet eastern regions. Internationally designated Statsionar-1, Raduga represented the first use of the new universal spacecraft bus KAUR-3. y Ekran: In the first half of the 1970's the development of the Ekran (Statsionar T) civilian geosynchronous system was completed for central television broadcast to Siberia and the Far North. The first Ekran was launched on 26 October 1976. The first flights used experimental satellites, but they already allowed 18 to 20 million additional Soviet citizens to see the Central Television program. Problems with the Proton booster resulted in delays in putting the system into operation. y Survivable communications system: The Strela-1M and Strela-2M store-dump satellite constellation continued in use for tactical communications with improvements. National Economy Systems y Resurs-O: A decree of December 1971 ordered development of the Meteor-Priroda system for remote sensing. This adaptation of the Meteor allowed low resolution multispectral imaging. First launch was on 9 July 74. The Resurs-OE and Resurs-O1 improved versions continued to provide this service through the end of the century. y Resurs-F: A decree of 21 December 1972 started work on a supplemental high resolution film-return earth resources system. The Zenit-4MKT / Fram spacecraft took multi-spectral photographs on black and white and spectro-zonal film. Scientific Research y Adaptations of the recoverable Zenit satellite were again used for new purposes. The Bion was developed for biological studies and the Foton for materials science research. Combat Systems By 1976 Nixon had been ousted from power and the Carter administrations renewed work on ASAT's. This resulted in a new series of trial flights of an improved IS-A interceptor and target (DS-P1-M) through 1978. The last flight tests were conducted in 1982. The Soviet Union unilaterally abandoned anti-satellite operations in 1983. The improved IS-MU version of the system was kept in untested reserve after that date.

Manned Military Space Systems: Approval was provided in 1970 to start work on Phase 2 of the Almaz space station. This would provide a permanent Almaz OPS-2 military platform in orbit, serviced by Chelomei's large TKS resupply craft. Meanwhile the Phase 1 Almaz OPS flights showed that manned reconnaissance was not worth the expense. There was minimal time to operate the equipment after the crew completed necessary maintenance of station housekeeping and environmental control systems. The experiments themselves showed good results - especially the value of reconnaissance of the same location in many different parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Therefore the existing Almaz-2 spacecraft were to be converted to the Almaz-T configuration. This would be a man-tended multi-satellite multi-spectral system for sustained reconnaissance. Work on this in turn was halted in 1982 after the death of Chelomei. The spacecraft were finally flown in 1986-1991, but the collapse of the Soviet Union ended further work. The basic Almaz design formed the basis for the Salyut civilian stations, the Mir core module, and the International Space Station ISS Zvezda Module. The TKS manned ferry spacecraft were tested in unmanned flights and the TKS VA re-entry capsule underwent extensive tests. After cancellation of the Almaz-2 program, surplus TKS resupply craft were flown to dockings with Salyut 6 and 7. Although the TKS had significantly better characteristics than the existing Soyuz spacecraft, it was not put into operation. However this design formed the basis for modules of the Mir and International Space Stations. National Prestige Projects y Manned Lunar Programme: In July 1969 the Americans beat the Soviet Union to the moon, but the Soviet N1-L3 project continued. The revised plan envisioned establishment of a lunar base in the late 1970's, after the Americans had completed their Apollo program. This would use dual-launches of new L3M-1970 / L3M-1972 spacecraft by an improved N1F booster. Unfortunately the third and fourth N1 launches were failures. The first N1F was being prepared for launch when the entire program was cancelled in 1974. Glushko replaced Mishin as head of the Korolev bureau. y Manned Mars Expedition: Flushed with their victory in the moon race, NASA advanced serious plans in 1969 for a manned Mars landing program. The Soviet leadership directed study of a Russian equivalent - Aelita. Korolev's bureau dusted off their earlier studies of the 1960's and came up with the MEK before deciding not to submit a draft proposal. Chelomei completed design of his UR-700M / MK-700. But the Nixon administration quickly axed NASA's ambitious plans and a study of the matter by an expert commission in 1973 decided that the Soviet Union did not have the money or technology for such a project. y Civilian Space Station: The Korolev bureau planned an ambitious MKBS orbital base lofted by the N1 booster. However continued failures of the N1 put these plans on indefinite hold. After America's landing on the moon and the explosion of the second N1, the engineering staff at Korolev's bureau found itself with no immediate work at hand. There would be a long delay for redesign of the N1, and they had spun off all of their unmanned spacecraft to other design bureaux. The next round of the space race would be the first manned space station. While the USAF had cancelled their MOL Manned Orbiting Laboratory, NASA's Skylab was scheduled for launch by 1972. Like-minded engineers conspired behind the backs of Chief Designers Chelomei and Mishin. Through Communist Party channels they proposed to take the Almaz OPS hulls already built by Chelomei, outfit them with flight-

qualified Soyuz systems, and launch the resulting spacecraft before Skylab. The Soviet leadership, fed up with the internecine quarrelling that contributed to the loss of the moon race, agreed. The Salyut-1 DOS (long duration orbital station) design was created. The first launch, Salyut 1 of 1971, beat Skylab into orbit but the crew perished when their Soyuz spacecraft depressurised during the return to earth. Launch and in-orbit failures in 1972 and 1973 were finally followed by the completely successful Salyut 4 of 1975-1976. The cancellation of the N1 in 1974 left Salyut as the only Soviet civilian manned space program. The Korolev bureau borrowed the two docking port configuration of Chelomei's Almaz-2 and flew Salyut 6 and Salyut 7 in 1977 and 1982. This allowed near-continuous occupation of the stations through crew rotation. The opportunity was taken to fly 'guest cosmonauts' from friendly countries on short visits to the stations. Salyut 7 was able to conduct significant military experiments thanks to the greatly increased volume and payload of the TKS modules diverted from the Almaz programme. To support operation of these stations the basic Soyuz design was modified by addition of a docking tunnel. The resulting Soyuz 7KT-OK was used with the Salyut 1 DOS space station. Following the disastrous Soyuz 11 mission, it was again reworked to the simplified Soyuz 7K-T design, which finally provided a reliable ferry craft to Salyuts-4, -6, and -7. A further modification was the Progress, an unmanned logistics vehicle that replaced the crew re-entry vehicle with propellant tanks for resupply of Salyut space stations. These Soyuz 7K-OK derivatives flew until succeeded by Soyuz T in 1981 and Progress M in 1989. These designs were derived from the still-born Soyuz 7K-S, a military version of Soyuz which began development in 1968. From 17 July 1984 Soyuz could be launched with 200 kg additional mass thanks to use of Tsiklin propellant in the Soyuz-U2 booster. Some solo Soyuz missions were conducted apart from the Salyut program. Soyuz 20 carried a biological payload, and Soyuz 22 / Soyuz 7K-MF6 flew a multi-spectral camera. y Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP) - Following the moon race and in the atmosphere of the Nixon-Brezhnev dtente, meetings began in 1969 to develop a universal docking system for space rescue. A working group was set up in October 1970 and in May 1972 a US/USSR Agreement was signed for a joint manned space mission to take place in 1975. The Soviets developed the modified Soyuz 7K-TM design for the mission. Soyuz 19 (ASTP) and Apollo (ASTP) successfully docked in orbit in July 1975. The worsening cold war prevented further joint missions. The information the Russians acquired during this project helped them reinvent their space technology and program management techniques for the third generation of space systems. Launch Vehicles The Ministry of Defence did manage to retire some old launch vehicles. 1974 saw the last launch from KRK Raduga using the Kosmos 63S1M booster. On 29 June 1976 the last Voskhod 11A57 booster was launched. As a result, in 1977 121 launches were made using only six types of launch vehicles and 16 types of spacecraft. Launch facilities at Kapustin Yar were limited to LC-5 and LC-53. y Light medium launch vehicle: The Kosmos 11K65M continued in service for all lighter satellites. The Kosmos 11K63 was retired.

Medium launch vehicle: The two-stage Tsyklon-2 continued in service for the US and IS payloads (which were equipped with rocket engines for orbital insertion). Work on the Tsyklon-3 began in the early 1970's. The specification was to deliver 4 tonnes into low earth orbit with high accuracy, requiring minimum adjustment of the operational orbit by the payload. To achieve this a new third stage was developed. A new launch complex for the Tsyklon-3 began construction at the beginning of the 1970's at Plesetsk. The first pad was put into operation in 1977 and the second in 1979. Heavy launch vehicle: The UR-500K (Proton 8K82K) itself underwent flight trials from March 1978 to February 1970, a total of 20 flights. The original Block D configuration (Proton 8K82K / 11S824) was used until 1976, at which time it was replaced by a modernised version (Proton 8K82K / 11S86) equipped with N2O4/UDMH verniers for precise placement of payloads in geosynchronous orbit. This was accepted into military service in 1978 with the first Raduga launch. Project work began in 1970, with construction starting in 1972, on Launch Complex LC-200 for the Proton and a new MIKKA for spacecraft integration. The first pad was completed in 1977, the second in 1978, and the MIK-KA was first used in 1981. These facilities supported launch of the military's second generation systems. The new MIK-KA had two areas for preparation of second generation navigation satellites, one area for preparation of transponder satellites, and five areas for second and third generation communications and electro-optical reconnaissance satellites. R-7: The Soyuz 11A511U was a standardised, modernised version of the R-7 launch vehicle with higher performance first and second stage engines. Improvements were made to the launch complexes, including unified test-launch ground support equipment. This was first used on the Apollo-Soyuz launches in the mid-1970's. Military applications included Zenit and Yantar. A modernised Vostok 8A92M launcher remained in service for sun-synchronous orbit payloads. First use was the Meteor launch on 29 June 1977.

Second Generation Soviet Space Systems.

Second generation space systems extended support of space assets beyond the strategic forces to tactical military units. In April 1972 50 TsNII KS MO (50th Central Scientific Research Institute for Space Systems of the Ministry of Defence) was decreed. It was empowered to co-ordinate all of the work of the various space research institutions (TsNIIMASH, NIITI, Agat, NII Khimash) on follow-on space systems. The objective was to draft a five year plan for satellites to be used in the 1985-1990 period. 50 TsNII KS MO was formed from staff and facilities of 4-NII MO. It was tasked to put together defence plans, draft TTT and TTZ specifications, and conduct trials of equipment. Research supported the RVSN Rocket Forces in their planning for 1971-1975. These included Plans Sirius Phase 2, Dal', Gamma, and Zamysel. The final result was two plans: "Program for Military Space Units for 1976 to 1985" and "Basis and Direction of Development of Space Units through 1990". These documents defined the Soviet Union's second generation space systems. The plans included:
y

Description of the complex research, organised among various institutes, necessary to develop the basic project documents for the plan and to conduct operations analysis and cost/technical trade studies; Planning documents for development of space systems in the five years under consideration and follow-on developments:

y y y y

Basic direction of military development for 10 to 15 years Program to develop military technology during ten years. Capital investment plan Specific five year plan for consideration of the Defence Ministry and Central Committee for inclusion in the national five year plan (subject to approval by the VPK Military-Industrial Commission). Five year plans of basic research

After evaluation by the Ministry of Defence, these plans were approved by the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Soviet Ministers on 27 February 1976. They included the definition of new research programs in the 1976-1980 period, operational effectiveness studies, organisational studies, and determination of optimal orbits for various satellite constellations. This February decree was a watershed which laid out the systems that would be designed and deployed until the dissolution of the Soviet Union. These plans embodied the response of the Soviet leadership to the technical debacles of the early 1970's - the loss of the moon race, the failure of the N1, the unreliability of first generation spacecraft. Development of the new space systems would use new research, quality assurance, and program management techniques. These would make maximum use of successful American 'best practices' and technology that had won the moon race.

The Soviet Unified Space System consisted of:

y y y y y y y

YeSKN - Unified System of Space Reconnaissance, operational 1977, including ICBM early warning systems MKRTs - Naval Space Reconnaissance and Targeting System, operational 1976 YeSSS-2: Unified System of Satellite Communications, Second Generation GKKRS - Global Command and Control Space Relay System, operational 1985 GLONASS - Global Navigation System, operational 1976. GMKS - Global Meteorological Space System, partially operational 1976 TGKS - Topographic / Geodetic Space System, operational 1976

There was considerable controversy as the 'Young Turks' took on the conservatives. The controversy mirrored the 'star wars' arguments of the following decade in the United States conventional space objectives versus exotic technologies and possibilities. Although preliminary research projects were begun, the weaponisation of these concepts did not begin until the mid1980's. At the conclusion of the deployment of these systems, the Soviet Union finally achieved military space system parity with the United States. But there were serious delays. By the end of the 11th Five Year Plan (1981-1985), of 23 priority systems requirements, 21 were from one to three years behind schedule. The two that had been completed were finished one year behind schedule. Only 60% of the planned flight trials launches had been completed. In particular delays in development of the new Zenit launch vehicle impacted all the other programs, increasing their costs. Tselina-2 had to be initially launched aboard Proton boosters, and Yantar-4K aboard Soyuz-U.

Second generation Launch Vehicles A completely new family of dedicated space launch vehicles, not derived from military missiles, would be developed to support the spacecraft. 50 TsNII-KS began research in 1973 on Plan Poisk - a new modular family of launch vehicles. These were in four classes: Light - 3 tonnes payload; Medium, 10-12 tonnes; Heavy, 30 - 35 tonnes; and Super-heavy. The objectives: y Maximum reliability y Greatest realistically possible net payload for a given launch mass y A wide functional range of all elements. Many concepts were studied. The Universal Modular Approach allowed modules to be thoroughly tested. Conclusions of the study: y Performance must not be achieved at the expense of reliability y Universal upper stage for geosynchronous/planetary applications y Non-toxic Lox/Kerosene propellants for cost and safety reasons y Autonomous guidance systems that could be programmed for many trajectories. Flexible, able to handle failure modes and flight deviations y Full tests of launch vehicles prior to service: o Mock-up tests to provide maximum realism for facilities check-out and staff training. These would include:  Mass-dimensional mock-up to test transportability, assembly and launch handling  Electrical mock-up to develop flight trials technical and launch positions  Fuelling mock-up to test tanking/detanking (at first with substitute fuel components). o Flight tests: First launches would be made with mock-up payloads, replicating mass and telemetry characteristics of real payloads, but with heavy instrumentation of the launch vehicle and television observation to allow analysis and corrective action of failures. On 3 November 1973 GUKOS set forth new design principles for the next generation of launch vehicles: y All launch vehicles to be of two stages y Launch vehicles of the basic classes would be built from common modules (first stages, engine sections, guidance systems) y Launch vehicles must use non-toxic propellants y Launch vehicles must make all possible manoeuvres to drop the first stage in the designated drop zone y Digital guidance systems would be used that were flexible and able to handle all trajectories and emergency situations. The systems would be autonomous and not require updates or assistance from earth-based systems. They would be able to place the payload into a precise orbit, with orbital injection accuracy subject only to the accuracy limits of the launch vehicle propulsion system y Preparation of the launch vehicle at the launch pad would require minimum time and personnel y Ground support equipment would be multi-purpose and computer-based

The highly reliable launch vehicles would use computer-based ground support equipment, automated check-out, self-diagnostic systems, automatic countdown and launch abort modes These objectives were set out in the decree for development of future KRK (Space Rocket Complexes), "Basic directions in research in space units", dated 17 February 1976. During these studies the launch vehicle engineering bureaux responded with designs meeting the needs of the military: the UR-500MK from Chelomei, and the RLA-120/RLA-135/RLA-150 family from Glushko. Glushko's emphasis was on the super-heavy vehicle to support a continued lunar base project. But the VPK Military-Industrial Commission and the national leadership rejected the approach favoured by the Ministry of Defence. Instead the instructions were to provide a precise Soviet equivalent to the American space shuttle system, notably in use of a Liquid Oxygen/Liquid Hydrogen core vehicle. The KRK principles were applied to this design. The resulting MKS launch vehicle consisted of the Buran, Energia, and Zenit-2 systems. But this system did not have the flexibility required by the Ministry of Defence. From this situation only the following military objectives could be salvaged: y Fullfillment of the super heavy launcher requirement (Energia - use of the system without Buran gave a 100 tonne payload to low earth orbit - but the Ministry of Defence had identified no such payload yet) y Fullfillment of the medium launcher requirement (Zenit-2) by using one of the lateral strap-on booster blocks of the Energia and a new upper stage. y Demonstrate science and technology y Obtain 'ecologically friendly' high energy Lox/LH2 propellant technology y Long-term research on electronics and cryogenics The first resolution of the VPK Military Industrial Commission on the subject of a space shuttle was in December 1973: 'Preliminary work on reusable space systems'. By November 1974 the characteristics of Buran were defined by NPO Energia. Despite the negative experiences with the N1, the Ministry of Defence agreed to co-operate and develop MKS Buran, resulting in the final decree of 17 February 1976. The extensive flight test program to qualify the spaceplane would include the BOR-5 subscale version and Buran Analogue full-scale subsonic test vehicle. Competing spaceplane designs (MTKVA, LKS) were rejected. Because of all the new technology, development of Zenit/Energia went very slowly. Since the Ministry of Defence's requirements for new launch vehicles had not been met they had to rely on continued use of old classes of boosters. The existing Kosmos 11K65M, Tsyklon-3 and Proton 8K82K would be used for the light and heavy-class payloads. Work on the Zenit launch complex began in 1978. The first pad was ready in December 1983 but due to delays in development of the first stage engines flight trails did not begin until 13 April 1985. In the spring of 1987 state commission that accepted the basic system for military use, but much work remained to be done. This included construction of a second launch complex at Baikonur, qualification of a third stage for geostationary payloads, and construction of a third launch complex at Plesetsk. The same engine problems delayed test of the Energia/Buran vehicles. A comprehensive plan for use of Buran for military, scientific, and national economic purposes was approved on 11 July 1984, which by then was two years behind schedule. Buran itself was finally prepared for flight tests in 1986. This marked the end of a huge development effort using 200 experimental
y

test stands, 34 full-scale test units, and 5 full-scale articles in over 6,500 separate qualification tests. The Polyus/Skif-DM experimental military payload was assembled for the first flight. Second Generation Space Systems The development of satellites taking advantage of the new design principles and technologies could not be delayed for development of second generation boosters. Therefore most space systems were to be developed in two phases: Phase 1 for launch using existing launch vehicles (Tsyklon-3, Soyuz 11A511U, or Proton 8K82K) and Phase 2 for launch by Zenit-2. Due to delays in development of the Zenit booster, very few of the Phase 2 systems reached flight stage before the collapse of the Soviet Union. y YeSKN: Unified System of Space Surveillance, including the SPRN ICBM early warning system o Reconnaisance satellites: The Yantar-2K film-return satellite was not capable of providing strategic warning of attack. The ultimate solution was a purely electrooptical satellite constellation with multi-spectral capability and high resolution. The spacecraft would be designed to relay visual and infrared band images via a digital data link to the planned Potok-Luch GKRSS relay satellite system. The new satellite was required to have the resolution and spectral capability of the American KH-11 system. However it was clear that Soviet technology would not be able to develop a single satellite meeting this requirement in Phase 1. Therefore three variants of Yantar had to be developed in Phase 1 to match the KH-11:  Yantar-4K film return satellite for high resolution / multi-spectral reconnaissance. The initial Yantar-4K1 model with two film-return capsules was to be succeeded by the Zenit-launched Yantar-4K2 with 22 film return capsules and designed for missions of 120 to 180 days. Flight trials of the phase 1 system began in 1979 and were completed after eight flights in 1982, when the system was accepted into the military. Improvements from the Yantar-2K included a 17 day increase in mission endurance to 60 days, more film, and the capability to image targets 60 degrees left or right of the ground track. Due to excessive work at the Progress factory, production spacecraft were built from 1984 at Arsenal, Leningrad. The Yantar-4K2 design never flew and was abandoned after the break-up of the Soviet Union.  Orlets/Yantar-6K film return satellite for wide-band detail and survey reconnaissance. This underwent protracted development and did not enter service until the 1990's in the Orlets-1 and Orlets-2 versions. Orlets Phase 1 used 8 return capsules and a wide-band panoramic camera. Phase 2 would be equipped with 22 capsules and be launched by Zenit.  Yantar-6KS electro-optical satellite for detailed and operational reconnaissance. This version dispensed with the film return capsules and provided real-time transmission of imagery. Work began in 1975, but the plan ran into problems when the May 1977 draft project indicated weight growth beyond the payload capabilities of the Soyuz booster. So instead a less-capable spacecraft based on the Yantar-4K bus was designed. The

first phase spacecraft, the Yantar-4KS1, would begin flight trials in 1979, with the more capable Yantar-4KS2, launched by Zenit, to begin flight trials in 1983. Development was slow because of the state of Soviet digital electronics technology. Flight trials of the Yantar 4KS1 finally began in December 1982, three years behind schedule. The system was accepted by the military in 1985 and six launches were conducted through 1986 of Phase 1 systems. Phase 2 was proceeding in parallel. A resolution of 1 June 1983 required it to be equivalent to the American KH-11. Trials began in 1985 and consisted of three launches. In the end it proved impossible for the Yantar-4KS2 to match the performance of the KH-11. All Yantar-4K systems went through evolutionary development from flight to flight. ICBM Launch Detection System - The first generation Oko system, using a four-satellite constellation in Molniya orbits, could not provide 24 hour observation of all possible launch locations. Therefore development began of a replacement system began in 1980. It supplemented the Oko satellites with Prognoz SPRN satellites in geosynchronous orbits. In order to provide full time coverage of enemy missile launches nine operational satellites were required - four were needed to cover the US land mass alone. The system was accepted in to service in March 1985. Seven launches were made in 1984-1986, with 3 to 4 per year required thereafter to keep the system in operation. This work completed the Unified System of Space Surveillance (YeSKN). ELINT Satellites: Based on the first generation Tselina ELINT, TsNII-KS at the beginning of the 1970's developed the specifications for an improved model with increased frequency range and an on-board method of determining the position of fixed transmitters. Work on the Tselina-2 was authorised in March 1973. The draft project was drawn up in the first quarter of 1974 and the Ministry of Defence approved the TTZ specification in May 1974. After a long review process the VPK issued the project plan for development of the system in December 1976. Replacing the separate earlier Army/Navy systems, it would use the Zenit launch vehicle and have increased mass and lifetime. Data received would be transmitted directly to ground stations via Potok geosynchronous communications satellites. This real-time data transmittal and other improvements would allow prompt identification and localisation of enemy land and sea units. The first flight trials system was completed in December 1980, but the Zenit rocket continued to experience delays. Finally a resolution was issued in September 1984 to launch the satellite on a Proton booster. Gherman Titov was in charge of the state commission for the launch. On the sixth launch the satellite was lost in a catastrophic launch disaster. Zenit-boosted flights finally began in 1985 and the system was accepted into service in 1987. In the 1976-1982 five year plan the Almaz-T automated station with the Mech-K side-scan radar was to be deployed. Operations analysis had

indicated that two automatic Almaz-T would be a necessary adjunct to the Yantar and Tselina satellites. TsSKB began work with six ministries on such a vehicle. In 1981 Almaz-T was ready for flight trials, but Ustinov mothballed it. He wanted TSKBM to concentrate on ICBM development. After Ustinov's death in 1984 the two trials satellites were finally launched, but as civilian satellites.  MKRTs Naval Reconnaissance System. Work on a second generation naval electronic reconnaissance system began in 1978. Specifications for the MKRTs system were developed co-operatively by Ministry of Defence, Soviet Navy, GUKOS, and TsNII Kometa (Savin) in 1978-1980. Following approval by the VPK Military Industrial Commission, the development was to have begun in the Eleventh Five Year Plan (19811985). The Pirs-1 system represented Phase 1, with the draft project completed in 1982. Pirs-2 was to start technical development in 1982, and provide double the capability to observe ships, and potentially submerged submarines. The radio and radiotechnical ELINT mission of the first generation US-P naval reconnaissance satellites would be handled by the interservice Tselina-2. Development of the draft project required three OKB's to co-operate due to the use of the new Zenit launch vehicle: NPO Energia, PO Arsenal, and TsKBM. The complete Ideogramma-Pirs system was to have been deployed during the Twelfth Five year plan (1986-1990). The nuclear-powered US-A system was abandoned in 1988 due to continued reliability problems and international incidents when the reactor cores of the satellites inadvertently crashed to the earth. The modernised US-PU universal satellite continued in use. o YeSSS-2: Unified System of Satellite Communications It was agreed in 1982 to develop an updated YeSSS-2 new generation Unified Satellite Communication System for both civilian and military general use. From 1983 onward this consisted of four Molniya-1T, four Molniya-3, and four modernised Raduga-1 geosynchronous satellites. These were capable of communication with mobile platforms. Development of a second generation Strela-3 system for centralised command and control of military units began in 1973. Flight trials began in 1985 and the system was accepted into military service in 1990. By 1992 Strela-3 replaced the Strela-1M and after 1994 the Strela-2M in the strategic communications role. Six Strelas were put into medium earth orbits with each launch. For civilian communications, the Ekran continued in use. In 1980 the satellites were first used to distribute the Soviet Channel 1 television channel program, followed in 1981 by Channel 2. From 1985 coverage of all five time zones was achieved, using 4000 receivers for the Ekran system in Siberia and the Far East. Channel 1 programs were relayed over the Ekran and Moskva systems, and Channel 2 programs over Moskva and Orbita.

The Intersputnik international system was expanded to 14 socialist countries, for a total of 20, including Algeria, Angola, Spain, Italy, Iraq, USA, France, Yugoslavia, and Japan. The system used six transponders aboard two Gorizont satellites. Use of Inmarsat international maritime communication satellites began in 1975. By 1985 43 civilian users were operating in the Soviet Union. On 1 February 1982 Soviet use of MARECS-A (ECS/OTS) and Intelsat-5 satellites started. The USSR developed the shipboard receiver Volna-S, operated in conjunction with central relay stations at Odessa and Nakhodka. By the end of 1985 over 3500 ships had receivers for Inmarsat and CosmosSARSAT. Three Soviet Nadezhda and one US satellite made up the SARSAT emergency distress receiver network. o GKKRS: Global Command and Data Relay System A new-generation global command and control system (GKKRS) was to be developed according to the decree of 17 February 1976. This enabled geosynchronous relay of high-rate digital data from both fixed ground stations and mobile platforms (orbiting satellites, aircraft, naval and army units). The first half of the 1980's saw development and flight test of the two satellites used in the GKKRS. At first these relay systems were not fully utilised due to delays in development and deployment of the second generation satellites that would work with them. But they were the key to the other unified systems. The GKKRS consisted of:  The Potok spacecraft, which handled digital data communications between fixed points and the Yantar-4KS1 electro-optical reconnaissance satellite and Tselina-2 ELINT satellite. Flight tests began in 1982. Potok was the first communications spacecraft built by the Lavochkin design bureau. The same bus was later used for the Kupon civilian satellite.  Luch spacecraft, which provided communications service to the Mir space station, Buran space shuttle, Soyuz-TM spacecraft, and mobile fleet communications for the Soviet Navy.  YeKNS Unified Space Navigation System  GLONASS: Global Navigation Satellite System: At the end of the 1960's the military identified a need for a Satellite Radio Navigation System (SRNS) for use in precision guidance of the planned new generation of ballistic missiles. The existing Tsiklon / Tsikada satellite navigation system could not be used for this purpose. In 1968 to 1969 research institutes of the Ministry of Defence, Academy of Sciences, and Soviet Navy worked together to establish a single solution for air, land, sea, and space forces. In December 1976 a decree was issued by the Soviet state for establishment of the YeKNS/GLONASS Global Navigation Satellite System. The schedule was revised in August 1979 and July 1981. The draft project was completed in 1977-1978. A decree of 29 August 1979 scheduled flight trials of 4 to 6 prototypes in 1981,

preliminary acceptance of a 10-12 satellite constellation by 1984, and operation of the complete 24 satellite system by the end of 1987. Actual flight trials began in October 1982, followed by a total of 22 spacecraft by the end of 1987, and 31 by the end of 1989.  The older Parus / Tsikada navigation system continued in service in parallel. Some of these satellites were upgraded with international emergency distress signal detectors (Nadezhda). GMKS: Global Hydrological and Meteorological Space Monitoring System Delays in Meteor-2 development led to a resolution of 4 June 1970 to develop a parallel design for the hydrology office alone. This was not put into production. In its place a resolution of 16 December 1972 ordered development of a second generation system. This used the Planeta-S sensor package in the non-coorbital Meteor-3 system plus a geostationary system Elektro, which was to begin tests in 1982. Elektro suffered numerous delays due to equipment and software problems, and went through two heads of development. However the effort did not receive adequate funding until 1983, by which time it was considered a third generation system. A series of ambitious ocean satellites were introduced, perhaps with the intention of solving the problem of detection of submerged enemy ballistic missile submarines. The Okean-E and Okean-OE were experimental satellites used to develop sensors for the Okean-O satellite being developed by KB Yuzhnoye. They surveyed the ocean surface and arctic ice pack using a variety of sensors. Salyut 7 conducted a joint sensor program with OkeanOE/Cosmos 1500. The Okean-OE satellites also received data from a world-wide network of ocean buoys that had been deployed from the end of the 1960's. Receivers for these buoys were carried on Kosmos 243, Meteor, Soyuz, Salyut, Kosmos 1076, Kosmos 1151, Intercosmos 20. The Okean-O1, sized for launch by the Tsyklon, began flights in 1986. The Phase 2, Zenit-launched Okean-O was delayed for a long time but finally reached orbit in 1999. TGKS: Topographic / Geodesic Space System Following cancellation of the Yantar-1KF cartographic satellite the decision was taken to develop the Yantar-1KFT, based on the Yantar-2K bus. Development of this replacement satellite was authorised in a resolution of 3 February 1977. Camera development was difficult, and flight trials did not begin until 1981. The system was finally accepted into service in 1987. Yantar-1KFT imagery was combined with topographic information from the Zenit-4MT to build up high precision military maps.

The Geo-IK second generation geodetic satellite system began development in 1977. Its Musson satellite was used to define a unified world geodetic data set and geocentric co-ordinate system, characterise the shape of the earth, and precisely fix the location of NIP tracking stations. Flight trials began in 1980, and the system was accepted into service in 1986. The system used the Tsiklon-3 launcher and the entire system, including ground elements, was known as Geo-IK. Two Etalon geodetic satellites were also flown in the 19,100 km GLONASS orbit to fully characterise the gravitational field at the planned altitude and inclination. National Prestige Projects  Mir Space Station: The design of Mir, an improved model of the Salyut DOS-17K space station, was authorised as Phase 1 of the second generation of Soviet space systems in the 17 February 1976 decree. At that time it was planned that the two stations (DOS-7 and DOS-8) would be equipped with two docking ports at either end and an additional two ports at the sides of the forward small diameter compartment. By the time of the draft project in August 1978 this had evolved to the final Mir configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station. Mir was to have had only a three to five year life, but ended up in service into the next century. A resolution of 6 February 1979 consolidated Chelomei's manned Almaz2 military space station and the Mir civilian program. TKS-derived modules (Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr, Priroda) were selected over NPO Energia's 37K-Mir design. However 37KB and NPG modules continued in development for use with Buran. To support Mir modernised Soyuz TM ferry and Progress M resupply spacecraft were developed.  Manned Planetary Exploration: Attempts by Glushko to interest the Soviet leadership in a renewed lunar program were unsuccessful. The Energia launch vehicle would have been used for launch of a lunar base using an array of new spacecraft (LK Energia, LOK Energia, Lunokhod LEK, LZhM, LZM). From 1978 the Energia was also studied for boost of the Mars 1986 manned Mars expedition. However there was no political support for such an 'adventure' in the absence of competing American programs.  Scientific Satellites  Planetary Probes: The Soviet Union could not achieve the spacecraft component reliability required to match the decadelong explorations of outer planets undertaken by the Americans. A scaled-down program of probes to Mars, Venus, and Halley's comet continued using the 4MV spacecraft bus. A new design 5MV was developed but flew only a few times with poor results. This include the 2 Vega spacecraft launched on 15/21 December 1984

The Prognoz-M was developed for the international Interbol project to further measure solar activity, solar wind, and the interface of the earth's magnetosphere with the solar wind. Its flight was delayed until the 1990's. A decree of 5 May 1977 authorised development of three earth resource satellites. The Ministry of Defence was tasked with developing these systems, even though they did not contribute directly to any military mission. Despite this political decision, the orders were followed. These new Resurs satellites provided continuous photo surveillance for cartographic and economic surveys, development of technical maps, and earth resource surveys. It was claimed that they paid back their cost by a factor of 4 to 5 times. Resurs-F flight trials began in 1979 and it was put into service in 1981. The spacecraft was based on the Fram design. In 1981-1983 it surveyed 83% of Soviet territory in multispectral colour imaging, 97% of the territory in monochrome. In the process it made new discoveries of oil and gas fields. The family was extended during the 1980's to include the Resurs F1-17F41 / Resurs F1-14F40 / Resurs F1-14F43 / Resurs F1M / Resurs F2 versions. The Astron X-Ray Astronomy Satellite was developed at Lavochkin by Kovtunenko. The sensor payload was developed by A B Serveniy of the Crimean Observatory of the Academy of Sciences and included an ultraviolet telescope and Roentgen X-ray detector. The satellite was placed in a high elliptical orbit in March 1983 and operated for five years. During that time it detected 15 pulsars and compact relativistic objects in binary star systems. Tests with the telescope also showed it would be useful in military reconnaissance systems. The Oreol 3 collaborative French/Soviet satellite used the Yuzhnoye AUOS bus and carried magnetosphere and ionosphere experiments. Two Efir satellites were developed according to a May 1982 VPK Resolution and launched in 1984. The spacecraft was derived from the Zenit reconnaissance satellite and conducted research on very high energy cosmic rays. The IK-B-1300 Interkosmos-Bulgaria-1300 flew once in August 1981. It was built by KB Yuzhnoye to study the troposphere. A Meteor-2 satellite bus was used together with Bulgarian instruments. The 1300 designation celebrated the 1300th anniversary of Bulgaria. Launch of international collaborative Bion biological missions continued through 1996.

The Indian Bhaskara satellites were developed under a joint project. They conducted research on use of space sounding sensors and tested a range of other technical equipment.

Third Generation Soviet Space Systems Third generation Soviet space systems constituted an integrated Multi-Element Space System, including the planned Multi-echelon Anti Ballistic Missile System. Preparatory work for third generation systems was undertaken under the Tenth Five Year Plan (1976-1980), with full definition of the systems in the 11th Five Year Plan, (1981-1985). In 1985 the plans were drastically revised and a crash programme was undertaken to meet the American Strategic Defence Initiative challenge during the 12th Five Year Plan (1986-1990). Third generations systems were to be fully on line by 1990. This plan was not achievable and the Soviet Union disintegrated before any third generations systems could be placed in service. Research institute 50-TsNII-KS GUKOS conducted studies in 1976-1980 on the third generation of satellite systems. These would have a 10 to 15 year development and deployment cycle. Participating in the studies were the Academy of Sciences, scientific institutes, and industry. Among the resulting studies were those code-named Gorizont-K, Dal, Zamysel-95, and Klokot. Project Borba studied the operational strategic problems of military activity in space. Shturm-2 identified the military, scientific, and technological research and development required for third generation military space units. The final results of the studies were summarised in the reports 'Basic Direction of Military Space Unit Development to 1995' and 'Program for Military Space Units, 1981-1990'. Approval of these plans from the Central Committee and Soviet Ministers was issued on 2 June 1980. This covered the period through 1990 and included plans for use of the Almaz-T multimode reconnaissance system and Elektro geosynchronous meteorological satellite. Further operational studies included the 16 volume OTT-70 which set forth system specifications and force descriptions. RK-75 set forth the order of battle for both space and rocket forces. At the end of 1980 the VPK Military Industrial Commission also ordered a strategic plan extending to 1995 and a plan for research to 2000. These plans were drastically revised as a result of what the Soviet Union perceived as the remilitarisation of space by the United States with the F-15 ASAT and Shuttle programmes. At this time second generation Soviet space systems were supporting the military, but 25% of the new systems were behind schedule (Yantar-4K, Geo-IK, and Strela especially). The use of space for combat, especially plans for use of the Buran spaceplane, were not taken seriously by the Ministry of Defence. In April 1976 Ustinov had authorised work to start on military space combat systems, but by 1979 the development work was unfocussed. The leadership at GUKOS (Main Directorate of the Space Forces) wanted to collect all of these diverse projects into a single organisation. This Space Force would be equal to the RVSN Strategic Rocket Forces in status. This was opposed by RVSN, but on 10 November 1981 a decree made GUKOS responsible for all space forces and satellites. GUKOS was tasked with ensuring synergistic organisation of satellite constellations; co-ordination of the ABM antiballistic missile forces and SPRN early warning satellites with the PVO Air Defence Force; coordination with the VVS Air Force on use of space reconnaissance data and cosmonaut training; and operation of the space tracking system.

On 22 August 1980 the VPK Military Industrial Commission resolution ordered development of a space forces Five Year Plan for 1981 to 1985. In July-August 1981 the plan was reviewed. Objectives included: y Development of new space systems to detect preparations for surprise nuclear attack, to locate the position of nuclear explosions, and to enforce the START-2 treaty y Modernisation of existing reconnaissance, communication, and navigation systems y Introduction of the Buran and Zenit boosters into service y Preliminary research on a new class of light and heavy launch vehicles of the next generation This plan was submitted to a special session of the Ministry of Defence in August 1981. It envisioned development of 8 new space systems plus the Tsiklon-3 booster with a new upper stage. The integrated Global Space System would consist of multiple subsystems: y YeSSS Communications System y GKKRS Command-Relay System y Uragan Navigation System y TGKS Geodesy, and Earth Database System y Planeta Hydrological/Geological System. y Continuous Observation Operational Space System y MKRTs Naval Targeting System y Multi-echelon Anti Ballistic Missile System At the same time long-range plans for military space projects in the period 1985-1995 were approved. Multi-echelon Anti Ballistic Missile System At the end of the 1960's and the beginning of the 1970's the United States began new research in the use of spacecraft for the destruction of military targets in and from space. In the late 1960's development began at Lawrence Livermore Laboratory of a space-based nuclear weapon-pumped laser. This was originally envisioned as a fearsome weapon, consisting of several dozen independently aimed lasing rods arranged around the bomb. When the bomb exploded, a large percentage of its force would be conducted down the lasing rods toward the targets at which they pointed (in the microsecond before the rods themselves vaporised). At the same time the Air Force and NASA were studying reusable space shuttles. A single shuttle payload bay of such weapons had the potential of destroying the entire Soviet ICBM force - not just in launch phase but in a first strike, frying them right through the silo covers. One of the most heavily classified projects of the time, it still came to the attention of Soviet intelligence. During this same period NASA was struggling to justify a post-Apollo space program. The Nixon administration decided that the USAF shuttle project would be dropped, and their requirements incorporated into the NASA design. One of these requirements was a mission involving a launch into polar orbit from Vandenberg Air Force base, release of unspecified payloads into orbit, and return to Vandenberg after a single orbit of the Earth. This requirement forced NASA to drop their preferred straight-wing design for a heavier double-delta wing that had the necessary cross range. The Soviet leadership saw their worst fears confirmed. This was a modern version of the first-strike multiple-warhead UR-500 and N1 super heavy rockets which they had developed but then abandoned in the early 1960's.

America was also beginning work on other directed energy approaches that did not require use of nuclear detonations. In 1968, a gas dynamic laser was reviewed in a study to see if it would be a viable as a satellite anti-missile system. In 1971, the Aerospace Corporation developed a prototype infrared fluorine-hydrogen laser. By 1975, Lockheed put together the first concept of a satellite armed with a laser and a deployable mirror. Parallel work began in the Soviet Union in the same period. One direction was advocated by the Ministry of Radio Industry, which had managed the development of the Soviet ABM system since the late 1950's. Another approach was the use of neutral particle beam weapons, advocated by Gersh Budker at a secret institute in Novosibirsk. During the late 1960's and early 1970's Soviet research institutes, design bureaux, the Academy of Sciences, and the General Staff conducted numerous discussions and unofficial studies. Among these plans were the use of the Korolev MKBS space station as a platform for a neutral particle beam weapon and logistical support of a constellation of military interceptor vehicles. The MKBS approach was abandoned when the N1 launch vehicle was cancelled. An April 1976 decree began definitive project work on 'Star Wars' technology within the Soviet Union. To develop space weapons the two-phase Fon program was undertaken. Fon-1 encompassed fundamental research and draft project work on a variety of technologies - laser weapons, neutral particle beams, electro-magnetic rail guns, new orbital interceptor missiles, new conventional and nuclear warhead technologies, new anti-ballistic missiles, and space platforms to support these weapons. Fon-2 would take the technologies selected as a result of Fon-1 and conduct flight trials of prototype systems. Fielding of operational space combat units would only come thereafter. The MOP Ministry of Defence Production set up a new Eighth Main Directorate to manage the work of the various institutes and bureaux. P S Pleshakov of the Ministry of Radio Industry oversaw the work of the design bureaux. In the 1970's and 1980's ambitious and complex research was conducted on space vehicles capable of destroying rockets in flight, airborne vehicles in the atmosphere, vessels at sea, and targets on land. These studies assessed both the feasibility and affordability of such spacecraft. Early results were not encouraging. NPO Kometa (A I Savin), manufacturer of the existing IS-A anti-satellite system, was asked to study the feasibility of a conventional system to destroy 10,000 ballistic re-entry vehicles and cruise missiles within 5 to 25 minutes with an effectiveness of 99.8%. The study concluded that such a system was not practical technically or economically. Directed energy weapons might have a better chance of engaging many targets in a surprise attack, but testing of charged practical beam technology resulted in many technical problems that would take a long time to solve. (The 1976 conclusion of the US Defence Intelligence Agency that such work had reached an advanced stage at an immense facility at Semipalatinsk was shown to be incorrect after the fall of the Soviet Union). Laser technology was also pursued but also faced many technical and cost problems in achieving high energies. The principle centre for laser research was TsKB Luch, headed by Nikolai Ustinov, son of the Soviet Defence Minister. In the late 1970's this was reorganised into NPO Astrofizika. Astrofizika designed lasers for both tactical and strategic use and was receiving 1% of the Soviet defence budget during this period. A free electron laser was tested at Storozhevaya, and a 1 MW gas laser at Troitsk.

OKB Vympel was the systems integrator for ground-based laser systems. They built the major Terra-3 laser testing centre at Sary Shagan, which was eventually equipped with Astrofizika high power red ruby and carbon dioxide lasers. But the energies were not sufficient for anti-ballistic missile use. The first applications would be limited to anti-satellite operations, and then primarily to blind optical sensors. Other institutes involved in research were NIITP (Research Institute for Thermal Processes) which handled high energy gas dynamic lasers, and the Scientific Institute for Radio Device Production, which worked on plasma weapons. Meanwhile Livermore work on the nuclear-pumped laser had evolved into a space-based x-ray laser weapon which would destroy ICBM's during boost phase, after they had cleared the atmosphere. But in 1977 President Carter cancelled further development work on this weapon. The threat seemed to recede and by the early 1980's Fon-1 work had focused on the more achievable goal of improved interception and destruction of enemy satellites. But in June 1982 America announced its intentions to test a new SRAM/Altair ASAT from an F15 fighter. Later that year Edward Teller dazzled Ronald Reagan with tales of desk-sized x-ray lasers that could be deployed within four years and create an invulnerable defence shield around the United States. Work on the x-ray laser was renewed with vigour as the Strategic Defence Initiative (SDI). The program quickly expanded to include research on a broad range of directed energy and rocket interceptor weapons. Reagan's 'Star Wars speech' on 23 March 1983 seemed to indicate a much earlier deployment than the Soviets had previously thought. Plans were made in America for deployment of the existing Vought MNV warhead developed for the F-15 ASAT. 40 to 45 of these homing vehicles, weighting 2.0 to 2.5 tonnes each, would be housed in orbital platforms in 65-degree inclination, 550 km orbits. Test and deployment of the constellation was to begin in five to seven years. Later studies indicated 30 to 40 such platforms would be deployed with 1350-1800 interceptors. The Soviet response was immediate. Yuri Andropov ordered additional funding and implementation of Fon-2. At the same time Soviet diplomatic initiatives were undertaken. A proposal was made to the Unite States to ban all space-based weapons. Andropov declared a unilateral moratorium on testing of the improved IS-MU ASAT. As a 'warning shot' the Terra-3 complex was used to track the STS-41-G space shuttle Challenger with a low power laser on 10 October 1984. This caused malfunction of on-board equipment and temporary blinding of the crew, leading to a US diplomatic protest. Premier Andropov brought the necessary new discipline and enthusiasm to begin development of Soviet counterpart systems. In response to reports that the US intended to have SDI operational in 10 to 15 years, Minister of Defence Ustinov and VPK Chief Smirnov ordered an urgent revamping of the 11th Five Year Plan (1981-1985). The objective was deployment of space combat systems at the earliest possible date. Total space program expenditures to cover these systems were to be increased 35% from the 11th to 12th Five Year Plans (1986-1990) and 50% from the 12th to 13th Five Year Plans (1991-1995). However the top-level managers that ran the Soviet space program were fading into history. Afanasyev left MOM (Ministry of General Machine-Building) in 1983. When Ustinov died in December 1984 the Soviet space program lost its biggest backer. He had been the impetus behind development of Buran and the electro-optical reconnaissance systems. He was the leading proponent of a vigorous Soviet response to Star Wars.

The Baikonur and Plesetsk launch centres were reorganised in 1984, with the Baikonur 5 NIIP MO incorporating the 50 TsNII KS research institute, including a new 8th Directorate for operation of the Buran shuttle and BKS Combat Shock Space System - alternative space weapons. The living facilities at the Golistsino-2 command and control centre were also upgraded. 50 TsNII-KS was first asked to evaluate SDI in 1983. By 1985 the Soviet Ministers were asking for concrete proposals. A study group headed by Ye P Velikhov was formed from the Academy of Sciences and military institutes. Subpanels evaluated multi-layered systems using lasers, guns, and electrodynamic weapons. The capability of the US Shuttle and Soviet Buran to deploy such systems was studied. The final conclusion was that new, fully reusable, more economical launch vehicles would be required to support the enormous launch rate required for SDI. Concurrent with this studies were made of ecologically clean, high power rocket engines needed to power a new generation of launch vehicles. Lox/Kerosene or Lox/LH2 propellants would be used by a modular family of launch vehicles with payload capabilities of 5 tonnes, 10-12 tonnes, 20-30 tonnes, 40-50 tonnes, and 80-100 tonnes. A common engine would be used in the first stage of all of these designs, which would be recoverable and reusable. Aircraft-space systems with horizontal takeoff and landing would achieve a 30% reduction in system weight compared to conventional vertical takeoff. Use of nuclear energy was also considered under project MG-19, but development of such a system did not seem possible in the short term. Analysis of the shuttle indicated that the design was a 'clunker' - it wasted 70 tonnes of orbiter mass on every flight to deliver 30 tonnes of payload. The Chelnoka study evaluated manoeuvring aerodynamic/orbital dynamic systems to attack enemy satellites. Buran did not seem suited to this but could be used as a laboratory to develop new space technology. There was a need to test systems in orbit, and the Salyut and Mir space stations would allow this. Technology testing aboard these existing platforms would lead to a new generation of space systems by the turn of the century. These reparable and upgradeable space platforms that would be tended by Buran shuttles. Concurrent with these urgent moves the Soviets began a diplomatic counter-offensive to kill the American SDI programme through less-expensive means. This had been launched in earnest at a conference in Vienna on 9-25 August 1982. A series of UN Resolutions in August 1981 (36th UN General Assembly), 1982 (38th General Assembly), and the 12 December 1984 (39th General Assembly) all condemned and attempted to prevent the militarisation of space. These resolutions were entirely in response to the initiatives of the Carter and Reagan administrations. The hostile intentions of the Americans were also evidenced by the 1982 NATO First Strike Policy, which went back to McNamara. On 10 March 1985 Gorbachev came to power and on 12 March he asked for Geneva talks on nuclear and space forces. Nevertheless in May 1985 the US had formed the Strategic Defence Initiative Organisation (SDIO) to develop a multi-echelon ABM system. In September 1985 the US intercepted the SolWind satellite at an altitude of 450 km using an F-15-launched ASAT with an infrared seeker. The USSR conducted ASAT research as well, but had never engaged in a massive 'star wars' program on the scale of the American effort. In the Soviet view the concept of SDI was flawed - the necessary technology was an illusion. But the threat was real, and it was

determined that even deployment of a flawed American system would upset the strategic balance. America rushed the second generation ASAT into development. On 19-21 November 1985 Gorbachev and Reagan conducted summit talks in Geneva. The diplomatic efforts were having the desired effect - in December 1985 the US Congress stopped further ASAT tests as long as the Soviet Union did the same. In parallel with diplomacy planning went ahead on deployment of a Soviet counterpart to SDI. At the end of 1984 it had been clear that the Soviet Union could not delay deploying space combat systems. The Ministry of Defence was to put together a plan by mid-1985 for integration into the 12th Five Year Plan (1986-1990). Revised military planning for 1986-1995 was undertaken. NPO Energia was given the leading role in preparing the plan, together with research institutes led by 50 TsNII-KS. The Ministry of Defence determined to proceed with a response to America's SDI at a meeting on 8 November 1985. The financial plan was ready on 7 December 1985. The concept was for a Multiple-Element ABM system costing 30.7 billion roubles in 1986-1990. A government commission headed by Academy of Sciences Vice President Ye P Velikhov reviewed the plan on 11 December 1985. It was then presented to the VPK Military-Industrial Commission in January 1986. The plan included: y Systems research y Basic scientific research y Experiments aboard the Salyut 7 and Mir space stations y Tests of experimental ground systems and build of prototype space systems Tests of systems would be conducted in two phases: from 1986 to 1990, from 1991 to 1995, and then deployment completion by 2000. Key review points were incorporated into each phase. The VPK approved the plan as presented. TTZ specification documents for the new systems were to be issued by the first quarter of 1987. The project was finalised in a decree of 7 February 1986 Under this decree GUKOS was reorganised as the Chief Directorate for Space Forces (UNKS). The decree put UNKS in control of all space units, and placed it on an equal footing with the other branches of the armed forces. On 25 February 1986 the 27th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union was held. In considering the 12th Five Year Plan, there was much denunciation of American actions. The peace-loving Soviet Union had fought constantly against the arms race, and what was the American answer? Star Wars! Development of the planned conventional third generation space systems was delayed after 1985 by priority being given to Soviet SDI systems. Therefore flight trials of third generation satellites, planned for the 1986-1989 period were delayed to 1990 or beyond. The 12th Five Year Plan (1986-1990) doubled spending on space and priority was given to combat systems. The state budget for scientific research and experimental design went from 9% of the total in 1985 to 9% in 1989. Buran and Zenit flight test schedules were accelerated while work on light and heavy class launchers came to a stop. The explosions of the shuttle Challenger on 28 January 1986, a Titan 34D booster on 18 April 1986, and a Delta rocket on 3 May 1986 brought the US space program to a halt. The shuttle was delayed by 2 years and 8 months, and its use for commercial launches was abandoned in favour of existing expendable vehicles. NASA continued to promote commercial use of space, which featured prominently in its 25 year space plan published in January 1988.

UNKS had barely been formed when a 'negative' political atmosphere developed in the Soviet Union. Chernobyl exploded on 26 April 1986, followed by the declaration of the new policy of Perestroika in January 1987. The Gorbachev-Reagan meeting at Geneva in October 1986 was promising, but at Reykjavik on 12 October 1986 Reagan reused to scrap SDI. In response the Soviets decided to halt their ASAT and ABM test moratorium, develop new nuclear weapons, space-based combat systems, regenerative lasers, and nuclear laser pumping devices. Within the 12th Five Year Plan the Ministry of General Machine-Building (MOM) took the initiative in forcing the start of trials of Buran and completion of new concepts for third generation military space systems. A crash program had been initiated to test in space a range of laser and rocket interceptor prototypes on the massive Polyus test bed, to be launched on the first test of the Energia launch vehicle. An exposition for the Soviet leadership of impressive models and drawings of existing systems and proposed third generation systems was prepared at Baikonur in 1986. Gorbachev finally visited the cosmodrome on 11-13 May 1987. He reviewed the exposition, then proceeded to observe satellites in preparation at the Proton MIKKA on the left flank of the cosmodrome. He also viewed the launch preparations for the Buran, Energia, and Polyus Skif-DM systems. The exposition did not have the desired effect and Polyus failed to achieve orbit in the first launch of the Energia booster just two days later. As platforms for operational weapons NPO Energia designed a USB Universal Service Block, based on the Salyut DOS-7K space station. The USB was equipped with common service systems and rocket engines. In comparison to the DOS the USB had much larger propellant tanks to allow substantial orbital manoeuvring. The USB would be equipped with either a laser payload or a weapons bay consisting of ten miniature rocket homing vehicles. The Proton launch vehicle would be used to launch a 20 tonne version of the USB for experimental flight tests. Operational 30 tonne vehicles would be delivered to orbit by the Buran space shuttle. Buran would also bring crews for on-orbit servicing of the USB. For this purpose the USB had a life support capability of two crew for seven days. The mass of the military payload depended on the amount of propellant loaded. The laser payload was heavy, with a resulting lower fuel fraction, and was limited to use against low earth orbit targets. The USB with the rocket homing vehicles had more propellant and could be used for attack of geostationary orbit targets. A competing design by Chelomei used his TKS as a starting point. The Spektr - Original design was to be armed with Oktava interceptor rockets built by NPO Kometa. It had Lira sensors to identify and Buton sensors to track ballistic missile re-entry vehicles. Pion-K sensors would discriminate decoys from true weapons. A prototype of the Spektr would be docked with the Mir space station for systems tests. To co-ordinate the actions of the multiple space combat units, NPO Energia proposed a KS space station. This would consist of a core built of targeting and base modules based on the USB, a command module based on the TKS, and a Zarya ballistic shuttle for crew rotation. Docked to the core would be military free-flying autonomous modules which would dispense nuclear warheads in re-entry vehicles of both ballistic and gliding types. The structure and various systems of these wingless autonomous modules would be based on the Buran space shuttle. Prototypes would be built from the various developmental Buran airframes. On command the military modules would separate from station and manoeuvre extensively before positioning themselves for attack of enemy targets on the ground or in space. On special

command from the national authorities the enemy targets would be engaged with nuclear weapons. For interception of enemy ICBM's during boost phase NPO Energia developed a space based rocket interceptor (RP) similar to American 'Brilliant Pebble' systems. This had a mass of only 10 kg and was powered by small but high energy rocket engines that gave the vehicle the same characteristic velocity as boosters that put payloads into orbit. The miniature vehicles used advanced technology and new scientific solutions. Non-traditional non-cryogenic propellants powered the engines. High strength materials were used for the propellant tanks. In April 1987 Secretary of State Shultz went to Moscow to discuss reductions in offensive strategic forces. On 8 December 1987 the US and USSR signed a treaty to eliminate short and medium range nuclear forces. UNKS was internally reorganised, with the three main KIK Control and Tracking Centres (Yevpatoriya, Yeniseisk, Ula-Ude) designated Central Command Control and Tracking Centres. Five separate trials centres were established (4 at Baikonur and 1 at Plesetsk). Under project 'Rokot' primary and reserve Command Points were established at Golitsino-2 and Znamenka in Tambovsk Oblast. By the end of 1988 the reorganisation was completed. New political reforms were introduced on 1 July 1988 at the 19th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. These included decisions on a peace platform, withdrawal from Afghanistan, and rapprochement with the USA. The American reply came within weeks. In October 1988 a revised three-phase SDI program was announced. Phase 1 would involve kinetic kill vehicles ('Brilliant Pebbles'), geosynchronous tracking satellites, and suborbital systems to observe ICBM trajectories. It was to be completed by the year 2000 at a cost of $100 billion. Phase 2 involved space-based platforms with hundreds of kinetic interceptor weapons. Exotic lasers and beam weapons had been relegated to a murky Phase 3. From 1984 to 1989 $ 25.15 billion was spent on the American SDI, with military space expenditures exceeding those of NASA by 100% in 1988. Funding was reduced after 1988 as the technical difficulty and cost of actually fielding a system was realised. In 1988 only $3.9 billion in funds were received versus $ 5.7 billion requested. Although in May 1989 work began on 'Phase Zero' of SDI, the US was finding its SDI to be neither technically or economically practical. Even with intercept ranges of 3000 to 5000 km thousands of interceptors would be required. The more modest Brilliant Pebbles system did not come close to meeting the original stated requirements. Soviet studies reached the same conclusion - space was suited for command and control of military forces, but not as an arena for combat. To support launch of anticipated Soviet anti-ballistic missile forces the MOM Ministry of Medium Machine-Building pushed development of the super-heavy Buran, Buran-T, and Vulkan boosters without proper cause. Needed light and middle class boosters were delayed. The Soviet SDI program, which would have been the only source for payloads for these large boosters, was not financially feasible. This emphasis on these large systems also delayed work on third generation launch systems, which had begun in the 11th Five Year Plan (1981-1985). 1989 was the peak year for Soviet space, with 20% of the state scientific research budget devoted to space technology. In that year the civilian space program of the USA was $29.6 billion versus 6.9 billion roubles in the USSR. The American military space effort was costing $22.8 billion versus 3.9 billion roubles in the USSR, almost 6 times as much. Space economic

and scientific programmes were budgeted at $ 3 billion in the US versus 1.7 billion in the USSR. Reusable space systems cost $ 3.8 billion in the US versus 1.3 billion roubles in the USSR. Partly due to the cost of trying to match the American Star Wars program, the Soviet Union disintegrated. Ironically, underground nuclear tests of the x-ray laser in Nevada showed that the concept would not work. Other parts of the colossal Strategic Defence Initiative ran into similar technical and cost barriers. In 1992, as directed by the new Russian state's military and political leadership, all work on SDI projects was discontinued. The Spektr module was converted into a civilian platform. Its completion and docking with Mir was partially funded by the United States. The Buran shuttle, Mir-2 station, the space combat units - all were cancelled. The Soviet balance sheet showed that conventional space systems had provided real benefits. Space amounted to 1.5% of the Soviet state budget. It was estimated that use of military satellites increased the effectiveness of military forces by 50% to 100%. In the 30 years since Sputnik the Soviet Union had spent 5.9 billion roubles on civilian space projects, with an estimated economic benefit of 12.6 billion roubles. The Moskva and Ekran television systems reached 93% of the USSR, with an economic benefit of 540 million roubles in 1988. Meteor-2 weather satellites were estimated to have an economic benefit of 500 to 700 million roubles per year. In 1989 it was anticipated that by the year 2000 commercial manufacture of medical and other materials in orbit would reach 20 billion roubles. The Tsikada system provided navigation to 4,500 ships while the Nadezhda COSPAS/SARSAT system had assisted in the saving of over 2,000 lives. In developing Buran, 100 new materials, 24 new technical processes, 130 novel types of equipment, and 60 novel material types were developed with civilian applications. While the shuttle continued in use in America, in the Soviet Union it was considered part of the answer to SDI, and more a system for the 21st Century. The US and USSR had achieved a balance of forces in the late 1970's and early 1980's, but then US military circled insisted on development of SDI. But in the Soviet analysis the USSR could have easily prevailed over any ABM system by using from 50% to 100% more missiles than the US. Third Generation Launch Systems The aborted third generation systems would finally have replaced the remaining ICBM-derived boosters (Kosmos, Tsiklon, Soyuz, Proton). They would use Lox/Kerosene or Lox/LH2 non-toxic, environmentally 'friendly' propellants to power a modular family of launch vehicles with payload capabilities of from 5 to 100 tonnes to orbit. Three common engines would be used in the all of the stages of all of these designs. It was intended that the lower stages would be evolved into recoverable and reusable versions after initial development. These launch vehicles were: y Kvant; Four RD-120 engines (from second stage of Zenit) modified for sea level use, Block DM upper stage as designed for Zenit-3. Payload 5 tonnes to low earth orbit y Zenit-2: One Energia strap-on as the lower stage. RD-120 powered upper stage, 10-12 tonnes to low earth orbit y Energia-M: Two Energia strap-ons plus reduced Energia core with one RD-0120 engine: 20-30 tonnes to low earth orbit

Groza: Two Energia strap-ons plus full Energia core with four RD-0120 engines: 40-50 tonnes to low earth orbit y Energia: Four Energia strap-ons plus full Energia core with four RD-0120 engines: 80-100 tonnes to low earth orbit Manned systems: Buran had the same characteristics as the US Shuttle, and the same disadvantages - low economy, and mainly designed by construction bureaux for scientific and technical development and human space travel. Therefore design work continued on smaller spaceplanes as a replacement for the Soyuz manned ferry. Numerous trade studies of Russian Spaceplanes in the early 1980's (Bizan, System 49, System 49-M, OK-M, OK-M1, OK-M2) would finally result in the optimised MAKS design. This was approved for full development in 1988. Super heavy lift systems: To support launch of anticipated Soviet anti-ballistic missile forces the MOM in the late 1980's pushed development of the super-heavy Buran, Buran-T, and Vulkan boosters. These would have come on-line in the mid-1990's. Single stage to orbit: In response to US technology initiatives, work on a Soviet counterpart to the American X-30 National Aerospaceplane was started in 1988. Following evaluation of various competing proposals (VKS, Yakovlev MVKS) the Tu-2000 scramjet vehicle was selected for development.
y

Third Generation Conventional Systems Continuous Observation Operational Space System The long term objective of the Soviet Union was to match the capabilities of the American KH11 digital imaging satellite. The characteristics of this satellite were well known since spy William Kampiles provided the operating manual to the Russians in 1978. Soviet attempts to develop such a system were thwarted by an inadequate technical base. The first attempt was the TGR television satellite of the 1960's. This was succeeded by the Yantar-6KS, cancelled in May 1977 when the draft project indicated that the weight had grown beyond the payload capabilities of the Soyuz booster. A less-capable spacecraft based on the Yantar-4K bus was designed. The first phase spacecraft, the Yantar-4KS1, would begin flight trials in 1979, with the more capable Yantar-4KS2, launched by Zenit, to begin flight trials in 1983. Development was slow because of the state of Soviet digital electronics technology. Yantar4KS1 flight trials did not begin until the end of 1982. It proved impossible for the Yantar-4KS2 to match the performance of the KH-11. Therefore a 'clean sheet of paper' approach was taken. Ustinov consolidated all optical reconnaissance work at TsSKB in 1981-1983, cutting across six ministries (the Ministries of Defence, Medium Machine Building (nuclear weapons), General Machine Building (rocketry), Electronics Industry, Radio Industry, Industry of Communications Means). Studies were begun in 1980 and in June 1983 a decree was issued for a constellation of newdesign third generation electro-optical military reconnaissance satellites. In July 1983 Kozlov was made Chief and General Constructor of the enlarged TsSKB Central Special Design Bureau. Under his leadership a multi-element reconnaissance satellite system was to be developed in 1981-1990 and deployed by 2000. These would be orbited in two groups of ten satellites at varying altitudes. This swarm would provide almost complete coverage of the earth's surface at a range of photographic resolutions. Competitive designs of the imaging satellite were undertaken by NPO Lavochkin and Kozlov's TsSKB using common universal optic systems. Flight trials were to begin by 1986-1987. The

Continuous Observation Operational Space System included a SLAR-equipped radar satellite by NPO Vega, with flight trials set for 1992. The launch vehicle for the third generation satellites was to be the Proton since Zenit did not have the necessary lift and Energia development was delayed. The data would be transmitted to the ground by GKKRS relay satellites. Work on a new optics system had already begun in 1977 at Lavochkin. Development of the optics was a very difficult task headed by A N Veikozhon at the Leningrad Optical Mechanism Enterprise. By the beginning of 1989 it became clear that this schedule could not be held. TsSKB had a lot of work on Buran and its associated scientific payloads. The mid-1980's put huge demands on the spacecraft design bureaux. They were attempting to test and put into production third generation systems while at the same time responding to government 'star wars' crash programs. The common telescope for the new generation satellites had weight problems, delaying the start of flight trials. A January 1989 government resolution set 1991 as the date for the start of flight trials. But this was followed by the disintegration of the Soviet Union and the attendant financial crisis. Trials were again delayed to 1996-1997. TsSKB finally dropped out of the competition and turned to continued production of the proven Yantar-4KS1 system. A single example of the new Lavochkin satellite, the Arkon-1, was finally launched in 1997 into an unusually high orbit for a photo-reconnaissance satellite. This evidently was to take full advantage of the single satellite available, even at the sacrifice of ground resolution. As a back-up improvements were made throughout the 1980's to the Yantar-4K, providing both high resolution and survey variants. The first flight trials of this new series of 4K's was to begin in 1989, but the satellites were not ready. Finally the work was abandoned. Naval targeting satellites of the third generation had flight trials scheduled for 1990 in the 1984 plan. This was seriously delayed. SGKRN System of Global Space Radio Observation The Tselina-3 third generation ELINT was developed in parallel with Tselina-2. Work began in the 1970's, with research on a variety of new systems. Experimental instruments were flighttested aboard Tselina-D missions. Two flight tests in 1986-1987 proved the effectiveness of the technical solutions. In 1985 the technical project for an operation system was begun. High orbit tests in 1988 showed the system would have to be deployed in two systems: a constellation of satellites in orbits of 800 to 2000 km altitude; and a Space System for Radio Relay and Combat, consisting of 1 to 2 satellites in geosynchronous orbit. The third generation satellites were designed by NPO Palma of Minradiopribor, with KB Yuzhnoye providing the satellite bus. The geosynchronous satellites, developed from the Luch relay satellites, were by NPO PM MOM. Flight trials of specialised relay payloads for use with the ELINT satellites of the VMF and DOS were tested during two launches in 1989. YeSSS-3 Communications System The third generation satellites of the YeSSS-3 communications system were developed by NPO PM. The two phase project would develop an improved version of the Raduga satellite, followed by a completely new design high elliptical orbit satellite to replace Molniya. These satellites would provide real-time operational and technical communications for the command units of the VVS Air Force and Soviet Navy, aboard aircraft, surface ships, and cruisers. The

satellites would be equipped with millimetre band multibeam antennae and a greater capability for signal processing aboard the spacecraft. Capacity and survivability would be increased by doubling the number of spacecraft in each constellation. Work on the third generation high elliptical orbit satellite was completed and the system was accepted into the military in 1987 as the Molniya-1T as part of the RVSN command and control system. The Modernised Ekran-M and Stuk-2 satellites completed flight trials at the same period. For civilian communications modernised geosynchronous satellites were developed. The Ekspress was to replace Gorizont, and the Gals direct-broadcast satellite was introduced. The Strela-3 had replaced both earlier models of the series for store-dump communications from the mid-1980's. Commercial versions Gonets-D1 and Gonets were launched but were not successful in attracting investors. YeKNS Unified Space Navigation System The modern GLONASS/Uragan system had entered operation during the late 1980's. A total of 22 spacecraft were placed in the constellation by the end of 1987, and 31 by the end of 1989. Planeta Meteorological System The system consisted of Meteor-3 sun synchronous satellites complemented by the geostationary Elektro satellites. Work began with a December 1972 resolution of the VPK Military Industrial Commission calling for development of a third generation Meteor satellite to start the following year. The draft project for the Planeta-S was completed in 1979, followed by the detailed design in May 1980. However it was not until 1981 that a resolution called for the Planeta-S unified meteorological system, and development of the system was only fully funded in June 1983. This system was developed at VNIIEM MEP by N N Sheremtyevskiy and Yu V Trifonov. The draft project was completed in 1984 by VNIIEM Filial Istriisk under V I Adasko. Tests of some new equipment aboard Meteor-2 flights began at the end of 1984. Flight test of the complete spacecraft from Plesetsk did not start until 1990. Elektro development also ran into enormous obstacles in the period 1983-1987, with a mock-up not begin completed until 1989. Only by then were drawings for a flight article completed. Support Systems Development of a Taifun-3 third generation radar calibration / ASAT target spacecraft, derived from the Taifun-2, went well. The target was also used to exercise the A-135 ABM complex of the PVO and provided a system of wide-spectrum signal impulses. KB Yuzhnoye launched the first spacecraft of the type from Plesetsk in 1988. The satellite was launched by the Tsyklon 3 launch vehicle and released 36 Romb subsatellites. Manned Programme The Mir-2 space station was to have utilised the capabilities of the Buran orbiter and Zarya and Progress M2 resupply spacecraft. After the decision for the crash 'star wars' programme the primary mission of the station became that of a weapons test platform. This involved competitive proposals from Chelomei Mir-2 KB Salyut and Energia (Mir-2). It would undergo many changes over the years, with only one thing remaining constant: the starting point was always the DOS-8 base block space station core module, built as a back-up to Mir's DOS-7. Eventually Mir-2 would be merged with the International Space Station, and DOS-8 was finally launched as the ISS Zvezda Module of the ISS International Space Station. The planned MirBuran docking module entered service on joint American-Russian missions as the Mir-Shuttle

Docking Module. A variant of the TKS was purchased by the Americans and, as the ISS Zarya, became the first part of the ISS orbited. Scientifc Satellites y Launch of AUOS bus scientific satellites continued. On 28 September 1989, AUOS-Z-IE Aktivniy studied the magnetosphere and electron plasma. On 18 December 1985 AUOSZ-IE Ionozond studied electron concentrations and the ionosphere. y The Granat orbital X-ray / gamma-ray observatory was developed jointly by the USSR with France, Denmark and Bulgaria. y Planetary launches dropped off significantly with only two failed Fobos 1F missions in the last years of the Soviet Union. y Resurs-F satellites continued in use and comprehensively mapped Chukotka, Novaya Zemlya, the Kuriles, middle Asia, the Pamirs, and Tian-Shan. The Cosmos 2000 mission surveyed the Antarctic. The annual economic benefit in 1989 of such missions was estimated to be 30 million roubles. y Okean-O satellites continued to monitor the world ocean, including the polar regions. Data received by ships aided them in conducting operations. The satellites returned data on weather states, biological tracking, and temperature anomalies. They were equipped with a side-scanning radar and the SVCh scanning radiometer. The satellites also mapped the Arctic and Antarctic, and obtain data on lakes and rivers (including the Okhotsk and Amur). y Foton continued in use for material processing experiments that took advantage of the zero-gravity high-vacuum environment of space. y In 1986 TsKBM proceeded with study of the earth's surface using the Almaz-T satellite. But it was not used for military purposes since the Ministry of Defence was satisfied with the performance of its new electro-optical satellites. Finally the Academy of Sciences agreed to take it over and use it on a science mission. Cosmos 1870 was successful and functioned for two years. A commercial version with 15 m resolution was launched in March 1991. y In March 1988 the Soviet Union conducted its first commercial launch. An Indian earth resources satellite was placed in orbit for a fee of $ 7.5 million. This was the first of many -- commercial launch services would become a primary money-maker for the Russian Federation in the 1990's.

Russian Federation Space Systems.

The 13th and last Five Year Plan (1991-1995) saw vast changes brought about by the collapse of the Soviet Union. The space forces had been reorganised in November 1988, but despite collapse of salary and budget deliveries work under the 12th Five Year Plan was completed. Most noticeably flight trials of Tselina-2 were completed and the system was accepted into the military. Flight trials of Strela-3, Molniya-1T, and Meteor-3 were conducted. Research with Resurs-F2 resources satellite and the Taifun-3 target complex went ahead, together with deployment of 40 new control systems. Although ground tests and flight development of third generation systems had begun, there was no capital to meet the schedule established for the 1991-2000 period. Plans for countering

SDI had to be abandoned. KIK Tracking stations no longer on Russian territory were abandoned, and to compensate three new tracking stations were built at Eysk, Maloyaroslavets, and Barnaul. With the break-up of the Soviet Union 75% to 90% of the space industry remained in Russia, but some unique capabilities, especially the Proton launch site, were lost. Not all missions planned could be accomplished, and new priorities included attempts to commercialise space technology. Under the Konversiya concept space industrial facilities were to be converted to civilian use. Attempts were also made to market Soviet space technology internationally. This was manifested as early as the launch of the Kristall module to Mir on 31 August 1990. The 19.5 tonne module carried 7 tonnes of materials processing payload and the APAS-89 docking system for use with the US space shuttle. Collaboration with the United States on the ISS International Space Station also pumped funds into Mir. Meteor-TOMS was financed by Germany. In 1990 the Chinese head of state visited Baikonur, leading to space co-operation contracts from China. On 25 February 1992 the RKA Russian Space Agency was founded as a counterpart to the US NASA Agency. Staff involved with civilian space projects were transferred to the new organisation. On 7 November 1992 the UNKS was replaced by the UK-VKS Directorate for Command of the Military Space Forces. The national space plan in 1992 was as follows: y Phase 1: By the end of 1992: Complete reorganisation of the VKS Military Space Force and its infrastructure y Phase 2: 1993-1995: Complete test and development of third generations systems; ensure that the interests of Russia in space were met y Phase 3: 1996-2000: Plan sustainable infrastructure, complete organisation of a central directorate for military-space affairs in the military forces of the Russian Federation Continuing budget declines met that Phase 2 of the plan could not be completed. The Russian space plan identified nearly twenty new satellite communications systems. Networks receiving federal support in addition to commercial financing included Arkos, Ekspress-M, Gals, Gonets, Mayak, Signal, and Yamal. Systems which had to secure complete commercial backing were Bankir, Ekspress, Gals, Gelikon, Globsat, Kondor, Koskon, Kuryer, Nord, Sokol, SPS-Sputnik, and Zerkalo. Of all of these only Ekspress, Mayak, Gals, and Bankir (as Kupon would reach orbit by 2001. During 1993-1994, 27 launches involving 47 communications satellites were undertaken, or 29% of all Russian space missions. Despite one launch failure, 27 low earth orbit, 7 highly elliptical, and 12 geosynchronous spacecraft were successfully deployed. These numbers represented about half of the operational network (an acceptable 2-year turnover). But some specific constellations became increasingly populated with spacecraft operating beyond their design lifetimes. This situation was especially apparent in geosynchronous orbit. As the 1990's continued ex-Soviet communications satellite constellations would continue to degrade. In 1996 a concept for national space policy of Russia was issued in a decree. This covered the period to 2005. 4 October was made national VKS Military Space Forces day. The plan was as follows: y The VKS Military Space Forces as an independent arm of the military forces. y Russian national Cosmodromes at Plesetsk and Svobodniy. y Military Training Centres at the A F Mozhaiskiy VIKA and the Petr Veliky Military Space Cadet Academy.

Three Major Command and Tracking Centres (OKIK). Operation of Baikonur in accordance with the Russia-Kazakh treaty for commercial and military launches. y Consolidate reliable control of spacecraft within Russian territory. y Complete and publish 13 decrees of the Russian President and 25 of the Congress. y Accept into military service five new space systems, including three for which flight trials were already under way y Consolidate and improve housing, hospitals, and build a new Black Sea sanatorium for staff y Participate in Air Shows: Navigatsiya 92 in Moscow; Le Bourget in 1993/1995; Berlin and Farnborough in 1994; Moscow in 1994/1995 These objectives also proved unrealisable. At best only single articles of some third generation space systems could be launched. Development of Zenit pads at Plesetsk and the Svobodniy cosmodrome stalled for lack of funds. In a scramble to attract Western investment in the financial crisis that following the break-up of the Soviet Union, many proposals were made in the 1990-1996 period for commercial use of Russian spacecraft. Market realities meant that virtually none of these were realised. TKS derivatives were offered as earth resources and material processing platforms (Tellura, Teknologia). Military communications systems were proposed for civilian use (Gonets). Many proposals were made that took advantage of the heavy payload capability of the Energia booster. These included Multipurpose Satellite Gals, Energia Control Sat, Energia Geostationary Platform, Globis (Energia Heavy Comsat), Energia Nuclear Waste Disposal, Energia Orbital Debris Remover, Energia Ozone Replenishment Satellite, Energia Polar City Illuminator, and Skif-DM. Renewed large scale radio astronomy and lunar and Mars exploration programs were suggested: KRT-25 Radio Telescope, Energia Lunar Base, Mars 1986, Mars 1989, Mars 1994, ERTA, and Mars Together. None of these grandiose projects went beyond the concept stage. As the 1990's continued military and civilian satellite constellations could not be sustained. Key satellite and rocket components were only made in ex-Soviet states that wanted hard currency or high prices. No budget was available to continue programs. The unpaid workers of the space industry were however able to continue by using reserve rockets and spacecraft plus complete those units that were in the pipeline when the Soviet Union broke apart. Satellite constellations were replenished at a slow rate but kept at a minimally operational status by rearranging existing satellites. Russian space launches meanwhile ground to a virtual halt. In July 1997 the VKS Space Force was dissolved as a separate service arm and incorporated, together with the anti-ballistic missile arm of the PVO, into the RVSN Strategic Rocket Forces. The absolute nadir was reached in 1999, when Russia orbited only 16 satellites, one sixth the number in the last year of the Soviet Union. At the same time, lessons learned in the Kosovo conflict clearly showed the importance of space forces in modern warfare. From this point, under the leadership of President Putin, Russian space began to revive. Launches were conducted in 2000-2001 to finally replenish military satellite constellations and return them to minimum operational levels (Glonass, Molniya-3, Orlets-2, Prognoz SPRN, Raduga-1, Strela-3, Tselina-2, US-PM, Yantar-1KFT, Yantar-4K1 and Yantar-4KS1). Development
y y

of the all-Russian Angara modular launch vehicle to finally replace earlier designs and move all Russian launch operations back to Russian territory was revived with new vigour. As Russia entered the new millennium it was following a strategy of using existing military space systems to retain a minimum essential military space capability. Slow development of the Angara launch vehicle continued to be funded through successful commercial sales of Proton launch services and Zenit rocket engines. Secrecy in regard to new military satellite development was reimposed. The dim outlines of a modernised, lightweight, and more appropriate Russian space capability for the 2010's was emerging.

Completed Projects in Detail Almaz Space Station

The Almaz (Russian: - "Diamond") program was a series of military space stations (or "Orbital Piloted Station" - OPS) launched by the Soviet Union under cover of the civilian Salyut DOS-17K (Durable Orbital Station) program after 1971. Three Almaz stations were launched: Salyut 2, Salyut 3 and Salyut 5. Salyut 2 failed shortly after achieving orbit, but Salyut 3 and Salyut 5 both conducted successful manned testing. Following Salyut 5, the Soviet Ministry of Defence judged in 1978 that the time consumed by station maintenance outweighed the benefits relative to automatic reconnaissance satellites. Development Almaz was promoted by Vladimir Chelomei as a response to the USAF's MOL project. Like its counterpart, the Almaz OPS would be launched with its initial crew atop Chelomei's UR-500 Proton rocket. After an extended stay of 30 to 60 days of military observation and photography the crew would return to Earth by way of a reusable Return Vehicle (VA).[citation needed] Unlike the American MOL design the Almaz was equipped with a docking port for subsequent crews. These crews would arrive in manned TKS, also launched by the UR-500. And just like Almaz OPS, the TKS was equipped with its own return vehicle.[citation needed] Also unique[citation needed] to the Almaz complex were small capsules which could be loaded with developed film for immediate return to Earth. Orbital Piloted Stations (OPS) The OPS basic design features are 4.15 meters in diameter and a weight of 20 tonnes. From 1965 to 1970, eight test models and two flight ready spaceframes were built. Five missions were executed with two considered a success. Total time spent in space in the program was 81 days.[1] OPS-1 (Salyut 2) The first Almaz station (OPS-1 or Almaz 101.1), announced as Salyut 2, it was launched on April 3, 1973. For purposes of military secrecy, it was publicly designated Salyut 2 upon reaching orbit. A crew was prepared to fly to the station but an accident days after the launch left OPS-1 disabled and depressurized.[citation needed] OPS-2 (Salyut 3) OPS-2 (or Almaz 101.2), announced as Salyut 3, was launched on June 25, 1974. The crew of the Soyuz 14 spacecraft spent 15 days aboard the station in July 1974. A second expedition was launched toward OPS-2 in August 1974, but failed to reach the station. The station successfully

remotely test-fired an onboard aircraft cannon at a target satellite while the station was unmanned. Salyut-3 was deorbited in January 1975. OPS-3 (Salyut 5) OPS-3 (or Almaz 103), announced after launch as Salyut 5, entered orbit on June 22, 1976. It was visited by two crews in the summer of 1976 and winter of 1977. OPS-4 The next Almaz station, OPS-4, was to be the first station launched with a three panel Mech-A Synthetic Aperture Radar and a manned reusable Return Vehicle VA, however the VA was replaced by a second TKS docking port. This station's Shchit-1 23 mm defense cannon was also to be replaced with an advanced Shchit-2 space-to-space cannon. The Shchit-2 was reported to be a two projectile system, although no photographs of it have ever been published and it does not appear that this system was ever installed on the station. OPS-4 was grounded when the Almaz manned program was cancelled. Defense measures In addition to reconnaissance equipment, Almaz was equipped with a 23mm Nudelman rapidfire cannon mounted on the forward belly of the station. This self-lubricating cannon was modified from the tail-gun of the Tu-22 bomber and was capable of firing 950 rounds per minute. Each 200 gram projectile flew at a speed of 690 m/s relative to the station. To aim the cannon, which was in a fixed mounting, the entire station would be turned to face the threat.[ Salyut 3/OPS-2 conducted a successful test firing on a target satellite remotely with the station unmanned due to concerns over excessive vibration and noise. OPS-4 was to have featured two unguided missiles instead of the aircraft cannon, but this system has not been shown publicly and may have never been fully manufactured. Almaz-T (unmanned) Almaz radar satellite (based on Almaz space station). Following cancellation of the program, the Almaz station was reconfigured as an unmanned heavy radar-carrying reconnaissance satellite. Three such satellites were launched, two of which functioned successfully in orbit. Almaz-T y Almaz-T - The first Almaz-T blasted off from Baikonur on October 29, 1986. It did not reach orbit due to the failure of the first and second stages of the Proton launcher to separate. The safety system then destroyed the vehicle. Kosmos 1870 y Kosmos 1870 - On July 25, 1987, the second Almaz-T spacecraft successfully reached orbit with an inclination 71.92 degrees toward the Equator and it was officially identified as Cosmos-1870. The spacecraft functioned for two years, providing radar imagery with a resolution down to 25 meters, until it was deorbited on July 30, 1989. Almaz-1 y Almaz-1 - The third Almaz-T spacecraft was launched on March 31, 1991 under the name Almaz-1. After the launch a failure of the communications antenna designed to downlink the imagery via the Luch relay satellite was noted. Also one of the solar panels failed to deploy completely, leaving the main radar panel of the spacecraft partially

blocked. After 18 months of successful work the Almaz-1 was deorbited on October 17, 1992 over the Pacific Ocean. Almaz-2 y Almaz-2 (Almaz-1V) - Not flown. It had a new radar which would have provided a resolution of 5 to 7 meters. In addition, an optical-electronic payload on the station would have been capable of producing imagery with a resolution of 2.5 4 meters. Other usage The OPS spaceframes formed the basis of the Salyut,[4] Mir and ISS space station base modules. Currently, the private spaceflight company Excalibur Almaz has four space capsules derived from the TKS Return capsule, one will be used in support of space tourism while the other three capsules will be reserved for scientific and commercial payloads.

THE BURAN SPACE PROGRAM

The Buran (Russian: , IPA: [b ran], Snowstorm or Blizzard) program was a Soviet and later Russian plan for a reusable spacecraft, that began in 1974 at TsAGI and formally suspended in 1993.[1] It was a response to the United States Space Shuttle program.[2] The project was the largest and the most expensive in the history of Soviet space exploration.[1] Development work included sending the BOR-5 on multiple sub-orbital test flights, and atmospheric flights of the OK-GLI. Buran completed one unmanned orbital spaceflight in 1988 before its cancellation in 1993. Although the Buran spacecraft was similar in appearance to the NASA Space Shuttle, and could similarly function as a re-entry spaceplane, the main engines during launch were on the Energia rocket and not taken into orbit on the spacecraft. The Buran program matched an expendable rocket to a reusable spaceplane. The Buran orbiter which flew the test flight was crushed in the Buran hangar collapse on May 12, 2002 in Kazakhstan. The OK-GLI resides in Technikmuseum Speyer. Background The Soviet reusable space-craft program has its roots in the very beginning of the space age, the late 1950s. The idea of Soviet reusable space flight is very old, though it was neither continuous, nor consistently organized. Before Buran, no project of the program reached production. The idea saw its first iteration in the Burya high-altitude jet aircraft, which reached the prototype stage. Several test flights are known, before it was cancelled by order of the Central Committee. The Burya had the goal of delivering a nuclear payload, presumably to the United States, and then returning to base. The cancellation was based on a final decision to develop ICBMs. The next iteration of the idea was Zvezda from the early 1960s, which also reached a prototype stage. Decades later, another project with the same name was used as a service module for the International Space Station. After Zvezda, there was a hiatus in reusable projects until Buran. Development
The development of the Buran began in the early 1970s as a response to the U.S. Space Shuttle program. Soviet officials were concerned about a perceived military threat posed by the US Space Shuttle. In their opinion, the Shuttle's 30-ton payload-toorbit capacity and, more significantly, its 15-ton payload return capacity, were a clear indication that one of its main objectives

would be to place massive experimental laser weapons into orbit that could destroy enemy missiles from a distance of several thousands of kilometers. Their reasoning was that such weapons could only be effectively tested in actual space conditions and that in order to cut their development time and save costs it would be necessary to regularly bring them back to Earth for modifications and fine-tuning.[3] Soviet officials were also concerned that the US Space Shuttle could make a sudden dive into the atmosphere to drop bombs on Moscow, despite the fact that such a scenario was not supported by physics. While the Soviet engineers favored a smaller, lighter lifting body vehicle, the military leadership pushed for a direct, full scale copy of the double-delta wing Space Shuttle, in an effort to maintain the strategic parity between the superpowers. NPO Molniya conducted all development under the lead of Gleb Lozino-Lozinskiy. The construction of the shuttles began in 1980, and by 1984 the first full-scale Buran was rolled out. The first suborbital test flight of a scale-model (BOR-5) took place as early as July 1983. As the project progressed, five additional scale-model flights were performed. A test vehicle was constructed with four jet engines mounted at the rear; this vehicle is usually referred to as OK-GLI, or as the "Buran aerodynamic analogue". The jets were used to take off from a normal landing strip, and once it reached a designated point, the engines were cut and OK-GLI glided back to land. This provided invaluable information about the handling characteristics of the Buran design, and significantly differed from the carrier plane/air drop method used by the USA and the Enterprise test craft. Twenty-four test flights of OK-GLI were performed after which the shuttle was "worn out".

Buran cosmonaut preparation A rule, set in place because of the failed Soyuz 25 of 1977, insisted that all Soviet space missions contain at least one crew member who has been to space before. In particular, in 1982, it was decided that all Buran commanders and their back-ups would occupy the third seat on a Soyuz mission, prior to their Buran spaceflight.[3] Several people had been selected to potentially be in the first Buran crew. By 1985, it was decided that at least one of the two crew members would be a test pilot trained at the Gromov Flight Research Institute (known as "LII"), and potential crew lists were drawn up. Only two potential Buran crew members reached space: Igor Volk, who flew in Soyuz T-12 to the space station Salyut 7, and Anatoli Levchenko who visited Mir, launching with Soyuz TM-4 and landing with Soyuz TM-3. Both Soyuz spaceflights lasted about a week. Spaceflight of Igor Volk Volk was planned to be the commander of the first Buran flight. There were two purposes of the Soyuz T-12 mission, one of which was to give Volk spaceflight experience. The other purpose, seen as the more important factor, was to beat the United States and have the first spacewalk conducted by a woman.[3] Spaceflight of Anatoli Levchenko Levchenko was planned to be the back-up commander of the first Buran flight, and in March 1987 he began extensive training for his Soyuz spaceflight.[3] In December 1987, he occupied the third seat aboard Soyuz TM-4 to Mir, and returned to Earth about a week later on Soyuz TM-3. His mission is sometimes called Mir LII-1, after the Gromov Flight Research Institute shorthand.[5] Levchenko died of a brain tumour the following year, leaving the back-up crew again without spaceflight experience. A Soyuz spaceflight for another potential back-up commander was pursued by the Gromov Flight Research Institute, but such a spaceflight never occurred. Orbital flight The only orbital launch of the (unmanned) Buran shuttle 1.01 was at 3:00 UTC on 15 November 1988. It was lifted into orbit by the specially designed Energia booster rocket. The life support

system was not installed and no software was installed on the CRT displays.[6] The shuttle orbited the Earth twice in 206 minutes of flight. On its return, it performed an automated landing on the shuttle runway at Baikonur Cosmodrome.[7] Planned flights The planned flights for the shuttles in 1989, before the downsizing of the project and eventual cancellation, were: y 1991 - Shuttle Ptichka unmanned first flight, duration 1 2 days. y 1992 - Shuttle Ptichka unmanned second flight, duration 7 8 days. Orbital maneuvers and space station approach test. y 1993 - Shuttle Buran unmanned second flight, duration 15 20 days. y 1994 - Shuttle 2.01 first manned space test flight, duration of 24 hours. Craft equipped with life-support system and with two ejection seats. Crew would consist of only two cosmonauts with Igor Volk as commander, and Aleksandr Ivanchenko as flight engineer. y Second manned space test flight, crew would consist of only two cosmonauts. y Third manned space test flight, crew would consist of only two cosmonauts. y Fourth manned space test flight, crew would consist of only two cosmonauts. The planned unmanned second flight of the Ptichka was changed in 1991 to the following: y December 1991 - Shuttle 1.02 - informally "Ptichka" unmanned second flight, with a duration of 7 8 days. Orbital maneuvers and space station approach test: o automatic docking with Mir's Kristall module o crew transfer from Mir to the shuttle, with testing of some of its systems in the course of twenty-four hours, including the remote manipulator o undocking and autonomous flight in orbit o docking of the manned Soyuz-TM 101 with the shuttle o crew transfer from the Soyuz to the shuttle and onboard work in the course of twenty-four hours o automatic undocking and landing Cancellation (1993)

Atmospheric Buran testbed, MACS, Zhukovski, 1999. After the first flight, the project was suspended due to lack of funds and the political situation in the Soviet Union. The two subsequent orbiters, which were due in 1990 (informally Ptichka, meaning "birdie") and 1992 (Shuttle 2.01) were never completed. The project was officially terminated on June 30, 1993 by President Boris Yeltsin. At the time of its cancellation, 20 billion roubles had been spent on the Buran program.[9] The program was designed to boost national pride, carry out research, and meet technological objectives similar to those of the U.S. shuttle program, including resupply of the Mir space station, which was launched in 1986 and remained in service until 2001. When Mir was finally visited by a space shuttle, the visitor was a U.S. shuttle, not Buran.

The Buran SO, a docking module that was to be used for rendezvous with the Mir space station, was refitted for use with the U.S. Space Shuttles during the Shuttle-Mir missions.[10] Buran hangar collapse On May 12, 2002, the Buran hangar in Kazakhstan collapsed because of a structural failure due to poor maintenance. The collapse killed 7 workers and destroyed the orbiter as well as a mockup of an Energia booster rocket. It occurred at building 112 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, 14 years after its first and only flight. Work on the roof had begun for a maintenance project, whose equipment is thought to have contributed to the collapse. Also, preceding May 12 there had been several days of heavy rain. Status As well as the five production Burans, there were eight test vehicles. These were used for static testing or atmospheric trials, and some were merely mock-ups for testing of electrical fittings, crew procedures, etc. Image Serial number Construction Usage Date Current status[13]

Space Flight Burans (Production vehicles) Shuttle OK1K1 1986 "Buran" (11F35 K1) Shuttle OK1K2 informally 1988 "Ptichka" (11F35 K2) Shuttle OK2K1 "Baikal" 1990? (?) (11F35 K3) Shuttle OKTK(?) 1991? (11F35 K4) Shuttle 2.03 1992? (11F35 K5) Aero and Static Tester Burans (Mock-ups) [5] OK-M (later 1982 OK-ML-1) Static test Static test model: parts, normal temperature static loads, moment of Unmanned (1988) flight Destroyed in the Buran hangar collapse in 2002.

[2]

95-97% unused

Property of Kazakhstan, at the completed, Baikonur Cosmodrome, in the MIK Building. located at Baikonur Cosmodrome. Partially dismantled, remains outside Tushino Machine Building Plant, near Moscow. Dismantled.

[3]

Incomplete

[4]

Incomplete

Incomplete

inertia, payload mass, interface tests (horizontal and vertical) with the launch vehicle. Located at Baikonur Cosmodrome. Static test model: Static electronic and electrical/integration electric. Located at test the Energia factory in Korolev Static test model: documentation, loading methods for liquids and gases, system Engineering mock-up hermetic integrity, crew entry and exit, manuals. Located at Baikonur Cosmodrome. Analogue aero test model. Completed 25 aero test flights and 9 taxi tests. Bought by the Technikmuseum Speyer, transported to Germany in 2008. Vibration and vacuum test vehicle. Location unknown.

[6]

OK-KS (003) 1982

[7]

OK-MT (later OK- 1983 ML-2)

OK-GLI (Buran 1984 Analog BTS002)

Aero test

OK-??? (Model 005?)

Static test

[8]

OK-TVI

Static test model: Environmental chamber Static heat/vacuum heat/vacuum, thermal regimes. testbed Location: NIIKhimMash, Moscow. Static test Vibration and vacuum test vehicle. Location unknown.

OK-??? (Model 008?)

OK-TVA

Static test

Structural test vehicle: loads and stresses, heating and vibration. Located in Gorky Park, Moscow.

Related Scale Models and Ships BOR-4 1982 1984 1:2 scale model of Sub-scale model of Spiral space plane. 5 the Spiral space launches. NPO plane Molniya, Moscow. 5 launches, none were reflown but at Suborbital test of 1/8 least 4 were scale model of Buran recovered. NPO Molniya, Moscow. Medical-biological tests Flight control software fine tuning Scales from 1:3 to 85 models built 1:550 Scales from 1:15 to 1:2700

BOR-5 1983 1988 ("Kosmos") Full-scale crew section GLI Horizontal Flight Simulator Wind tunnel models Gas dynamics models

Future possibilities The 2003 grounding of the U.S. Space Shuttles caused many to wonder whether the Russian Energia launcher or Buran shuttle could be brought back into service. By then, however, all of the equipment for both (including the vehicles themselves) had fallen into disrepair or been repurposed after falling into disuse with the collapse of the Soviet Union. However, because of the imminent retirement of the American space shuttle by 2010 and the need for STS-type craft in the meantime to complete the International Space Station, some American and Russian scientists had been mulling over plans to possibly revive the already-existing Buran shuttles in the Buran program rather than spend money on an entirely new craft and wait for it to be fully developed[14][15] but the plans did not come to fruition. Recently there have been new interests in renewing the program temporarily while Russia struggles with the CSTS and Kliper design stages.[16][17]

Technical data Buran's rear (1989) Mass breakdown y Mass of Total Structure / Landing Systems: 42,000 kg y Mass of Functional Systems and Propulsion: 33,000 kg y SSME 14,200 y Maximum Payload: 30,000 kg y Maximum liftoff weight: 105,000 kg Dimensions y Length: 36.37 m y Wingspan: 23.92 m y Height on Gear: 16.35 m y Payload bay length: 18.55 m y Payload bay diameter: 4.65 m y Wing glove sweep: 78 degrees y Wing sweep: 45 degrees Propulsion y Total orbital maneuvering engine thrust: 17,600 kgf y Orbital Maneuvering Engine Specific Impulse: 362 sec y Total Maneuvering Impulse: 5 kgf-sec y Total Reaction Control System Thrust: 14,866 kgf y Average RCS Specific Impulse: 275-295 sec y Normal Maximum Propellant Load: 14,500 kg Comparison to NASA Space Shuttle Because Buran's debut followed that of Space Shuttle Columbia's, and because there were striking visual similarities between the two shuttle systems a state of affairs which recalled the similarity between the Tupolev Tu-144 and Concorde supersonic airliners many speculated that Cold War espionage played a role in the development of the Soviet shuttle. Despite remarkable external similarities, many key differences existed, which suggests that, had espionage been a factor in Buran's development, it would likely have been in the form of external photography or early airframe designs. One CIA commenter, however, states that Buran was based on a rejected NASA design. Key differences from the NASA Space Shuttle y Buran was not an integral part of the system, but rather a payload for the Energia launcher. The orbiter had no main rocket engines, freeing space and weight for additional payload; the largest cylindrical structure is the Energia carrier-rocket, not just a fuel tank. In contrast, in the American Space Shuttle system, the three main engines on the rear of the orbiter comprise the second stage launch propulsion system, and the External Tank and twin boosters are not used to launch anything except an orbiter. y The boosters used liquid propellant (kerosene/oxygen). The Space Shuttle's boosters use solid propellant. y Buran's equivalent of the shuttle's Orbital Maneuvering System used GOX/Kerosene propellant, with lower toxicity and higher performance (a specific impulse of 362 seconds)[citation needed] than the Shuttle's hydrazine OMS engines.

y y y y y

Soyuz, Space Shuttle, and Buran y The main engines were mounted on the core Energia stage and thus destroyed when it burns up in the atmosphere, unlike the U.S. Space Shuttle which has reusable main engines in the orbiter. Both designs feature reusable boosters (although reusability was not demonstrated on Energia). There were some plans for constructing a fully reusable Energia carrier, but funding cuts meant that this was never completed.[citation needed] y Energia was designed from the start to be configured for a variety of uses, rather than just a shuttle launcher. Other payloads than Buran, with mass as high as 80 metric tons, could be lifted to space by Energia, as was the case on its first launch. The heaviest configuration (never built) would have been able to launch 200 tons into orbit. (The Shuttle-C concept was a similar proposal to the Energia system, envisaged to complement the space shuttle by adapting its boosters and external tank for use with other vehicles, but it never moved beyond the experimental mock-up stage. The NASA Ares V rocket, in development, is a similarly "shuttle-derived" idea.)[citation needed] The Energia launch rocket was also capable of delivering a payload to the Moon. However, this configuration was never tested. The Space Shuttle was never intended to go beyond Low Earth orbit.[citation needed] As Buran was designed to be capable of both manned and robotic flight, it had automated landing capability; the manned version was never operational. The Space Shuttle was later retrofitted with an automated landing capability; the equipment to make this possible was first flown on STS-121, but is intended only as a contingency, and has never been used on any flight. The orbiters were designed to carry two jet engines for increased return capability. Although they were not installed in the first orbiter for reason of weight limits on the first Energia launcher, provisions exist in the structure for later retrofit. Although early designs of the NASA Space Shuttle also incorporated jet engines, the operation version landed as an unpowered glider, relying entirely on management of descent energy for landing. The nose landing gear is located much farther down the fuselage rather than just under the mid-deck as with the NASA Space Shuttle. Buran could lift 30 metric tons into orbit in its standard configuration, comparable to the early Space Shuttle's original 27.8 metric tons Buran was designed to return 20 metric tons of payload from orbit, compared to 15 metric tons for the Space Shuttle orbiter.[citation needed] The lift-to-drag ratio of Buran is cited as 6.5,[24] compared to a subsonic L/D of 4.5 for the Space Shuttle.[25] The thermal protection tiles on the Buran and U.S. Space Shuttles are laid out differently. Soviet engineers believed their design to be thermodynamically superior.[23]

Buran was designed to be moved to the launch pad horizontally on special train tracks, and then erected at the launch site. This enabled a much faster rollout than the US Space Shuttle, which is moved vertically, and as such must be moved very slowly (less than one mile per hour, typically taking about 6 hours to move the Mobile Launch Platform supporting the Shuttle stack from the VAB to the launch pad on a CrawlerTransporter.)[citation needed] The booster rockets were not constructed in segments vulnerable to leakage through Orings, which caused the destruction of Challenger. (Their liquid-fueled nature would make this design inapplicable.) However, the liquid fuel for the booster rockets (see above) would have made them less easy to prepare - and hold ready - for flight than solid rocket fuel in the Shuttle boosters and in addition represented a potential explosive hazard on the ground.[citation needed] The manned version was intended to have a crew of ten as opposed to seven.

KOSMOS SATELLITES
Kosmos (Russian: , IPA: [ kozm s], Cosmos) is a designation given to a large number of satellites operated by the Soviet Union and subsequently Russia. Kosmos 1, the first spacecraft to be given a Kosmos designation, was launched on March 16, 1962. As of September 2010, 2,468 Kosmos satellites had been launched. The spacecraft do not form a single programme, but instead consist of almost all Soviet and Russian military satellites, as well as a number of scientific satellites, and spacecraft which failed during or immediately after launch, but still reached orbit. Control systems for 152 spacecraft which were later assigned Kosmos designations were developed and manufactured by NPO Electropribor (Kharkiv).[1] The designation is given only to satellites which are in Earth orbit. Typically, Soviet Lunar and planetary missions were initially put into an low Earth parking orbit along with an upper stage, which would later burn for around four minutes to place the spacecraft into a cislunar or a heliocentric orbit. If the engine misfired or the burn was not completed, the probes which would be left in Earth orbit would be given a Kosmos designation. Most Soviet and subsequently Russian military satellites were given Kosmos designations. Spacecraft include optical reconnaissance satellites, communications satellites, early warning missile defence spacecraft, nuclear-powered radar reconnaissance satellites, anti-satellite weapons and their targets, navigation satellites and technology demonstrators. Some scientific spacecraft such as Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik, Bion and Meteor satellites were also given Kosmos designations. Early Kosmos satellites Kosmos 1 : Kosmos 1, also known as Sputnik 11, was launched on March 16, 1962 at 12:00:00 UTC. Orbital mass 285 kg. It was the first satellite of the Soviet Earth Satellite series.[2] Employed radio instruments in order to study the structure of the ionosphere. Kosmos 2 : Kosmos 2, also known as Sputnik 12, was launched on April 6, 1962 at 17:16:00 UTC. Orbital mass 285 kg. It was the second satellite of the Soviet Earth Satellite series.[2] Employed radio instruments in order to study the structure of the ionosphere. Kosmos 3 : Kosmos 3, also known as Sputnik 13, was launched on April 24, 1962 at 04:04:00 UTC. Orbital mass 330 kg. It belongs to the Soviet Earth Satellite series.[2] It was used to study

the upper layers of the atmosphere, Earth and the outer space. Data was relayed to Earth by a multichannel telemetry systems equipped with space-borne memory units. Kosmos 4 : Kosmos 4, also known as Sputnik 14, was launched on April 26, 1962 at 10:04:00 UTC. Orbital mass 4600 kg. It was used to study the upper layers of the atmosphere, Earth and the outer space. It was developed to measure radiation before and after nuclear tests conducted during the US project Starfish. Data was relayed to Earth by a multichannel telemetry systems equipped with space-borne memory units. Kosmos 5 : Kosmos 5, also known as Sputnik 15, was launched on May 28, 1962 at 03:07:00 UTC. Orbital mass 280 kg. It was used to study the upper layers of the atmosphere, Earth and the outer space. Data was relayed to Earth by a multichannel telemetry systems equipped with space-borne memory units. Kosmos 6 : Kosmos 6, also known as Sputnik 16, was launched on June 30, 1962 at 16:04:00 UTC from Kapustin Yar. Orbital mass 355 kg. It was a Soviet DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) type military satellite built in Ukraine for launch by Kosmos launch vehicles. It was used for military and scientific research and component proving tests. Kosmos 7 : Kosmos 7, also known as Sputnik 17, was launched on July 28, 1962 at 09:21:00 UTC. Orbital mass 4600 kg. It was used to study the upper layers of the atmosphere, Earth and the outer space. Data was relayed to Earth by a multichannel telemetry systems equipped with space-borne memory units. It was used to measure radiation in the space environment in order to guarantee safety during the flight of the Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 spacecraft. Kosmos 8 : Kosmos 8, also known as Sputnik 18, was launched on August 18, 1962 at 05:02:00 UTC from Kapustin Yar. Orbital mass 337 kg. It was a Soviet DS (Dnepropetrovsk Sputnik) type military satellite built in Ukraine for launch by Kosmos launch vehicles. It was used for military and scientific research and component proving tests. Other Kosmos satellites [citation needed] y Kosmos 110 - first Soviet biosatellite (contained biological experiments) y Kosmos 133 - Soviet Soyuz programme test spacecraft y Kosmos 186 and 188 - Soyuz predecessor, the first ever automatic docking of satellites y Kosmos 212 and Kosmos 213 - Soyuz programme test spacecraft [citation needed] y Kosmos 238 - final test series of Soyuz programme spacecraft y Kosmos 419 - failed Mars mission y Kosmos 482 - failed Venus mission, crashed in south New Zealand. y Kosmos 605 - first of the Bion series, containing biological organisms y Kosmos 782 - first mission in which the US participated in the Soviet Kosmos program y Kosmos 954 - launched with an onboard nuclear reactor; failed (reasons uncertain) and re-entered atmosphere on January 24, 1978, strewing radioactive debris across northern Canada y Kosmos 1001 y Kosmos 1074 y Kosmos 1129 y Kosmos 1267 y Kosmos 1402 - failed y Kosmos 1514 y Kosmos 1667 y Kosmos 1686

y y y y

Kosmos 1818 - RORSAT with nuclear reactor Kosmos 1867 - RORSAT with nuclear reactor Kosmos 2251 - collided with an Iridium satellite in February 2009[3][4] Kosmos 2441 - first in the a new series of spy satellites (Persona), features updated imaging technology and an extended lifetime of up to seven years, failed

ENERGIA
Energia (Russian: , Energiya, "Energy") was a Soviet rocket that was designed by NPO Energia to serve as a heavy-lift expendable launch system as well as a booster for the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the NPO "Electropribor".[3][4] The Energia used four strap-on boosters powered by a four-chamber RD-170 engine burning with kerosene/LOX, and a central core stage with 4 one-chamber RD-0120 (11D122) engines fueled with liquid hydrogen/LOX. The launch system had two functionally different operational variants: Energia-Polyus, the initial test configuration, in which the Polyus system was used as a final stage to put the payload into orbit, and Energia-Buran, in which the Buran spacecraft was the payload and the source of the orbit insertion impulse.The rocket had the capacity to place about 100 metric tons in Low Earth orbit, up to 20 t to the geostationary orbit and up to 32 t to the lunar mission trajectory. Development Work on the Energia/Buran system began in 1976 after the decision was made to cancel the unsuccessful N1 rocket. The cancelled N1 rocket-based Manned Lunar Launch Facilities and Infrastructure were used for Energia (notably the huge horizontal assembly building), just as NASA reused infrastructure designed for the Saturn V in the Space Shuttle program. Energia also replaced the "Vulkan" concept, which was a design based on the Proton rocket and using the same hypergolic fuels, but much larger and more powerful. The "Vulkan" designation was later given to a variation of the Energia which has eight boosters and multiple stages. The Energia was designed to launch the Russian "Buran" reusable shuttle,[6] and for that reason was designed to carry its payload mounted on the side of the stack, rather than on the top, as is done with other launch vehicles. After design of the Energia-Buran system, it was also proposed that the booster could be used without the Buran as a heavy-lift cargo launch vehicle; this configuration was originally given the name "Buran-T". This configuration required the addition of an upper stage to reach orbit. In fact, the first launch of the Energia was in the configuration of a heavy launch vehicles, with a large military satellite as a payload. Due to the termination of the Buran program the Energia program was concluded after only two launches, and further the payload on the first launch didn't perform the final boost properly. The legacy of Energia/Buran project manifests itself most visibly in form of the RD170 family of rocket engines, and the Zenit launcher, with the first stage roughly the same as one of the Energia first stage boosters. First launch (Energia-Polyus) The Energia was first test-launched on 15 May 1987, with the Polyus spacecraft as the payload. A FGB ("Functional Cargo Block") engine section originally built as a cancelled Mir module was incorporated into

the upper stage used to inject the payload into orbit, similarly to modern geostationary satellites providing apogee impulse themselves, since the planned "Buran-T" upper stage had not yet progressed beyond the planning stage. The intended orbit was altitude 280 km (170 mi), inclination 64.6. The Soviets had originally announced that the launch as a successful sub-orbital test of the new Energia booster with a dummy payload, but some time later it was revealed that the flight had, in fact, been intended to orbit the Polyus, a UKSS military payload. The two stages of the Energia launcher functioned as designed, but the Polyus payload failed to reach orbit. Due to a software error in its attitude control system, the burn of the Polyus' orbital insertion motor failed to insert the payload into orbit. Instead, the payload reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific ocean. Second launch (Energia-Buran) The second flight, and the first one where payload successfully reached orbit, was launched on 15 November 1988. This mission launched the unmanned Soviet Shuttle vehicle, Buran. At apogee, the Buran spacecraft made a 66.7 m/s burn to reach a final orbit of 251 km x 263 km. Both the Energia and Buran programs were designed to maintain strategic parity with the United States. Discontinuation Production of Energia rockets ended with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Buran shuttle project. Ever since, there have been persistent rumors of the renewal of production, but given the current political realities, that is highly unlikely. While the Energia is no longer in production, the Zenit boosters are still in production and in use. The four strap-on liquid-fuel boosters, which burned kerosene and liquid oxygen, were the basis of the Zenit rocket which used the same engines. The engine is the RD-170, a powerful, modern, and efficient design. Its derivative, the RD-171, is still used on the Zenit rocket. A half-sized derivative of the engine, the RD-180, powers Lockheed Martin's Atlas V rocket. The quarter size derivative of the engine, the RD-191, has been used to launch Korean Naro-1 rocket and is to be used in the Russian Angara rocket. Variants Three major variants were planned after the original configuration, each with vastly different payloads. Energia M The Energia M was the smallest design configuration. The number of Zenit boosters was reduced from four to two, and instead of four RD0120 engines in the core, it had only one. It was designed to replace the Proton rocket, but lost the 1993 competition to the Angara rocket.

Energia II (Uragan) : Energia II, named Uragan (Russian: , Hurricane), was a rocket planned to be fully reusable and would have been be able to land on a conventional airfield. Unlike the Energia, which was planned to be semi-reusable (like that of the U.S. Space Shuttle), the Uragan design would have allowed the complete recovery of all Buran/Energia elements, like that of the original totally reusable Orbiter/Booster concept of the U.S. Shuttle. The Energia II core as proposed would be capable of re-entering and gliding to a landing, presumably using technology developed for the Buran. Vulkan-Hercules The final unflown configuration was also the largest. With eight Zenit booster rockets and an Energia-M core as the upper stage, the "Vulkan" (which was the same name of another Soviet heavy lift rocket that was cancelled years earlier) or "Hercules" (which is the same name designated to the N-1 rockets) configuration could have launched up to 175 tonnes into orbit. The development of rocket-carrier "Vulcan" and the refurbishment of the "Energia" launch pad for its launches was in progress in 1990-1993. But later on the work on this project was cancelled due to lack of funds and the collapse of Soviet Union.

FOTON
Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although unmanned, the design was adapted from the manned Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology. The original Foton series included 12 launches from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome from 1985 to 1999. The second series, under the name Foton-M, incorporates many design improvements over the original Foton, and is still in use. So far, there have been three launch attempts of the Foton-M. The first was in 2002 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, which ended in failure due to a problem in the launch vehicle. The last two were from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, one in 2005 and one in 2007, both were successful. Both the Foton and Foton-M series used Soyuz-U (11A511U and 11A511U2) rockets as launch vehicles. Reentry The Foton capsule has limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation can not be controlled after the capsule has separated from the engine system. This means that the capsule has to be protected from reentry heat on all

sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design), which allows for maximum volume while minimizing the external surface. However, the lack of lift means the capsule experiences high forces on reentry, up to 8 to 9g. ESA participation Starting with the Foton-7 mission, the European Space Agency has been a partner in the Foton program. Foton launches
Designation Foton-1 Foton-2 Foton-3 Foton-4 Foton-5 Foton-6 Foton-7 Foton-8 Foton-9 Foton-10 Foton-11 Foton-12 Foton-M1 Foton-M2 Foton-M3 Launch Date Recovery Date Mission Payload(s) Notes

1985-04-16 ? 1986-05-21 ? 1987-04-24 ? 1988-04-14 ? 1989-04-26 ? 1990-04-11 ? 1991-10-04 ? 1992-10-08 ? 1994-06-14 ? 1995-02-16 ? 1997-10-09 ? 1999-09-09 ? 2002-10-15 N/A 2005-05-31 2005-06-16 2007-09-14 2007-09-26 Young Engineers' Satellite 2 Lost due to a launch failure On display at the Evergreen Aviation Museum

NI-L3 (SOVIET MOONSHOT)

N1 or N-1 or 11A52 ( 1, -1, 11 52 in Russian) was a secret family of Soviet heavy lifting rockets intended to launch large military space stations, or to send Soviet cosmonauts to the Moon or the planet Mars. The Soviet classified technical name N1 was an abbreviation from the Russian word (nositel' short for raketa-nositel', "rocket booster/bearer"). 11A52 was an alphanumeric designation for the N1 on its design and production documents. It is also known by NATO as the G-1e or SL-15. No official public name for the N1 was ever adopted. The N1-L3 version was developed to compete with the United States Apollo Saturn V to land a man on the Moon. The basic N1 launch vehicle had three stages, which carried the L3 lunar payload into Low Earth orbit. The L3 contained an Earth departure stage and a lunar landing assist stage, in addition to the single-cosmonaut LK Lander spacecraft, and a two-cosmonaut Soyuz 7K-L3 lunar orbital spacecraft. N1-L3 was underfunded, undertested, and started development in October 1965, almost four years after the Saturn V. After four launch attempts all failed to reach orbit, the program was suspended in 1974, and in 1976 was officially cancelled. The N1 program (along with the rest of

the Soviet manned moon programs) was kept secret almost until the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991; information about the N1 was first published in 1990. Early work Development of the N1 began in 1959 under the direction of Sergey Korolyov at his OKB-1 Design Bureau. The original design proposed a 50 ton payload intended as a launcher for military space stations and a manned Mars flyby using a nuclear engine upper stage. The N1 was the largest of three proposed designs; the N2 was somewhat smaller and intended to compete with Vladimir Chelomei's proposed UR-200, and the much smaller N3, which would replace Korolyov's "workhorse" R-7 rocket. At this point the N-series was strictly a "paper project". In December 1959 a meeting was called with all of the chief designers, who presented their latest designs to the military. Korolyov presented the N-series along with a much more modest series of upgrades to the R-7. Vladimir Chelomei, Korolyov's rival, presented his "Universal Rocket" series, which used a common lower stage in various clustered configurations to meet a wide variety of payload requirements. Mikhail Yangel, perhaps the most successful of the three but with little political power, presented the small R-26 intended to replace the R-16, the much larger R-36 ICBM, as well as the SK-100, a space launcher based on a huge cluster of R-16's. In the end the military planners selected Chelomei's UR-100 as the new "light" ICBM, and Yangel's R-36 for the "heavy" role. They saw no need for any of the larger dedicated launchers, but also gave Korolyov funding to develop the Molniya (8K78) adaptation of the R-7. In March 1961, during a meeting at Baikonur, designers discussed the N1 design, along with a competing Glushko design, the R-20. In June, Korolyov was given a small amount of funding for N1 development between 1961 and 1963. In May 1961 a government report, On Reconsideration of the Plans for Space Vehicles in the Direction of Defense Purposes, set the first test launch of the N1 rocket for 1965. Moon missions When the US announced the goal of landing a man on the Moon in May 1961, Korolyov proposed a lunar mission based on a new spacecraft, eventually known as Soyuz, that was designed for Earth orbit rendezvous. Several launches would be used to build up a complete moon package, one for the Soyuz, another for the lunar lander, and additional launches with cislunar engines and fuel. This approach makes the least demands on the launch vehicle, as the payload mass is reduced for any one launch. This is at the expense of requiring a rapid launch rate to ensure that the modules are built up before running out of consumables while waiting on-orbit. Even using this profile the lunar boosters and fuel were too large for any existing Soviet launcher. Korolyov thus proposed development of the N1 with a 50-ton payload much smaller than the N1 design that would eventually be delivered. To power the new design, Valentin Glushko, who then held a near-monopoly on rocket engine design in the Soviet Union, proposed a new engine, the RD-270, running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). This formula is hypergolic (i.e. its components ignite on contact, reducing the complexity of the combustion system), and was widely used in Glushko's existing engine designs used on various ICBMs. The propellant pair UDMH/N2O4 has a lower specific impulse than kerosene/liquid oxygen, and Korolyov felt that any realistic high-performance design would need to use higher-performance fuels. Korolyov also felt that the toxic nature of the fuels and their exhaust presented a safety risk for manned space flight.

The difference of opinions led to a falling out between Korolyov and Glushko. In 1962 a committee that was appointed to break the logjam agreed with Korolyov. Since Glushko refused to work on such a design, Korolyov eventually "gave up" and decided to enlist the help of Nikolai Kuznetsov, the OKB-276 jet engine designer. Kuznetsov, who had limited experience in rocket design, responded with a fairly small engine known as the NK-15, which would be delivered in several versions tuned to different altitudes. To achieve the required amount of thrust, it was proposed that a large number of NK-15s would be used in a clustered configuration around the outer rim of the lower-stage booster. The "inside" of the ring of engines would be open, with air piped into the hole via inlets near the top of the booster stage. The air would be mixed with the exhaust in order to provide thrust augmentation, as well as additional combustion with the deliberately fuel-rich exhaust. The ring-like arrangement of so many rocket engine nozzles on the N1's first stage could have been an attempt at creating a crude version of a toroidal aerospike engine system; more conventional aerospike engines were also studied. Meanwhile, Chelomei's OKB-52 proposed an alternate mission with much lower risk. Instead of a manned landing, Chelomei proposed a series of circumlunar missions which he felt would be able to beat the US. He also proposed a new booster for the mission, clustering three of his existing UR-200 designs (known as the SS-11 in the west) to produce a single larger booster, the UR-500. However, these plans were dropped when Glushko offered Chelomei the RD-270, which allowed the construction of a much simpler "monoblock" design, also known as the UR-500. He also proposed adapting an existing spacecraft design for the circumlunar mission, the single-cosmonaut LK-1. Chelomei felt that improvements in early UR-500/LK-1 missions would allow the spacecraft to be adapted for two cosmonauts. The Soviet military, specifically the Strategic Missile Forces, was reluctant to support what was essentially a politically-motivated project with little military utility, but both Korolyov and Chelomei pushed for a lunar mission. For some time, between 1961 and 1964, Chelomei's less aggressive proposal was accepted, and development of his UR-500 and the LK-1 were given a high priority. Space race When Gemini missions put the US in the lead in space development, Korolyov pressured Nikita Khrushchev into making a lunar landing before the US. Since there were a number of unknowns in the Earth orbit rendezvous profile that could not be tested in time, a direct ascent profile similar to Apollo was selected. This required much larger boosters. Korolyov proposed a larger N1, combined with a new lunar package known as the L3. The L3 combined the lunar engines, an adapted Soyuz spacecraft (the LOK) and the new LK lunar lander in a single package. Chelomei responded with a clustered UR-500-derived vehicle, topped with the L1 spacecraft already under development, and a lander of their own design. Korolyov's proposal was selected as the winner in August 1964, while Chelomei was told to continue with his circumlunar UR-500/L1 work. When Khrushchev was overthrown later in 1964, infighting between the two teams started anew. In October 1965 the Soviet government ordered a compromise; the circumlunar mission would be launched on Chelomei's UR-500 using Korolyov's Soyuz spacecraft in place of their own Zond design, aiming for a launch in 1967, the 50th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. Korolyov, meanwhile, would continue with his original N1-L3 proposal. Korolyov had clearly won the argument, but work on the L1 continued anyway, as well as the Zond.

Korolyov died in 1966 due to complications after minor surgery, and the work was taken over by his deputy, Vasily Mishin. Mishin did not have Korolyov's political astuteness or power, a problem that led to the eventual downfall of the N1, and of the lunar mission as a whole. Description A comparison of the U.S. Saturn V rocket with the Soviet N1/L3. The N1 was a very large rocket,
standing 105 metres (345 feet) tall among the world's largest launch vehicles, essentially equal to the Saturn V in height and mass, and greater in lift-off thrust, though with significantly less payload capability. The N1-L3 consisted of five stages in total, three for immediate boost into orbit (the N1), and another two for the lunar portion (the L3). Fully loaded and fueled, the N1-L3 weighed 2788 metric tons (6.1 million lb). The lower three stages were shaped to produce a single truncated cone just over 10 m wide at the base, while the L3 section was cylindrical at about 4.4 m wide. The conical shaping of the lower stages was due to the arrangement of the tanks within, a smaller spherical kerosene tank on top of the larger liquid oxygen tank below.

The first stage, Block A, was powered by 30 NK-15 engines arranged in two rings, the main ring of 24 at the outer edge of the booster, the inner of 6 at about half diameter. The engines were the first ever staged combustion cycle engines. The control system was primarily based on differential throttling of the engines, the outer ring for pitch and yaw, the inner six on gimballing mounts for roll. The Block A also included four grid fins, which were later used on Soviet air-to-air missile designs. In total, the Block A produced 43 meganewtons (9,700,000 lbf)[1] of thrust. This exceeded the 33.7 meganewtons (7,600,000 lbf)[2] thrust of the Saturn V. The second stage, Block B, was powered by 8 NK-15V engines arranged in a single ring. The only major difference between the NK-15 and -15V was the engine bell and various tunings for airstart and high-altitude performance. The upper stage, Block V (V being the third letter in the Russian alphabet), mounted four smaller NK-21 engines in a square. During the N1's lifetime, a series of improved engines was introduced to replace those used in the original design. The first stage used an adaptation of the NK-15 known as the NK-33, the second stage a similar modification known as the NK-43, and finally the third stage used the NK31. The resulting modified N1 was known as the N1F, but did not fly before the project's cancellation. In comparison with the American Saturn V, the N1 is slightly shorter, more slender overall, but wider at the base. Generally the N1 produced much more thrust than the Saturn V. It used only kerosene fuel in all three of its stages, and had somewhat lesser overall performance than the Saturn; the N1 stack was intended to place about 95 tons of payload into Low Earth orbit, whereas the Saturn V could orbit about 130 tons. The US's experience with higher energy liquid hydrogen as fuel gave them the confidence to use it on the Saturn upper stages, which significantly reduced the upper stages' take-off weight and increased the payload fraction. The Saturn V also had a superior reliability record: it never lost a payload in 13 operational launches, while four N1 launch attempts all resulted in failure, with two payload losses. The US spent more money[citation needed] developing the Saturn V. Development of the Saturn V also began almost four years sooner, in January of 1962.

Problems Complex plumbing was needed to feed fuel and oxidizer into the clustered arrangement of rocket engines. This proved to be extremely fragile, and was a major factor in the design's launch failures. Furthermore the N1's Baikonur launch complex could not be reached by heavy barge. To allow transport by rail, all the stages had to be broken down and re-assembled. As a result, the complex and destructive vibrational modes (which ripped apart propellant lines and turbines) as well as exhaust plume fluid dynamic problems (causing vehicle roll, vacuum cavitation, and other problems) were not discovered and worked out before flight. As a result of its technical difficulties, in turn due to lack of funding for full-up testing, the N1 never successfully completed a test flight. All four unmanned launches out of 12 planned tests ended in failure, each before first-stage separation. The longest flight lasted 107 seconds, just before 1st stage separation. Two test launches occurred in 1969, one in 1971 and the final one in 1972. Mishin continued with the N1F project after the cancellation of plans for a manned moon landing in the hope that the booster would be used to launch a large space station comparable to the US Skylab. The program was terminated in 1974 when Mishin was replaced by Glushko. Two N1Fs were being readied for launch at the time, but these plans were cancelled. The program was followed by the "Vulkan" concept for a huge Proton-like hypergolic-fueled vehicle, and then in 1976 by the commencement of the Energia/Buran program. N1 vehicles Two N1 launch vehicles on adjacent launchpads. y N1 1M1 - Static test model, two first stages painted gray, third stage gray-white and L3 white. y N1 1L and 2L - test vehicles y N1 3L - first launch attempt, engine fire, exploded at 12 km y N1 4L - never launched, parts used for other launchers y N1 5L - partially painted gray; early launch failure destroyed pad y N1 6L - launched from the second pad 110, deficient roll control, destroyed at 1 km y N1 7L - all white, last launch attempt; pogo failure, cutoff at 40 km y N1 8L, 9L and 10L Remains The two flight-ready N1Fs were scrapped and their remains could still be found around Baikonur years later used as shelters and storage sheds. The boosters were deliberately broken up in an effort to cover up the USSR's failed moon attempts, which was publicly stated to be a paper project in order to fool the US into thinking there was a race going on. This cover story lasted until glasnost, when the remaining hardware was seen publicly on display. The advanced engines for the N1F escaped destruction. Although the rocket as a whole was unreliable, the NK-33 and NK-43 engines are considered rugged and reliable when used as a standalone unit. About 150 engines survived, and in the mid-1990s, Russia sold 36 engines to

Aerojet General for $1.1 million each. This company also acquired a license for the production of new engines. Supplied through Aerojet, three of the engines were incorporated into Japanese rockets J-1 and J-2. The US company Kistler Aerospace worked on incorporating these engines into a new rocket design, with which Kistler sought to eventually offer commercial launch services, before declaring bankruptcy. In Russia, N1 engines were not used again until 2004, when the remaining 70 or so engines were incorporated into a new rocket design. As of 2005, the project has been frozen due to the lack of funding. The current design of Orbital Science's Taurus II launch vehicle includes two NK-33s as the first stage engines. Launch history The launch of N1 7L, last of four unsuccessful attempts. y February 21, 1969 Vehicle serial number 3L Due to unexpected high-frequency oscillations in the gas generator, one of the pipes broke apart and a fire started. This fire reached the engine control system which at the 68.7 s of flight sent the command to shut down the engines.[3] The rocket exploded at 12,200 m altitude, 69 seconds after liftoff. The emergency rescue system was activated and did its job properly, saving the mockup of the spacecraft. All subsequent flights had freon fire extinguishers installed next to every engine.[4] y July 3, 1969 Vehicle serial number 5L At liftoff a loose bolt was ingested into a fuel pump, which failed. After detecting the inoperative fuel pump, the automatic engine control shut off 29 of 30 engines, which caused the rocket to stall. The rocket exploded 23 seconds after shutting off the engines, destroying the rocket and launch tower in the biggest explosion in the history of rocketry.[5] 2,600 tons of fuel had the power of a small nuclear bomb. The destroyed complex was photographed by American satellites, disclosing that the Soviet Union was building a Moon rocket.[4] The rescue system saved the dummy spacecraft again. After this flight, fuel filters were installed in later models.[4] y June 26, 1971 Vehicle serial number 6L experienced an uncontrolled roll immediately after liftoff beyond the capability of the control system to compensate; the vehicle was destroyed 51 seconds after liftoff at 1 km altitude. This vehicle had dummy upper stages without the rescue system. The next, last vehicle had much more powerful stabilization system with dedicated engines (in the previous versions stabilization was done by directing exhaust from the main engines). The engine control system was also reworked, increasing the number of sensors from 700 to 13,000.[4] y November 23, 1972 Vehicle serial number 7L the engines ran for 106.93 seconds after which pogo oscillation of the first stage caused engine cutoff (a problem which also plagued the engineers of the US Saturn V) at 40 km altitude; a programmed shutdown of some of the engines to prevent over-stressing of the structure led to an explosion of the oxygen pump on the engine number 4.[4] The vehicle disintegrated.

LUNA
The Luna programme (from the Russian word "Luna" meaning "Moon"), occasionally called Lunik or Lunnik, was a series of robotic spacecraft missions sent to the Moon by the Soviet Union between 1959 and 1976. Fifteen were successful, each designed as either an orbiter or lander, and accomplished many firsts in space exploration. They also performed many experiments, studying the Moon's chemical composition, gravity, temperature, and radiation. Twenty-four spacecraft were formally given the Luna designation, although more were launched. Those that failed to reach orbit were not publicly acknowledged at the time, and not assigned a Luna number. Those that failed in low Earth orbit were usually given Cosmos designations.[1] The estimated cost of Luna Program was about $4.5 billion. Achievements Luna 1 missed its intended impact with the Moon and became the first spacecraft to fall into orbit around the Sun. In 1959, the Luna 2 mission successfully impacted upon the lunar surface, becoming the first man-made object to reach the Moon. Luna 3 rounded the Moon later that year, and returned the first photographs of its far side, which can never be seen from Earth. Luna 9 became the first probe to achieve a soft landing on another planetary body (February 1966). It returned five black and white stereoscopic circular panoramas, which were the first close-up shots of the Lunar surface. Later that year Luna 10 became the first artificial satellite of the Moon. Luna 17 and Luna 21 carried vehicles that roamed around on the Moon's terrain (see Lunokhod programme). Another major achievement of the Luna programme, with the Luna 16, Luna 20 and Luna 24 spacecraft, was the ability to collect samples of lunar soil and return them to Earth, by 1970. The program returned 0.326 kg of lunar samples. The Luna missions were the first spaceexploration sample return missions to rely solely on advanced robotics. Other notable missions Luna 15, also designed to return soil samples from the lunar surface, holds the significance of undergoing its mission at the same time as the historic Apollo 11 mission. Arguably a last-ditch attempt to steal thunder from the potential American success, it would have returned lunar samples to Earth before the Apollo astronauts could do so. However, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin were already on the lunar surface when Luna 15 began its descent, and the spacecraft crashed into a mountain minutes later. Failed missions While the programme was active, it was Soviet practice not to release any details of missions which had failed to achieve orbit. This resulted in Western observers assigning their own designations to the missions, for example Luna E-1 No.1, the first failure of 1958 which NASA believed was associated with the Luna programme was known as Luna 1958A.[2] NASA identified a spacecraft which it referred to as Luna 1966A as having launched on 30 April 1966, a spacecraft which it referred to as Luna 1969B as having launched on 15 April 1969, and a spacecraft which it referred to as Luna 1970B as having launched on 19 February 1970.[2] When details of Soviet launches were later disclosed, no launches of Luna spacecraft were found to have occurred on those dates.[3][4] Missions

Luna 1958A o Launch failure September 23, 1958 o Lunar impact attempt Luna 1958B o Launch failure October 11, 1958 o Lunar impact attempt Luna 1958C o Launch failure December 4, 1958 o Lunar impact attempt Luna 1 o Launched January 2, 1959 o Lunar (Impact) Flyby Luna 1959A o Launch failure June 18, 1959 o Lunar impact attempt Luna 2 o Launched September 12, 1959 o Lunar impact September 14, 1959 at ~07:30:00 UT o Latitude 29.10 N, Longitude 0.00 - Palus Putredinis Luna 3 o Launched October 4, 1959 o Lunar Flyby Luna 1960A o Launch failure April 15, 1960 o Lunar flyby attempt Luna 1960B o Launch failure April 19, 1960 o Lunar flyby attempt Luna - Sputnik 25 o Launched January 4, 1963 (failed to escape orbit and decayed back into the atmosphere after just one day) o Soft landing attempt Luna 1963B o Launch failure February 3, 1963 o Soft landing attempt

Luna 4 Launched April 2, 1963 Lunar Flyby (Soft landing attempt) Luna 1964A o Launch failure March 21, 1964 o Soft landing attempt Luna 1964B o Launch failure April 20, 1964 o Soft landing attempt Luna - Cosmos 60 o Launched March 12, 1965 (failed to escape orbit and decayed back into the atmosphere after five days) o Soft landing attempt Luna 1965A o Launch failure April 10, 1965 o Soft landing attempt Luna 5 o Launched May 9, 1965 o Lunar impact (soft landing attempt) - Sea of Clouds Luna 6 o Launched June 8, 1965 o Attempted Lander - Missed Moon Luna 7 o Launched October 4, 1965 o Lunar Impact - Oceanus Procellarum Luna 8 o Launched December 3, 1965 o Lunar Impact - Sea of Storms Luna 9 o Launched January 31, 1966 o Landed on Moon February 3, 1966 at 18:44:52 UT o Latitude 7.08 N, Longitude 295.63 E Oceanus Procellarum Luna - Cosmos 111 o Launched March 1, 1966 (failed to escape orbit and
o o

decayed back into the atmosphere after two days) o Lunar orbit attempt Luna 10 o Launched March 31, 1966 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 11 o Launched August 24, 1966 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 12 o Launched October 22, 1966 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 13 o Launched December 21, 1966 o Landed on Moon December 24, 1966 at 18:01:00 UT o Latitude 18.87 N, 297.95 E Oceanus Procellarum Luna 1968A o Launch failure February 7, 1968 o Lunar Orbiter attempt Luna 14 o Launched April 7, 1968 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 1969A o Launch failure February 19, 1969 o Lunar Rover attempt Luna 1969C o Launch failure June 14, 1969 o Lunar Sample Return attempt Luna 15 o Launched July 13, 1969 o Lunar Orbiter (attempted lander) Luna - Cosmos 300 o Launched September 23, 1969 o Lunar Sample Return attempt (failed to escape orbit and decayed back into

the atmosphere after four days) Luna - Cosmos 305 o Launched October 22, 1969 o Lunar Sample Return attempt (failed to escape orbit and decayed back into the atmosphere after two days) Luna 1970A o Launch failure February 6, 1970 o Lunar Sample Return attempt Luna 16 o Launched September 12, 1970 o Landed on Moon September 20, 1970 at 05:18:00 UT o Latitude 0.68 S, Longitude 56.30 E - Mare Fecunditatis o Lunar Sample Return to Earth September 24, 1970 Luna 17/Lunokhod 1 o Launched November 10, 1970 o Landed on Moon November 17, 1970 at 03:47:00 UT o Latitude 38.28 N, Longitude 325.00 E - Mare Imbrium o Lunar Rover - Lunokhod 1 Luna 18 o Launched September 2, 1971 o Lunar Impact (Lunar Sample Return attempt) o Latitude 3.57 N, Longitude 50.50 E - Mare Fecunditatis Luna 19 o Launched September 28, 1971 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 20 o Launched February 14, 1972 o Landed on Moon February 21, 1972 at 19:19:00 UT

Latitude 3.57 N, Longitude 56.50 E - Mare Fecunditatis o Lunar Sample Return to Earth February 25, 1972 Luna 21/Lunokhod 2 o Launched January 8, 1973 o Landed on Moon January 15, 1973 at 23:35:00 UT o Latitude 25.85 N, Longitude 30.45 E - LeMonnier Crater o Lunar Rover - Lunokhod 2 Luna 22 o Launched May 29, 1974 o Lunar Orbiter Luna 23 o Launched October 28, 1974
o

Lunar Lander (Lunar Sample Return attempt) - Mare Crisium Luna 1975A o Launch failure October 16, 1975 o Lunar Sample Return attempt - Mare Crisium Luna 24 o Launched August 9, 1976 o Landed on Moon August 18, 1976 at 02:00:00 UT o Latitude 12.25 N, Longitude 62.20 E - Mare Crisium o Lunar Sample Return to Earth August 22, 1976 Mare Crisium
o

MARS PROGRAM
The Mars program was a series of unmanned spacecraft launched by the Soviet Union between 1960 and 1973. The spacecraft were intended to explore Mars, and included flyby probes, landers and orbiters. Early Mars spacecraft were small, and launched by Molniya rockets. Starting with two failures in 1969, the heavier Proton-K rocket was used to launch larger 5 tonne spacecraft, consisting of an orbiter and a lander to Mars. The orbiter bus design was likely somewhat rushed into service and immature,[citation needed] considering that it performed very reliably in the Venera variant after 1975. This reliability problem was common to much Soviet space hardware from the late 1960s and early 1970s and was largely corrected with a deliberate policy, implemented in the mid1970s, of consolidating (or "debugging") existing designs rather than introducing new ones. In addition to the Mars program, the Soviet Union also sent a probe to Mars as part of the Zond program; Zond 2, however it failed en route. Two more spacecraft were sent during the Fobos program. In 1996, Russia launched Mars 96, its first interplanetary mission since the dissolution of the Soviet Union, however it failed to depart Earth orbit. Spacecraft Mars 1M : The first Soviet attempts to send a probe to Mars were the two Mars 1M spacecraft, which each had a mass of about 650 kg. Both were launched in 1960 and failed to achieve orbit. The spacecraft were dubbed Marsnik by the Western media. Mars 3MV : Mars 1 was launched in 1962 but failed en route to Mars. Two other Soviet launches at around the same time, Mars 2MV-4 No.1 and Mars 2MV-3 No.1 were 900-kilogram (2,000 lb) spacecraft, however both failed to leave Earth orbit due to problems with the upper stages of their carrier rockets. Mars 2M : Mars 2M No.521 and Mars 2M No.522, known in the West as Mars 1969A and B, were heavier spacecraft with masses of 5 tonnes (4.9 LT; 5.5 ST). They were launched by

Proton-K rockets, and consisted of orbiters and landers similar to late Venera, and Vega spacecraft. Mars 4M : The Mars 4M spacecraft; Mars 2 and Mars 3 missions consisted of identical spacecraft, each with an orbiter and an attached lander, which became the first spacecraft to reach the surface of Mars. The orbiters' primary scientific objectives were to image the Martian surface and clouds, determine the temperature on Mars, study the topography, composition and physical properties of the surface, measure properties of the atmosphere, monitor the solar wind and the interplanetary and Martian magnetic fields, and act as communications relays to send signals from the landers to Earth. y Launch date/time: o Mars 2: May 19, 1971 at 16:22:44 UTC y Launch mass (including fuel): o Combined: 4650 kg o Orbiter: 3440 kg o Lander: 1210 kg y On-orbit dry mass: 2265 kg y Dimensions: 4.1 meters tall, 2 meters across (5.9 meters across with solar panels deployed) Mars 2 released the descent module 4.5 hours before reaching Mars on November 27, 1971. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 6.0 km/s at a steeper angle than planned. The descent system malfunctioned and the lander crashed at 45S 30W / 45S 30W, delivering the Soviet Union coat of arms to the surface. Meanwhile, the orbiter engine performed a burn to put the spacecraft into a 1380 x 24,940 km, 18 hour orbit about Mars with an inclination of 48.9 degrees. Scientific instruments were generally turned on for about 30 minutes near periapsis. Mars 3 : y Launch date/time: o Mars 3: May 28, 1971 at 15:26:30 UTC y Launch mass (including fuel): o Combined: 4650 kg o Orbiter: 3440 kg o Lander: 1210 kg y On-orbit dry mass: 2265 kg y Dimensions: 4.1 meters tall, 2 meters across (5.9 meters across with solar panels deployed) Mars 3's descent module was released at 09:14 UT on December 2, 1971, 4 hours 35 minutes before reaching Mars. The descent module entered the Martian atmosphere at roughly 5.7 km/s. Through aerodynamic braking, parachutes, and retrorockets, the lander achieved a soft landing at 45S 158W / 45S 158W and began operations. However, after 20 seconds the instruments stopped working for unknown reasons, perhaps as a result of the massive surface dust storms raging at the time of landing. Mars 3 lander still managed to transmit a portion of the first picture of Martian surface. Meanwhile, the orbiter had suffered from a partial loss of fuel and did not have enough to put itself into a planned 25 hour orbit. The engine instead

performed a truncated burn to put the spacecraft into a long 12 day, 19 hour period orbit about Mars with an inclination thought to be similar to that of Mars 2 (48.9 degrees). Both landers had a small Mars 'rover' on board, which would move across the surface on skis while connected to the lander with a 15-meter umbilical. Two small metal rods were used for autonomous obstacle avoidance, as radio signals from Earth would take too long to drive the rovers using remote control. Each rover had both a densitometer and a dynamic penetrometer, to test the density and the bearing strength of the soil. Because of the demise of the landers, neither rover saw action. The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through August. It was announced that Mars 2 and 3 had completed their missions by August 22, 1972, after 362 orbits completed by Mars 2 and 20 orbits by Mars 3. The probes sent back a total of 60 pictures. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields. Mars 3MS Kosmos 419 was launched on May 5, 1971. It consisted of only an orbiter, and was intended to become the first spacecraft to enter areocentric orbit, thereby beating the American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 spacecraft. The Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters, launched in 1973, were designed to orbit Mars and return information on the composition, structure, and properties of the Martian atmosphere and surface. The spacecraft were also designed to act as communications links to the Mars 6 and 7 landers. Like earlier heavy spacecraft, they were launched by Proton-K rockets. Mars 4 y Launch date/time: o Mars 4: July 21, 1973 at 19:30:59 UTC y On-orbit mass: o Dry: 2270 kg o Fully-fuelled: 3440 kg The Mars 4 orbiter reached Mars on February 10, 1974. Due to a flaw in the computer chip which resulted in degradation of the chip during the voyage to Mars, the retro-rockets designed to slow the craft into Mars orbit did not fire , and Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km. It returned one swath of pictures and some radio occultation data which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars. It continued to return interplanetary data from solar orbit after the flyby. Mars 5 y Launch date/time: o Mars 5: July 25, 1973 at 18:55:48 UTC y On-orbit mass: o Dry: 2270 kg o Fully-fuelled: 3440 kg Mars 5 reached Mars on February 12, 1974 at 15:45 UT and was inserted into an elliptical 1755 by 32,555 km, 24 h 53 min orbit with an inclination of 35.3 degrees. Nearly synchronized with the rotation of the planet, its two phototelevision cameras could be commanded to take 12 pictures during each close approach. The Vega camera used a wide area 52mm lens with color filters, the Zulfar camera used a telescopic 350mm lens and long-pass orange filter. Images

were transmitted in a rapid 220-line mode, and then selected pictures were retransmitted at 880 or 1760 line resolution.[2] Mars 5 collected data for 22 orbits until a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. About 60 images were returned over a nine day period showing swaths of the area south of Valles Marineris, from 5N 330W / 5N 330W to 20S 130W / 20S 130W. Mars 3MP The 1973 Mars launch window was inefficient[clarification needed] and thus the Proton could not deliver sufficient mass to the necessary trajectory to reach Mars, as had been possible in 1971. To resolve this problem, two landers were launched with orbiter type buses, but without fuel to enter orbit. The Mars 4 and 5 orbiters, which had been launched separately, were used to relay communications, and to complete mission objectives which would have been completed by orbiters launched with the Mars 6 and 7 spacecraft had they been flown. Mars 6 Mars 6 successfully lifted off on August 5, 1973, into an intermediate Earth orbit on a Proton SL12/D-1-e booster and then launched into a Mars transfer trajectory. Total fueled launch mass of the lander and bus was 3260 kg. It reached Mars on March 12, 1974. The descent module separated from the bus at a distance of 48,000 km from Mars. The bus continued on into a heliocentric orbit after passing within 1600 km of Mars. The descent module entered the atmosphere at 09:05:53 UT at a speed of 5.6 km/s. The parachute opened at 09:08:32 UT after the module had slowed its speed to 600 m/s by aerobraking. During this time the craft was collecting data and transmitting it directly to the bus for immediate relay to Earth. Contact with the descent module was lost at 09:11:05 UT in "direct proximity to the surface", probably either when the retrorockets fired or when it hit the surface at an estimated 61 m/s. Mars 6 landed at 2354 S 1925 W / 23.90S 19.42W in the Margaritifer Terra region of Mars. The landed mass was 635 kg. The descent module transmitted 224 seconds of data before transmissions ceased, the first data returned from the atmosphere of Mars. Much of the data was unreadable due to a flaw in a computer chip which led to degradation of the system during its journey to Mars. Mars 7 Mars 7 successfully lifted off on August 9, 1973, into an intermediate Earth orbit on a Proton SL12/D-1-e booster and then launched into a Mars transfer trajectory. Total fueled launch mass of the lander and bus was 3260 kg. It reached Mars on March 9, 1974. Due to a problem in the operation of one of the on-board systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) the landing probe separated prematurely (4 hours before encounter) and missed the planet by 1300 km. The early separation was probably due to a computer chip error which resulted from degradation of the systems during the trip to Mars. The intended landing site was 50S 28W / 50S 28W. The lander and bus continued on into heliocentric orbits. Mars 4NM and 5NM The Mars 4NM and Mars 5NM projects would have seen heavier spacecraft launched by N1 rockets. They would have deployed Marsokhod rovers onto the surface, and conducted sample return missions. The N1 failed on all four of its test flights, and was never used to launch any Mars spacecraft.

METEOR SERIES
The Meteor craft are weather observation satellites launched by the USSR. The Meteor satellites were designed to monitor atmospheric and sea-surface temperatures, humidity, radiation, sea ice conditions, snow-cover, and clouds. Meteor 2-21 : Meteor 2-21/Fizeau is the twenty-first and last in the Meteor-2 series of Russian meteorological satellites launched in 1993. ILRS Mission Support Status: Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR) tracking support of this satellite was discontinued in October 1998. What makes Meteor 2-21 distinctive from the other meteorological satellites is its unique retroreflector array. Fizeau is named after a French physicist, Armand Fizeau, who in 1851 conducted an experiment which tested for the aether convection coefficient. SLR tracking of this satellite was used for precise orbit determination and the Experiment of Fizeau. The Experiment of Fizeau tests the theory of special relativitythat distance events that are simultaneous for one observer will not be simultaneous for an observer in motion relative to the first. RetroReflector Array (RRA) Characteristics: The retro-reflector array consists of three corner cubes in a linear array with the two outer corner cubes pointing at 45 degree angles relative to the central cube. The central cube is made of fused silica and has a two-lobe Far Field Diffraction Pattern (FFDP) providing nearly equal intensities for compensated and uncompensated velocity aberration. Both outer reflectors have aluminum coating on the reflecting surfaces and near-diffraction-limited FFDPs. One of the end reflectors is made of fused silica with an index of refraction of 1.46 and should provide partial compensation of the velocity aberration. The other end reflector is made of fused glass with an index of refraction of 1.62 and should provide a perfect compensation of the velocity aberration. SLR full-rate data from MOBLAS 4, MOBLAS 7, and Maidanak seem to confirm the presence of the compensating influence of the Fizeau effect. Resur-1, another Russian satellite launched in 1994, has 2 corner cubes reflectors with near diffraction-limited FFDPs, which were specifically designed for the continuation of this experiment. WESTPAC, a future SLR satellite, will verify indisputably the existence or otherwise of the Fizeau effect. Instrumentation: Meteor-2-21/Fizeau had the following instrumentation on board: 1. Scanning telephotometer 2. Scanning infrared radiometers 3. Radiation measurement complex 4. Retroreflector array Meteor 3 : In the last days of the Cold War, Meteor-3 carried the second Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) aloft as the first and the last American-built instrument to fly on a Soviet spacecraft. Launched from the Plesetsk, Russia, facility near the White Sea, on August 15, 1991, Meteor-3 TOMS had a unique orbit that presents special problems for processing data. Meteor3 TOMS began returning data in August 1991 and stopped in December 1994. Meteor 3-5 : Meteor 3-5, launched in 1991, is in a slightly higher orbit than Meteor 2-21. It transmits on 137.300 MHz. Mechanically, it is similar to Meteor 2-21. Which satellite is in operation depends on the sun angles and consequently the seasons. Meteor 3-5 is usually the (Northern Hemisphere) "summer" satellite while 2-21 is in operation for approximately the half-year centered on winter. Meteor 3-6/PRARE : The METEOR 3-6/PRARE satellite is the sixth in the Russian METEOR-3 series of meteorological satellites launched in 1994. These satellites provide weather

information including data on clouds, ice and snow cover, atmospheric radiation and humidity. The Meteor-3 class of satellites orbit in a higher altitude than the Meteor-2 class of satellites thus providing more complete coverage of the Earth's surface. The Meteor-3 has the same payload as the Meteor-2 but also includes an advanced scanning radiometer with better spectral and spatial resolution and a spectrometer for determining total ozone content. Meteorological data is transmitted to four primary sites in the former Soviet Union in conjunction with about 80 other smaller sites. ILRS Mission Support Status: Satellite laser ranging and PRARE data was used for precision orbit determination and intercomparison of the two techniques. ILRS tracking support of this satellite was discontinued on November 11, 1995. Instrumentation: METEOR-3-6 has the following instrumentation on board: 1) Scanning TV-sensor 2) Visible light and infrared radiometers 3) Scanning infrared radiometer 4) Ozone Mapper 5) Precise Range and Range-Rate Equipment (PRARE) 6) Retroreflector array RetroReflector Array (RRA) Characteristics: The retro-reflector array is a box wing annulus with a diameter of 28 cm and has 24 corner cube reflectors. Meteor-3M : The Meteor-3M series of satellites is to be an advanced series of polar orbiters with one 1.4 km resolution visible channel and a ten-channel radiometer with 3 km resolution. The first of these, Meteor 3M-N1, was launched on December 10, 2001 at 17:18:57 UTC from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The satellite is in a sun-synchronous orbit with an ascending node time of about 9 AM. An APT transmission was planned to only have a reduced resolution (2 km) visible channel data. The status of any APT capability on this satellite is unclear, but it is thought not to have an APT transmitter. No APT transmissions have been received from this satellite. SLR mission support began on May 1, 2002. METEOR-3M includes the SAGE III (Stratospheric Aerosol and Gas Experiment) payload and other instruments designed to measure temperature and humidity profiles, clouds, surface properties, and high energy particles in the upper atmosphere. SAGE III is a gyrating spectrometer that measures ultraviolet/visible energy that will be used to enhance our understanding of natural and human-derived atmospheric processes by providing accurate long-term measurements of the vertical structure of aerosols, ozone, water vapor, and other important trace gases in the upper troposphere and stratosphere. Secondary mission objective is the flight testing of the novel-type spherical retroreflector for precise laser ranging. ILRS Mission Support Status: SLR will be used for precise orbit determination and retroreflector research. Instrumentation: 1. SAGE III 2. Spherical retroreflector 3. Other weather monitoring instruments RetroReflector Array (RRA) Characteristics: The retroreflector is a glass ball 60 mm in diameter, fastened in a holder providing observation from Earth at elevations more than 30 (the retroreflector field of view is centered in the Nadir direction). The spherical retroreflector with it holder is fixed to the METEOR-3M spacecraft. The expected return signal strength level is between LAGEOS and ETALON.

MOLNIYA
Molniya 1 Molniya (Russian: , meaning "lightning") was a military communications satellite system used by the Soviet Union. The satellites were placed into highly eccentric elliptical orbits known as Molniya orbits, characterised by an inclination of +63.4 degrees and a period of around 12 hours. Such orbits allowed them to remain visible to sites in polar regions for extended periods, unlike satellites in geosynchronous orbits. The Molniya program was authorized by a government decree in late 1960. After some initial failures in 1964, the first operational satellite, Molniya 1-01, was successfully launched on April 23, 1965. Since October 1967, Molniya satellites have been used by Russia to broadcast their national Orbita television network.

MIR SPACE STATION

Mir (Russian: , IPA: [ m ir]; lit. Peace or World) was a Soviet and later Russian space station, operational in low Earth orbit from 1986 to 2001. With a greater mass than that of any previous space station, Mir was the first of the third generation of space stations, constructed from 1986 to 1996 with a modular design, and the largest artificial satellite orbiting the Earth until its deorbit on 21 March 2001, a record now surpassed by the International Space Station (ISS). Mir served as a microgravity research laboratory in which crews conducted experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology and spacecraft systems in order to develop technologies required for the permanent occupation of space. The station was the first consistently inhabited long-term research station in space and was operated by a series of long-duration crews. The Mir programme held the record for the longest uninterrupted human presence in space, 3,644 days, until 23 October 2010 (when it was surpassed by the ISS),[13] and it currently holds the record for the longest single human spaceflight, of Valeri Polyakov at 437 days 18 hours. Mir was occupied for a total of twelve and a half years of its fifteen-year lifespan, having the capacity to support a resident crew of three, and larger crews for short-term visits. Following the success of the Salyut programme, Mir represented the next stage in the Soviet Union's space station programme. The first module of the station, known as the core module or base block, was launched in 1986, and was followed by six further modules, all launched by Proton rockets (with the exception of the docking module). When complete, the station consisted of seven pressurised modules and several unpressurised components. Power was provided by several solar arrays mounted directly on the modules. The station was maintained at an orbit between 296 km (184 mi) and 421 km (262 mi) altitude and travelled at an average speed of 27,700 km/h (17,200 mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.[6][7][8] The station was originally launched as part of the Soviet Union's manned spaceflight programme effort to maintain a long-term research outpost in space, and, following the collapse of the USSR, was operated by the new Russian Federal Space Agency (RKA). As a result,

the vast majority of the station's crew were Soviet or Russian; however, through international collaborations, including the Intercosmos, Euromir and Shuttle-Mir programmes, the station was made accessible to astronauts from North America, several European nations and Japan. The cost of the station was estimated by former General Director of the Russian Space Agency Roscosmos Yuri Koptev in 2001 as $4.2 billion over the lifetime of the station, including its development, assembly and orbital operation.[14] The station was serviced by Soyuz spacecraft, Progress spacecraft and (during the Shuttle-Mir programme) U.S. space shuttles, and was visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from 12 different nations.[15] Origins Mir was authorised as part of the third generation of Soviet space systems in a decree made on 17 February 1976 to design an improved model of the Salyut DOS-17K space stations. Four Salyut space stations had already been launched since 1971, with three more being launched during Mir's development. It was planned that the base blocks (DOS-7 and DOS-8) would be equipped with a total of four docking ports; two at either end of the station as with the Salyut stations, and an additional two ports on either side of a docking sphere at the front of the station. By August 1978, this had evolved to the final configuration of one aft port and five ports in a spherical compartment at the forward end of the station.[16] It was originally planned that the ports would connect to 7.5 tonne modules derived from the Soyuz spacecraft. These modules would have used a Soyuz propulsion module, as in Soyuz and Progress, and the descent and orbital modules would have been replaced with a long laboratory module.[16] However, following a February 1979 governmental resolution, the programme was consolidated with Vladimir Chelomei's manned Almaz military space station programme. The docking ports were reinforced to accommodate 20 tonne space station modules based on the TKS spacecraft. NPO Energia was responsible for the overall space station, with work subcontracted to KB Salyut, due to ongoing work on the Energia rocket and Salyut 7, Soyuz-T, and Progress spacecraft. KB Salyut began work in 1979, and drawings were released in 1982 and 1983. New systems incorporated into the station included the Salyut 5B digital flight control computer and gyrodyne flywheels (taken from Almaz), Kurs automatic rendezvous system, Luch satellite communications system, Elektron oxygen generators, and Vozdukh carbon dioxide scrubbers.[16] By early 1984, work on Mir had ground to a halt while all resources were being put into the Buran programme in order to prepare the Buran spacecraft for flight testing. Funding resumed in early 1984 when Valentin Glushko was ordered by the Central Committee's Secretary for Space and Defense to orbit Mir by early 1986, in time for the 27th Communist Party Congress.[16] It was clear that the planned processing flow could not be followed and still meet the 1986 launch date. It was decided on Cosmonaut's Day (12 April) to ship the flight model of the base block to the Baikonur cosmodrome and conduct the systems testing and integration there. The module arrived at the launch site on 6 May 1985. 1100 of 2500 cables required rework based on the results of tests to the ground test model at Khrunichev. In October, the base block was rolled outside its cleanroom. The first launch attempt on 16 February 1986 was scrubbed when the spacecraft communications failed, but the second launch attempt, on 19 February 1986 at 21:28:23 UTC, was successful, meeting the political deadline.[16] Station structure Pressurised modules

In its completed configuration, the space station consisted of seven different modules, each launched into orbit separately over a period of ten years by either Proton-K rockets or Space Shuttles. Launch Isolated Launch system Nation date View 19 N/A Soviet Union February Proton-K 1986 The base block for the entire Mir complex, the core module, or DOS-7, provided the main living quarters for resident crews and contained environmental systems, early attitude control systems and the Mir station's main engines. The module was based on (Core Module) hardware developed as part of the Salyut programme, and consisted of a stepped-cylinder main compartment and a spherical 'node' module, which served as an airlock and provided ports to which four of the station's expansion modules were berthed and to which a Soyuz or Progress spacecraft could dock. The module's aft port served as the berthing location for Kvant-1.[17] 31 March EO-2 Proton-K Soviet Union 1987 The first expansion module to be launched, Kvant-1 consisted of two pressurised working compartments and one unpressurised experiment compartment. Kvant-1 Scientific equipment included an X-ray telescope, an (Astrophysics ultraviolet telescope, a wide-angle camera, highModule) energy X-ray experiments, an X-ray/gamma ray detector, and the Svetlana electrophoresis unit. The module also carried six gyrodynes for attitude control, in addition to life support systems including an Elektron oxygen generator and a Vozdukh carbon dioxide remover.[17] 26 EO-5 Soviet Union November Proton-K 1989 Kvant-2 (Augmentation The first TKS based module, Kvant-2, was divided into three compartments; an EVA airlock, an Module) instrument/cargo compartment (which could function as a backup airlock), and an instrument/experiment compartment. The module Module Expedition Station View

Kristall (Technology Module)

Spektr (Power Module)

Docking Module

also carried a Soviet version of the Manned Maneuvering Unit for the Orlan space suit, referred to as Ikar, a system for regenerating water from urine, a shower, the Rodnik water storage system and six gyrodynes to augment those already located in Kvant-1. Scientific equipment included a highresolution camera, spectrometers, X-ray sensors, the Volna 2 fluid flow experiment, and the Inkubator-2 unit, which was used for hatching and raising quail.[17] 31 May EO-6 Proton-K Soviet Union 1990 Kristall, the fourth module, consisted of two main sections. The first was largely used for materials processing (via various processing furnaces), astronomical observations, and a biotechnology experiment utilising the Aniur electrophoresis unit. The second section was a docking compartment which featured two APAS-89 docking ports initially intended for use with the Buran programme and eventually used during the Shuttle-Mir programme. The docking compartment also contained the Priroda 5 camera used for Earth resources experiments. Kristall also carried six gyrodines for attitude control to augment those already on the station, and two collapsible solar arrays.[17] 1 June EO-18 Proton-K Russia 1995 Spektr was the first of the three modules launched during the Shuttle-Mir programme; it served as the living quarters for American astronauts and housed NASA-sponsored experiments. The module was designed for remote observation of Earth's environment and contained atmospheric and surface research equipment. Additionally, it featured four solar arrays which generated approximately half of the station's electrical power. The module also featured a science airlock to expose experiments to the vacuum of space selectively. Spektr was rendered unusable following the collision with Progress M-34 in 1997 which damaged the module, exposing it directly to the vacuum of space.[15] 15 Space EO-20 November Shuttle Atlantis US 1995 (STS-74)

The docking module was designed to help simplify Space Shuttle dockings to Mir. Before the first shuttle docking mission (STS-71), the Kristall module had to be tediously moved to ensure sufficient clearance between Atlantis and Mir's solar arrays. With the addition of the docking module, enough clearance was provided without the need to relocate Kristall. It had two identical APAS-89 docking ports, one attached to the distal port of Kristall with the other available for shuttle docking.[15] 26 April EO-21 Proton-K Russia 1996 The seventh and final Mir module, Priroda's primary purpose was to conduct Earth resource experiments through remote sensing and to develop and verify Priroda remote sensing methods. The module's experiments (Earth Sensing were provided by twelve different nations, and Module) covered microwave, visible, near infrared, and infrared spectral regions using both passive and active sounding methods. The module possessed both pressurised and unpressurised segments, and featured a large, externally mounted synthetic aperture radar dish. Unpressurised elements In addition to the pressurised modules, Mir featured a large number of external components. The largest component was the Sofora girder, a large scaffolding-link structure consisting of 20 segments which, when assembled, projected 14 metres from its mount on Kvant-1. A selfcontained thruster block, referred to as the VDU, was mounted on the end of Sofora and was used to augment the roll-control thrusters on the core module in order to reduce the amount of propellant used to orient the station, its increased distance from Mir's axis leading to an 85% decrease in fuel consumption.[15] A second girder, Rapana, was mounted aft of Sofora on Kvant1. This girder, a scaled-down prototype of a structure intended to be used on Mir-2 to hold large parabolic dishes away from the main station structure, was 5 metres long and used as a mounting point for externally mounted exposure experiments.[15] To assist in moving objects around the exterior of the station during EVAs, Mir featured two Strela cargo cranes mounted to the port and starboard sides of the core module and used for moving spacewalking cosmonauts and parts around the exterior of the station. The cranes consisted of telescopic poles assembled in sections which measured around 1.8 metres (6 ft) when collapsed, but when extended using a hand crank were 14 metres (46 ft) long, meaning that all of the station's modules could easily be accessed during spacewalks.[18] Each module was also fitted with a number of external components specific to the experiments that were carried out within that module, the most obvious being the Travers antenna mounted to Priroda. This synthetic aperture radar consisted of a large dish-like framework mounted to the exterior of the module, with associated equipment within, used for Earth

observations experiments, as was most of the other equipment on Priroda, including various radiometers and scan platforms.[17] Kvant-2 also featured a number of scan platforms and was also fitted with a mounting bracket to which the cosmonaut manoeuvring unit, or Ikar, was mated. This backpack was designed to assist cosmonauts in moving around the station and the planned Buran in a manner similar to the U.S. Manned Maneuvering Unit, but it was only used once, during EO-5. In addition to module-specific equipment, Kvant-2, Kristall, Spektr and Priroda were equipped with a Lyappa arm, a robotic arm which, after the module had docked to the core module's forward port, grappled one of two fixtures positioned on the core module's docking node. The arriving module's docking probe was then retracted, and the arm raised the module so that it could be pivoted 90 for docking to one of the four radial docking ports.[17] Power supply Photovoltaic (PV) arrays powered Mir. The station used a 28 volt DC supply which provided 5-, 10-, 20- and 50-amp taps. When the station was illuminated by sunlight, several solar arrays mounted on the pressurised modules provided power to Mir's systems and charged the nickelcadmium storage batteries installed throughout the station. The arrays rotated in only one degree of freedom over a 180 arc, and tracked the sun using sun sensors and motors installed in the array mounts. The station itself also had to be oriented to ensure optimum illumination of the arrays. When the station's all-sky sensor detected that Mir had entered Earth's shadow, the arrays were rotated to the optimum angle predicted for reacquiring the sun once the station passed out of the shadow. The batteries, which each had a capacity of 60 amp-hours, were then used to power the station until the arrays recovered their maximum output on the day side of Earth.[15] The solar arrays themselves were launched and installed over a period of eleven years, more slowly than originally planned, with the station continually suffering from a shortage of power as a result. The first two arrays, each 38m2 in area, were launched on the core module, and together provided a total of 9kW of power. A third, dorsal panel was launched on Kvant-1 and mounted on the core module in 1987, providing a further 2kW over an area of 22m2.[15] Kvant2, launched in 1989, provided two 10m-long panels which supplied 3.5kW each, whilst Kristall was launched with two collapsible, 15m-long arrays (providing 4kW each) which were intended to be moved to Kvant-1 and installed on mounts which were attached during a spacewalk by the EO-8 crew in 1991. This relocation was not begun, however, until 1995, when the panels were retracted and the left panel installed on Kvant-1. By this time all the arrays had degraded and were supplying much less power than they originally had. To rectify this, Spektr (launched in 1995), which had initially been designed to carry two arrays, was modified to hold four, providing a total of 126m2 of array with a 16kW supply.[15] Two further arrays were flown to the station on board the Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS-74, carried on the docking module. The first of these, the Mir cooperative solar array, consisted of American photovoltaic cells mounted on a Russian frame. It was installed on the unoccupied mount on Kvant-1 in May 1996 and was connected to the socket that had previously been occupied by the core module's dorsal panel, which was by this point barely supplying 1kW. The other panel, originally intended to be launched on Priroda, replaced the Kristall panel on Kvant-1 in November 1997, completing the station's electrical system.

Orbit control Mir was maintained in a near circular orbit with an average perigee of 354 km (220 mi) and an average apogee of 374 km (232 mi), travelling at an average speed of 27,700 km/h (17,200 mph), completing 15.7 orbits per day.[6][7][8] As the station constantly lost altitude because of a slight atmospheric drag, it needed to be boosted to a higher altitude several times each year. This boost was generally performed by Progress resupply vessels, although during the Shuttle-Mir programme the task was performed by U.S. Space Shuttles, and, prior to the arrival of Kvant-1, the engines on the core module could also accomplish the task.[15] The attitude (orientation) of the station was independently determined by a set of externally mounted sun, star and horizon sensors. Attitude information was conveyed between updates by rate sensors. Attitude control was maintained by a combination of two mechanisms; in order to hold a set attitude, a system of twelve control moment gyroscopes (CMGs, or 'gyrodynes') rotating at 10,000 rpm kept the station oriented, six CMGs being located in each of the Kvant-1 and Kvant-2 modules.[17][19] When the attitude of the station needed to be changed, the gyrodynes were disengaged, thrusters (including those mounted directly to the modules, and the VDU thruster used for roll control mounted to the Sofora girder) were used to attain the new attitude and the CMGs were reengaged.[19] This was done fairly regularly depending on experimental needs; for instance, Earth or astronomical observations required that the instrument recording images be continuously aimed at the target, and so the station was oriented to make this possible.[15] Conversely, materials processing experiments required the minimisation of movement on board the station, and so Mir would be oriented in a gravity gradient attitude for stability.[15] Prior to the arrival of the modules containing these gyrodynes, the station's attitude was controlled using thrusters located on the core module alone, and, in an emergency (such as following the collision with Progress M-34 in 1997), the thrusters on docked Soyuz spacecraft could be used to maintain the station's orientation.[15][20] Communications Radio communications provided telemetry and scientific data links between Mir and the RKA Mission Control Center (TsUP). Radio links were also used during rendezvous and docking procedures and for audio and video communication between crew members, flight controllers and family members. As a result, Mir was equipped with a number of communication systems used for different purposes. The station communicated directly with the ground via the Lira antenna mounted to the core module. The Lira antenna also had the capability to use the Luch data relay satellite system (which fell into disrepair in the 1990s) and the network of Soviet tracking ships deployed in various locations around the world (which also became unavailable in the 1990s).[15] UHF radio was used by cosmonauts conducting EVAs. UHF is employed by other spacecraft that dock to or undock from the station, such as Soyuz, Progress, and the Space Shuttle, in order to receive commands from the TsUP and Mir crew members via the TORU system.[15] Microgravity At Mir's orbital altitude, the force of Earth's gravity was 88% of that at sea level. While the constant free fall of the station offered a perceived sensation of weightlessness, the onboard environment was not one of weightlessness or zero gravity. The environment was, however, often described as microgravity. This state of perceived weightlessness was not perfect, however, being disturbed by five separate effects: y The drag resulting from the residual atmosphere,

Vibratory acceleration caused by mechanical systems and the crew on board the station, Orbital corrections by the on-board gyroscopes (which spun at 10,000 rpm, producing vibrations of 166.67 Hz[19]) or thrusters, y Tidal forces. Any parts of Mir not at the exact same distance from Earth tended to follow separate orbits. However, as each point was physically part of the station, this was impossible, and so each component was subject to small accelerations from tidal forces. y The differences in orbital plane between different locations aboard the station. Life support Mir's Environmental Control and Life Support System (ECLSS) provided or controlled atmospheric pressure, fire detection, oxygen levels, waste management and water supply. The highest priority for the ECLSS was the station's atmosphere, but the system also collected, processed, and stored waste and water produced and used by the crew a process that recycles fluid from the sink, toilet, and condensation from the air. The Elektron system generated oxygen on board the station. The crew had a backup option in the form of bottled oxygen and Solid Fuel Oxygen Generation (SFOG) canisters, a system known as Vika. Carbon dioxide was removed from the air by the Vozdukh system.[15] Other by-products of human metabolism, such as methane from the intestines and ammonia from sweat, were removed by activated charcoal filters. These systems are all now operational on the International Space Station. The atmosphere on board Mir was similar to Earth's.[22] Normal air pressure on the station ws 101.3 kPa (14.7 psi); the same as at sea level on Earth.[15] An Earth-like atmosphere offers benefits for crew comfort, and is much safer than the alternative, a pure oxygen atmosphere, because of the increased risk of a fire such as that responsible for the deaths of the Apollo 1 crew.[23] International cooperation Intercosmos Intercosmos (" " Interkosmos) was a space exploration programme run by the Soviet Union to allow members from the military forces of allied Warsaw Pact countries to participate in manned and unmanned space exploration missions. Participation was also made available to governments of sympathetic countries, such as France and India. Only the last three of the programme's fourteen missions consisted of an expedition to Mir but none resulted in an extended stay in the station. y Muhammed Faris - EP-1 (1987) Syria[24] y Aleksandr Panayatov Aleksandrov - EP-2 (1988) Bulgaria[25] y Abdul Ahad Mohmand - EP-3 (1988) Afghanistan[26] European involvement Over the course of the Mir programme, various European astronauts visited the station as part of several cooperative programmes:[27] y Jean-Loup Chrtien - Aragatz (1988) France y Helen Sharman - Project Juno (1991) UK y Franz Viehbck - Austromir '91 (1991) Austria y Klaus-Dietrich Flade - Mir '92 (1992) Germany y Michel Tognini - Antars (1992) France y Jean-Pierre Haigner - Altair (1993) France y Ulf Merbold - Euromir '94 (1994) Germany
y y

Thomas Reiter - Euromir '95 (1995) Germany Claudie Haigner - Cassiope (1996) France Reinhold Ewald - Mir '97 (1997) Germany Lopold Eyharts - Pgase (1998) France Ivan Bella - Stefanik (1999) Slovakia Shuttle Mir programme In the early 1980s, NASA planned to launch a modular space station called Freedom as a counterpart to Mir, while the Soviets were planning to construct Mir-2 in the 1990s as a replacement for the station.[15] Because of budget and design constraints, Freedom never progressed past mock-ups and minor component tests and, with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Space Race, the project was nearly cancelled entirely by the United States House of Representatives. The post-Soviet economic chaos in Russia also led to the cancellation of Mir-2, though only after its base block, DOS-8, had been constructed.[15] Similar budgetary difficulties were faced by other nations with space station projects, which prompted the American government to negotiate with European states, Russia, Japan, and Canada in the early 1990s to begin a collaborative project.[15] In June 1992, American president George H. W. Bush and Russian president Boris Yeltsin agreed to cooperate on space exploration. The resulting Agreement between the United States of America and the Russian Federation Concerning Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space for Peaceful Purposes called for a short joint space programme with one American astronaut deployed to the Russian space station Mir and two Russian cosmonauts deployed to a Space Shuttle. In September 1993, U.S. Vice President Al Gore, Jr., and Russian Prime Minister Viktor Chernomyrdin announced plans for a new space station, which eventually became the International Space Station.[28] They also agreed, in preparation of this new project, that the United States would be heavily involved in the Mir programme as part of an international project known as the Shuttle Mir programme.[29] The project, sometimes called "Phase One", was intended to allow the United States to learn from Russian experience in long-duration spaceflight and to foster a spirit of cooperation between the two nations and their space agencies, the U.S. National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and the Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos). The project helped to prepare the way for further cooperative space ventures, specifically, "Phase Two" of the joint project, the construction of the International Space Station (ISS). The programme was announced in 1993; the first mission started in 1994, and the project continued until its scheduled completion in 1998. Eleven Space Shuttle missions, a joint Soyuz flight, and almost 1000 cumulative days in space for U.S. astronauts occurred over the course of seven long-duration expeditions. Life on board Inside, the 130 tonne Mir resembled a cramped labyrinth, crowded with hoses, cables and scientific instruments as well as articles of everyday life, such as photos, children's drawings, books and a guitar. It commonly housed three crew members, but was capable of supporting as many as six for up to a month. The station was designed to remain in orbit for around five years, but ended up remaining in orbit for fifteen.[32] As a result, NASA astronaut John Blaha reported that, with the exception of Priroda and Spektr, which were added later into the station's life, Mir did look used, which is to be expected given it had been lived in for ten to eleven years without being brought home and cleaned.
y y y y y

Crew schedule The time zone used on board Mir was Moscow Time (UTC+03). The windows were covered during night hours to give the impression of darkness because the station experienced 16 sunrises and sunsets a day. A typical day for the crew began with a wake-up at 08:00, followed by two hours of personal hygiene and breakfast. Work was conducted from 10:00 until 13:00, followed by an hour of exercise and an hour's lunch break. Three more hours of work and another hour of exercise followed lunch, and the crews began preparing for their evening meal at about 19:00. The cosmonauts were free to do as they wished in the evening, and largely worked to their own pace during the day. In their spare time, crews were able to catch up with work, observe the Earth below, respond to letters, drawings and other items sent up from Earth (and give them an official stamp to show they had been aboard Mir), or make use of the station's ham radio. Two amateur radio call signs, U1MIR and U2MIR, were assigned to Mir in the late 1980s, allowing amateur radio operators on Earth to communicate with the cosmonauts. The station was also equipped with a large supply of books and films for the crew to read and watch. NASA astronaut Jerry Linenger related how life on board Mir was structured and lived according to the detailed itineraries provided by ground control. Every second on board was accounted for and all activities were timetabled. After working some time on Mir, Linenger came to feel that the order in which his activities were allocated did not represent the most logical or efficient order possible for these activities. He decided to perform his tasks in an order that he felt enabled him to work more efficiently, be less fatigued, and suffer less from stress. Linenger noted that his comrades on Mir did not "improvise" in this way, and as a medical doctor he observed the effects of stress on his comrades that he believed was the outcome of following an itinerary without making modifications to it. Despite this, however, he commented that his comrades performed all their tasks in a supremely professional manner.[35] Astronaut Shannon Lucid, who set the record for longest stay in space by a woman while aboard Mir (surpassed by Sunita Williams 11 years later on the ISS), also commented about working aboard Mir saying "I think going to work on a daily basis on Mir is very similar to going to work on a daily basis on an outstation in Antarctica. The big difference with going to work here is the isolation, because you really are isolated. You don't have a lot of support from the ground. You really are on your own." Exercise The most significant adverse effects of long-term weightlessness are muscle atrophy and deterioration of the skeleton, or spaceflight osteopenia. Other significant effects include fluid redistribution, a slowing of the cardiovascular system, decreased production of red blood cells, balance disorders, and a weakening of the immune system. Lesser symptoms include loss of body mass, nasal congestion, sleep disturbance, excess flatulence, and puffiness of the face. These effects begin to reverse quickly upon return to the Earth.[36] To prevent some of these adverse physiological effects, the station was equipped with two treadmills (in the core module and Kvant-2) and a stationary bicycle (in the core module); each cosmonaut was to cycle the equivalent of 10 km and run the equivalent of 5 per day.[15] Cosmonauts used bungee cords to strap themselves to the treadmill. Researchers believe that exercise is a good countermeasure for the bone and muscle density loss that occurs when humans live for a long time without gravity.[37]

Hygiene There were two space toilets (ASUs) on Mir, located in the core module and Kvant-2.[20] These units used a fan-driven suction system similar to the Space Shuttle Waste Collection System. Cosmonauts first fastened themselves to the toilet seat, which was equipped with springloaded restraining bars to ensure a good seal. A lever operated a powerful fan and a suction hole slid open: the air stream carried the waste away. Solid waste was collected in individual bags which were stored in an aluminium container. Full containers were transferred to Progress spacecraft for disposal. Liquid waste was evacuated by a hose connected to the front of the toilet, with anatomically correct urine funnel adapters attached to the tube so both men and women could use the same toilet. Waste was collected and transferred to the Water Recovery System, where it was recycled back into drinking water, although this was usually used to produce oxygen via the Elektron system. Mir featured a shower, referred to as Bania, which was located in Kvant-2. The unit was a major improvement on the units installed in previous Salyut stations, but proved difficult to use due to the amount of time required to set up, use, and pack it away. The shower, which featured a plastic curtain and fan to collect water via an airflow, was later converted into a steam room, eventually having its plumbing removed and the space was reused. When the shower was unavailable, crew members washed using wet wipes, with soap dispensed from a toothpaste tube-like container, or using a washbasin equipped with a plastic hood, located in the core module. Crews were also provided with rinse-less shampoo and edible toothpaste to save water.[15] Sleeping in space The station provided two permanent crew quarters, called Kayutkas. These were phoneboxsized booths set towards the rear of the core module, each featuring a tethered sleeping bag, a fold-out desk and a porthole, in addition to storage for a cosmonaut's personal effects. Visiting crews had no allocated sleep module, instead attaching a sleeping bag to an available space on a wall; American astronauts installed themselves within Spektr until a collision with a Progress spacecraft caused the depressurization of that module.[15] It was important that crew accommodations be well ventilated; otherwise, astronauts could wake up oxygen-deprived and gasping for air, because a bubble of their own exhaled carbon dioxide had formed around their heads. Food and drink Most of the food eaten by station crews was frozen, refrigerated or canned. Menus were prepared by the cosmonauts, with the help of a dietitian, before their flight to the station. The diet was designed to provide around 100 g of protein, 130 g of fat and 330 g of carbohydrates per day, in addition to appropriate mineral and vitamin supplements. Meals were spread out throughout the day to aid assimilation.[15] Canned food such as jellied beef tongue was placed into one of several niches in the core module's table, where they could be warmed in 5-10 minutes. Usually, crews drank tea, coffee and fruit juices, but, unlike the ISS, the station also had a supply of cognac and vodka for special occasions.[20] Station operations Expeditions During its 15-year spaceflight, Mir was visited by a total of 28 long-duration or 'principal' crews, each of which was given a sequential expedition number formatted as EO-X. Expeditions varied in length (from the 72-day flight of the crew of EO-28 to the 437-day flight of Valeri Polyakov),

but generally lasted around six months.[15] Principal expedition crews consisted of two to three crew members, who often launched as part of one expedition but returned with another (Polyakov launched with EO-14 and landed with EO-17).[15] The principal expeditions were often supplemented with visiting crews who remained on the station during the week-long handover period between one crew and the next before returning with the departing crew, the station's life support system being able to support a crew of up to six for short periods.[39][15] The station was occupied for a total of four distinct periods; 12 March 16 July 1986 (EO-1), 5 February 1987 27 April 1989 (EO-2 EO-4), the record-breaking run from 5 September 1989 28 August 1999 (EO-5 EO-27), and 4 April 16 June 2000 (EO-28).[39] By the time of the station's deorbit, it had been visited by 104 different people from twelve different nations, making it the secondmost visited spacecraft in history after the International Space Station.[15] Early existence Due to the pressure to launch the station in such short order, mission planners were left without Soyuz spacecraft or modules to launch to the station at first. It was decided to launch Soyuz T-15 on a dual mission to both Mir and Salyut 7.[16] Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov first docked with the Mir space station on 15 March 1986. During their nearly 51-day stay on Mir, they brought the station online and checked its systems. They also unloaded two Progress spacecraft launched after their arrival, Progress 25 and Progress 26.[40] On 5 May 1986, they undocked from Mir for a day-long journey to Salyut 7. They spent 51 days there and gathered 400 kg of scientific material from Salyut 7 for return to Mir. While Soyuz T15 was at Salyut 7, the unmanned Soyuz TM-1 arrived at the unoccupied Mir and remained for 9 days, testing the new Soyuz TM model. Soyuz T-15 redocked with Mir on 26 June and delivered the experiments and 20 instruments, including a multichannel spectrometer. The EO1 crew spent their last 20 days on Mir conducting Earth observations before returning to Earth on 16 July 1986, leaving the new station unoccupied. The second expedition to Mir, EO-2, launched on Soyuz TM-2 on 5 February 1987. During their stay, the Kvant-1 module, launched on 30 March 1987, arrived. It was the first experimental version of a planned series of '37K' modules scheduled to be launched to Mir on the Soviet Buran spacecraft. Kvant-1 was originally planned to dock with Salyut 7; however, due to technical problems during its development, it was reassigned to Mir. The module carried the first set of six gyroscopes for attitude control. The module also carried instruments for X-ray and ultraviolet astrophysical observations. The initial rendezvous of the Kvant-1 module with Mir on 5 April 1987 was troubled by the failure of the onboard control system. After the failure of the second attempt to dock, the resident cosmonauts, Yuri Romanenko and Aleksandr Laveykin, conducted an EVA to fix the problem. They found a trash bag which had been left in orbit after the departure of one of the previous cargo ships and was now located between the module and the station, which prevented the docking. After removing the bag docking could be completed on 12 April. The Soyuz TM-2 launch was the beginning of a string of 6 Soyuz launches and three longduration crews between 5 February 1987 and 27 April 1989. This period also saw the first international visitors to the station, Muhammed Faris (Syria), Abdul Ahad Mohmand (Afghanistan) and Jean-Loup Chrtien (France). With the departure of EO-4 on Soyuz TM-7 on 27 April 1989 the station was once again left unoccupied.[15]

Third start The launch of Soyuz TM-8 on 5 September 1989 marked the beginning of the longest human presence in space up until 23 October 2010 (when this record was surpassed by the ISS).[13] It also marked the beginning of Mir's second expansion. The Kvant-2 and Kristall modules were now ready for launch. Alexander Viktorenko and Aleksandr Serebrov docked with Mir and brought the station out of its five-month hibernation. On 29 September the cosmonauts installed equipment in the docking system in preparation for the arrival of Kvant-2, the first of the 20 tonne add-on modules based on the TKS spacecraft from the Almaz programme.[44] After a delay of 40 days due to problems with a batch of computer chips, Kvant-2 was launched on 26 November 1989. After problems deploying the craft's solar array and with the automated docking systems on both Kvant-2 and Mir, the new module was docked manually on 6 December. Kvant-2 added a second set of gyrodines to Mir, and also carried the new life support systems for recycling water and generating oxygen on board the station, reducing its dependence on resupply from the ground. The module also featured a large airlock with a onemetre hatch. A special backpack unit (known as Ikar), an equivalent of the U.S. MMU, was located inside Kvant-2's airlock. Soyuz TM-9 launched EO-6 crew members Anatoly Solovyev and Aleksandr Balandin on 11 February 1990. While docking, the EO-5 crew on board Mir noted that three thermal blankets on the ferry were loose, potentially creating problems on reentry, but it was decided that they would be manageable. Their stay on board Mir saw the addition of the Kristall module, launched on 31 May 1990. The first docking attempt on 6 June was aborted due to an attitude control thruster failure. Kristall arrived at Mir s front port on 10 June and was relocated to the lateral port opposite Kvant-2 the next day, restoring the equilibrium of the complex. Due to the delay in the docking of Kristall, EO-6 was extended by 10 days to permit the activation of the module s systems and to accommodate the EVA to repair the loose thermal blankets on Soyuz TM-9.[46] Kristall contained a number of furnaces for use in producing crystals under microgravity conditions (hence the choice of name for the module). The module was also equipped with biotechnology research equipment, including a small greenhouse for plant cultivation experiments which was equipped with a source of light and a feeding system, in addition to equipment for astronomical observations. The most obvious features of the module, however, were the two Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS-89) docking ports designed to be compatible with the Buran spacecraft. Although they were never used in a Buran docking, they were later to prove very useful during the Shuttle-Mir programme, providing a berthing location for U.S Space Shuttles.[47] The EO-7 relief crew arrived aboard Soyuz TM-10 on 3 August 1990. The new crew arrived at Mir with quail for Kvant-2's cages, one of which laid an egg en-route to the station. It was returned to Earth, along with 130 kg of experiment results and industrial products, in Soyuz TM9.[46] Two more expeditions, EO-8 and EO-9, continued the work of their predecessors whilst tensions grew back on Earth. Post-Soviet period The EO-10 crew, launched aboard Soyuz TM-13 on 2 October 1991, was the last crew to launch from the USSR and continued the occupation of Mir through the fall of the Soviet Union. The crew is notable for having launched as Soviet citizens and returning to earth as Russians. The newly formed Russian Federal Space Agency (Roskosmos) was unable to finance the

unlaunched Spektr and Priroda modules, instead putting them into storage and ending Mir's second expansion. The first manned mission flown from an independent Kazakhstan was Soyuz TM-14, launched on 17 March 1992, which carried the EO-11 crew to Mir, docking on 19 March before the departure of Soyuz TM-13. On 17 June, Russian President Boris Yeltsin and U.S. President George H. W. Bush announced what would later become the Shuttle-Mir programme, a cooperative venture which would prove very useful to the cash-strapped Roskosmos (and led to the eventual completion and launch of Spektr and Priroda). EO-12 followed in July, alongside a brief visit by French astronaut Michel Tognini.[39] The crew which succeeded them, EO-13, began preparations for the Shuttle-Mir programme by flying to the station in a modified spacecraft, Soyuz TM-16 (launched on 26 January 1993), which was equipped with an APAS-89 docking system rather than the usual probe-and-drogue, enabling it to dock to Kristall and test the port which would later be used by U.S. space shuttles. The spacecraft also enabled controllers to obtain data on the dynamics of docking a spacecraft to a space station off the station's longitudinal axis, in addition to data on the structural integrity of this configuration via a test called Rezonans conducted on 28 January. Soyuz TM-15, meanwhile, departed with the EO-12 crew on 1 February. Throughout the period following the collapse of the USSR, crews on Mir experienced occasional reminders of the economic chaos occurring in Russia. The initial cancellation of Spektr and Priroda was the first such sign, closely followed by the reduction in communications as a result of the fleet of tracking ships being withdrawn from service by Ukraine. The new Ukrainian government also vastly raised the price of the Kurs docking systems, manufactured in Kiev the Russians' attempts to reduce their dependence on Kurs would later lead to accidents during TORU tests in 1997. Various Progress spacecraft had parts of their cargoes missing, either because the consumable in question had been unavailable, or because the ground crews at Baikonur had, in desperation, looted them. The problems became particularly obvious during the launch of the EO-14 crew aboard Soyuz TM-17 in July; half an hour before launch there was a black-out at the pad, and the entire power supply to the nearby city of Leninsk failed an hour after launch.[15][39] Nevertheless, the spacecraft launched on time and arrived at the station two days later. All of Mir's ports, however, were occupied, and so Soyuz TM-17 had to station-keep 200 metres away from the station for half an hour before docking whilst Progress M-18 vacated the core module's front port and departed. The EO-13 crew departed on 22 July, and soon after Mir passed through the annual Perseid meteor shower, during which the station was hit by several particles. A spacewalk was conducted on 28 September to inspect the station's hull, but no serious damage was reported. Soyuz TM-18 arrived on 10 January 1994 carrying the EO-15 crew (including Valeri Polyakov, who was to remain on Mir for 14 months), and Soyuz TM-17 left on 14 January. The undocking was unusual, however, in that the spacecraft was to pass along Kristall in order to obtain photographs of the APAS to assist in the training of space shuttle pilots. Due to an error in setting up the control system, the spacecraft struck the station a glancing blow during the manoeuvre, scratching the exterior of Kristall. The launch of Soyuz TM-19, carrying the EO-16 crew, was delayed due to the unavailability of a payload fairing for the booster that was to carry it, but the spacecraft eventually left Earth on 1 July 1994 and docked two days later. They stayed only four months to allow the Soyuz schedule to line up with the planned space shuttle manifest, and so Polyakov greeted a second resident

crew in October, prior to the undocking of Soyuz TM-19, when the EO-17 crew arrived in Soyuz TM-20.[39] A few months later, Mir veteran Vladimir Titov became the first Russian cosmonaut to launch on a U.S. spacecraft flying on Space Shuttle Discovery during STS-63.[51] Shuttle Mir The February 3 launch of Space Shuttle Discovery, flying STS-63, opened operations on Mir for 1995. Referred to as the "near-Mir" mission, the mission saw the first rendezvous of a space shuttle with Mir as the orbiter approached within 37 feet (11 m) of the station as a dress rehearsal for later docking missions and for equipment testing.[52][53][54] Five weeks after Discovery's departure, the EO-18 crew, including the first U.S. cosmonaut Norman Thagard, arrived in Soyuz TM-21. The EO-17 crew left a few days later, with Polyakov completing his record-breaking 437-day spaceflight. During EO-18, the Spektr science module (which served as living and working space for American astronauts) was launched aboard a Proton rocket and docked to the station, carrying research equipment from America and other nations. The expedition's crew returned to Earth aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis following the first Shuttle Mir docking mission, STS-71.[15][20] Atlantis, launched on 27 June 1995, successfully docked with Mir on 29 June becoming the first U.S. spacecraft to dock with a Russian spacecraft since the ASTP in 1975.[55] The orbiter delivered the EO-19 crew and returned the EO-18 crew to Earth.[52][56][57] The EO-20 crew were launched on 3 September, followed in November by the arrival of the docking module during STS-74. The two-man EO-21 crew was launched on 21 February 1996 aboard Soyuz TM-23 and were soon joined by U.S. crew member Shannon Lucid, who was brought to the station by Atlantis during STS-76. This mission saw the first joint U.S. spacewalk on Mir take place deploying the MEEP package on the docking module.[61] Lucid became the first American to carry out a longduration mission aboard Mir with her 188-day mission, which set the U.S. single spaceflight record. During Lucid's time aboard Mir, Priroda, the station's final module, arrived as did French visitor Claudie Haigner flying the Cassiope mission. The flight aboard Soyuz TM-24 also delivered the EO-22 crew of Valery Korzun and Aleksandr Kaleri.[15][52][62] Lucid's stay aboard Mir ended with the flight of Atlantis on STS-79, which launched on September 16. This, the fourth docking, saw John Blaha transferring onto Mir to take his place as resident U.S. astronaut. His stay on the station improved operations in several areas, including transfer procedures for a docked space shuttle, "hand-over" procedures for long duration American crew members and "ham" amateur radio communications, and also saw two spacewalks to reconfigure the station's power grid. In all, Blaha spent four months with the EO22 crew before returning to Earth aboard Atlantis on STS-81 in January 1997, at which point he was replaced by physician Jerry Linenger.[52][63][64] During his flight, Linenger became the first American to conduct a spacewalk from a foreign space station and the first to test the Russianbuilt Orlan-M spacesuit alongside Russian cosmonaut Vasili Tsibliyev, flying EO-23. All three crew members of EO-23 performed a "fly-around" in Soyuz TM-25 spacecraft.[15] Linenger and his Russian crewmates Vasili Tsibliyev and Aleksandr Lazutkin faced several difficulties during the mission, including the most severe fire aboard an orbiting spacecraft (caused by a malfunctioning Vika), failures of various on board systems, a near collision with Progress M-33 during a long-distance TORU test and a total loss of station electrical power. The power failure also caused a loss of attitude control, which led to an uncontrolled "tumble" through space. Linenger was succeeded by Anglo-American astronaut Michael Foale, carried up by Atlantis on STS-84, alongside Russian mission specialist Elena Kondakova. Foale's increment proceeded

fairly normally until 25 June when during the second test of the Progress manual docking system, TORU, Progress M-34 collided with solar arrays on the Spektr module and crashed into the module's outer shell, puncturing the module and causing depressurisation on the station. Only quick actions on the part of the crew, cutting cables leading to the module and closing Spektr's hatch, prevented the crew's having to abandon the station in Soyuz TM-25. Their efforts stabilised the station's air pressure, whilst the pressure in Spektr, containing many of Foale's experiments and personal effects, dropped to a vacuum.[52][20] In an effort to restore some of the power and systems lost following the isolation of Spektr and to attempt to locate the leak, EO-24 commander Anatoly Solovyev and flight engineer Pavel Vinogradov carried out a risky salvage operation later in the flight, entering the empty module during a so-called "IVA" spacewalk and inspecting the condition of hardware and running cables through a special hatch from Spektr's systems to the rest of the station. Following these first investigations, Foale and Solovyev conducted a 6-hour EVA on the surface of Spektr to inspect the damage to the punctured module.[52][65] After these incidents, the U.S. Congress and NASA considered whether to abandon the programme out of concern for the astronauts' safety, but NASA administrator Daniel Goldin decided to continue the programme.[35] The next flight to Mir, STS-86, brought David Wolf to the station aboard Atlantis. During the orbiter's stay Titov and Parazynski conducted a spacewalk to affix a cap to the docking module for a future attempt by crew members to seal off the leak in Spektr's hull.[52][66] Wolf spent 119 days aboard Mir with the EO-24 crew and was replaced during STS-89 with Andy Thomas, who carried out the last U.S. expedition on Mir.[52][67] The EO-25 crew arrived in Soyuz TM-27 in January 1998 before Thomas returned to Earth on the final Shuttle Mir mission, STS-91. Final days and deorbit Mir breaks up in Earth's atmosphere over the South Pacific on 23 March 2001. Following the departure of Discovery on 8 June 1998, the EO-25 crew of Budarin and Musabayev were left aboard the station, carrying out materials experiments and the compiling of a station inventory. Meanwhile, back on Earth, Yuri Koptev, the director of the Roskosmos, announced on 2 July that, due to a lack of funding to keep Mir flying, the station would be deorbited in June 1999.[15] The EO-26 crew of Gennady Padalka and Sergei Avdeyev arrived on 15 August in Soyuz TM-28, alongside physicist Yuri Baturin, who departed with the EO-25 crew on 25 August in Soyuz TM-27. The crew carried out two spacewalks, one inside Spektr to reseat some power cables and another outside to set up experiments delivered by Progress M-40, which also carried a large amount of propellant to begin alterations to Mir's orbit ready for the station's decommissioning. 20 November 1998 saw the launch of Zarya, the first module of the International Space Station, but delays to the new station's service module Zvezda had led to calls for Mir to be kept in orbit past 1999. Roskosmos, however, confirmed that it would not fund Mir past the set deorbit date.

The crew of EO-27, consisting of Viktor Afanasyev and Jean-Pierre Haigner arrived in Soyuz TM-29 on 22 February 1999 alongside Ivan Bella, who returned to Earth with Padalka in Soyuz TM-28. The crew carried out three EVAs to retrieve experiments and deploy a prototype communications antenna on Sofora. Meanwhile, on 1 June it was announced that the deorbit of the station would be delayed by six months to allow time to seek alternative funding to keep the station operating. The rest of the expedition was spent preparing the station for its deorbit; a special analogue computer was installed and each of the modules, starting with the docking module, was mothballed in turn and sealed off. The crew loaded their results into Soyuz TM-29 and departed Mir on 28 August 1999, ending a run of continuous occupation of the station which had lasted for eight days short of ten years.[15] The station's gyrodynes and main computer were shut down on 7 September, leaving Progress M-42 to control Mir and refine the station's orbital decay rate.[15] Near the end of its life, there were plans for private interests to purchase Mir, possibly for use as the first orbital television/movie studio. The privately funded Soyuz TM-30 mission by MirCorp, launched on 4 April 2000, carried two crew members, Sergei Zalyotin and Alexandr Kaleri, to the station for two months to do repair work with the hope of proving that the station could be made safe. But this was to be the last manned mission to Mir. While Russia was optimistic about Mir's future, its commitments to the International Space Station project left no funding to support the aging station. Mir's deorbit was carried out in three stages. The first stage involved waiting for atmospheric drag to reduce the station's orbit to an average of 220 kilometres (137 mi). This began with the docking of Progress M1-5, a modified version of the Progress-M carrying 2.5 times more fuel in place of supplies. The second stage was the transfer of the station into a 165 220 km (103 137 mi) orbit. This was achieved with two burns of Progress M1-5's control engines at 00:32 UTC and 02:01 UTC on 23 March 2001. After a two-orbit pause, the third and final stage of Mir's deorbit began with the burn of Progress M1-5's control engines and main engine at 05:08 UTC, lasting a little over 22 minutes. Reentry into Earth's atmosphere (100 km/60 mi AMSL) of the 15-year-old space station occurred at 05:44 UTC near Nadi, Fiji. Major destruction of the station began around 05:52 UTC and the unburned fragments fell into the South Pacific Ocean around 06:00 UTC. Visiting spacecraft Mir was primarily supported by the Russian Soyuz and Progress spacecraft and had two ports available for docking these spacecraft. Initially, the fore and aft ports of the core module could be used for dockings, but following the permanent berthing of Kvant-1 to the aft port in 1987, the rear port of the new module took on this role from the core module's aft port. Each port was equipped with the plumbing required for Progress cargo ferries to replace the station's fluids and also the guidance systems needed to guide the spacecraft in for docking. Two such systems were used on Mir; the rear ports of both the core module and Kvant-1 were equipped with both the Igla and Kurs systems, whilst the core module's forward port featured only the newer Kurs.[15] Soyuz spacecraft provided manned access to and from the station allowing for crew rotations and cargo return, and also functioned as a lifeboat for the station, allowing for a relatively quick return to Earth in the event of an emergency. Two models of Soyuz flew to Mir; Soyuz T-15 was the first and only Igla-equipped Soyuz-T to visit the station, whilst all other flights used the

newer, Kurs-equipped Soyuz-TM. A total of 31 (30 manned, 1 unmanned) Soyuz spacecraft flew to the station over a fourteen year period. The unmanned Progress cargo vehicles were only used to resupply the station, carrying a variety of cargoes including water, fuel, food and experimental equipment. The spacecraft were not equipped with reentry shielding and so, unlike their Soyuz counterparts, were incapable of surviving reentry.[74] As a result, when its cargoes had been unloaded, each Progress was refilled with rubbish, spent equipment and other waste which was destroyed, along with the Progress itself, on reentry.[39] However, in order to facilitate cargo return, ten Progress flights carried Raduga capsules, which could return around 150 kg of experimental results to Earth automatically.[39] Mir was visited by three separate models of Progress; the original 7K-TG variant equipped with Igla (18 flights), the Progress-M model equipped with Kurs (43 flights), and the modified Progress-M1 version (3 flights), which together flew a total of sixty-four resupply missions to the station.[39] Whilst the vast majority of the Progress spacecraft docked automatically without incident, the station was equipped with a remote manual docking system, TORU, in case problems were encountered during the automatic approaches. With TORU cosmonauts could guide the spacecraft safely in to dock (with the exception of the catastrophic docking of Progress M-34, when the long-range use of the system resulted in the spacecraft's striking the station, damaging Spektr and causing decompression).[15] In addition to the routine Soyuz and Progress flights, it was anticipated that Mir would also be the destination for flights by the Soviet Buran space shuttle, which was intended to deliver extra modules (based on the same '37K' bus as Kvant-1) and provide a much improved cargo return service to the station. Kristall carried two Androgynous Peripheral Attach System (APAS89) docking ports designed to be compatible with the shuttle. One of these ports was to be used for Buran dockings with the other providing a berthing location for the planned Pulsar X-2 telescope, also to be delivered by Buran.[47][15] The cancellation of the Buran programme, however, meant these capabilities were not realised until the 1990s when the ports were used instead by U.S. Space Shuttles as part of the Shuttle-Mir programme (after testing by a specially modified Soyuz TM-16 in 1993). Initially, visiting orbiters docked directly to Kristall, but this required the relocation of the module to ensure sufficient distance between the shuttle and Mir's solar arrays.[15] In order to eliminate the need to move the module and retract solar arrays for clearance issues, a docking module was later added to the end of Kristall.[75] The shuttles provided crew rotation of the American astronauts on station and carried cargo to and from the station, performing some of the largest transfers of cargo of the time. With a space shuttle docked to Mir, the temporary enlargements of living and working areas amounted to a complex that was the largest spacecraft in history at that time, with a combined mass of 250 tonnes (280 short tons). Mission control centre Mir and the spacecraft visiting the station were controlled from the Russian mission control centre (Russian: ) in Korolyov, near the RKK Energia plant. Referred to by its acronym ("TsUP"), or simply as 'Moscow', the facility could process data from up to ten spacecraft in three separate control rooms, although each control room was dedicated to a single programme; one to Mir; one to Soyuz; and one to the Soviet space shuttle Buran (which was later converted for use with the ISS[76]).[77] The facility is now used to control the Russian Orbital Segment of the ISS.[76] The flight control team were assigned roles similar to the system used by NASA at their mission control centre in Houston, including:[77]

The Flight Director, who provided policy guidance and communicated with the mission management team. y The Flight Shift Director, who was responsible for real-time decisions within a set of flight rules, y The Mission Deputy Shift Manager (MDSM) for the MCC was responsible for the control room's consoles, computers and peripherals, y The MDSM for Ground Control was responsible for communications, y The MDSM for Crew Training was similar to NASA's 'capcom,' or capsule communicator. This person generally had served as the Mir crew's lead trainer. Safety aspects Ageing systems & atmosphere In the later years of the programme, particularly during the Shuttle-Mir programme, Mir suffered from various systems failures as the station aged. The station was originally designed to fly for five years but eventually flew for three times that length of time, and in the 1990s was showing its age constant computer crashes, loss of power, uncontrolled tumbles through space and leaking pipes were an ever-present concern for crews. NASA astronaut John Blaha's account of the air quality on Mir - "very healthy, it's not dry, it's not humid. Nothing smells." contradicts sharply the concerns about air quality on the space station that Jerry Linenger relates in his book about his time on the facility. Linenger says that due to the age of the space station, the cooling system on board had developed a plethora of tiny leaks too small and numerous to be repaired, that permitted the constant release of coolant, making it unpleasant to breathe the air on board. He says that it was especially noticeable after he had made a spacewalk and become used to the clean air he had been breathing in his spacesuit. When he returned to the station and again began breathing the air inside Mir, he was deeply shocked by the intensity of the chemical smell and very worried about the possible negative health effects of breathing such heavily contaminated air. Various breakdowns of Mir's Elektron oxygengenerating system were also a concern. These breakdowns led crews to become increasingly reliant on the backup Vika solid-fuel oxygen generator (SFOG) systems, responsible for the fire during the handover between EO-22 and EO-23. Accidents During the operation of Mir, a number of accidents occurred which threatened the safety of the station, such as the glancing collision between Kristall and Soyuz TM-17 during proximity operations in January 1994. The three most alarming incidents, however, occurred during EO23. The first of these, on 23 February 1997 during the handover period from EO-22 to EO-23, followed a malfunction in one of the station's backup Vika solid-fuel oxygen generator (SFOG) systems. The Vika malfunction led to a fire which burned for around 90 seconds (according to official sources at the TsUP; astronaut Jerry Linenger, however, insists the fire burned for around 14 minutes), and produced large amounts of toxic smoke that filled the station for around 45 minutes. This forced the crew to don respirators, but some of the respirator masks initially worn were broken. Some of the fire extinguishers mounted on the walls of the newer modules were immovable. The other two accidents which occurred during EO-23 concerned testing of the station's TORU manual docking system to manually dock Progress M-33 and Progress M-34. The tests were called in order to gauge the performance of long-distance docking in order to enable the cashstrapped Russians to remove the expensive Kurs automatic docking system from Progress
y

spacecraft. However, for reasons which were never fully understood, both tests failed, with Progress M-33 narrowly missing the station and Progress M-34 striking Spektr and puncturing the module, causing the station to depressurise and leading to Spektr being permanently sealed off. This in turn led to a power crisis aboard Mir as the module's solar arrays produced a large proportion of the station's electrical supply, causing the station to power down and begin to drift, requiring weeks of work to rectify before work could continue as normal. Radiation & orbital debris Without the protection of the Earth's atmosphere, cosmonauts were exposed to higher levels of radiation from a steady flux of cosmic rays and trapped protons from the South Atlantic Anomaly. The station's crews were exposed to an absorbed dose of about 5.2 cGy over the course of a 115-day expedition, producing an equivalent dose of 14.75 cSv, or 1133 Sv per day. This is approximately half of that received from natural background radiation on Earth in a year. The radiation environment of the station was not uniform, however; closer proximity to the station's hull led to an increased radiation dose, and the strength of radiation shielding varied between modules; Kvant-2's being better than the core module, for instance.[81] The increased radiation levels result in a higher risk of crews developing cancer, and can cause damage to the chromosomes of lymphocytes. These cells are central to the immune system and so any damage to them could contribute to the lowered immunity experienced by cosmonauts. Over time lowered immunity results in the spread of infection between crew members, especially in such confined areas. Radiation has also been linked to a higher incidence of cataracts in cosmonauts. Protective shielding and protective drugs may lower the risks to an acceptable level, but data is scarce and longer-term exposure will result in greater risks. At the low altitudes at which Mir orbited there is a variety of space debris, consisting of everything from entire spent rocket stages and defunct satellites, to explosion fragments, paint flakes, slag from solid rocket motors, coolant released by RORSAT nuclear powered satellites, small needles, and many other objects.[82] These objects, in addition to natural micrometeoroids,[83] posed a threat to the station as they have the ability to puncture pressurised modules and cause damage to other parts of the station, such as the solar arrays.[84] Micrometeoroids also posed a risk to spacewalking cosmonauts, as such objects could puncture their spacesuits, causing them to depressurise.[85] Meteor showers in particular posed a significant risk to the station, and, during such storms, the crews slept in their Soyuz ferries to facilitate an emergency evacuation should Mir be damaged.

PROTON SATELLITE SERIES

The Proton was a model of Soviet scientific artificial satellites. The maximum mass was about 17 tonnes. Four "Protons" were launched between 1965 and 1968. The satellite was developed by NPO Mashinostroyenia. The aim of the project was to study high and ultra-high energy particles. The latest became Proton 4 (NORAD ID: 3544, NSSDC ID: 1968-103A) launched on November 16, 1968 by Proton-K rocket with a booster and was in orbit for 250 days.[1] The Proton satellites were the source of the name for the Proton rocket, which launched them as some of its first payloads.

PHOBOS PROGRAM
The Phobos (Russian: , Fobos) program was an unmanned space mission consisting of two probes launched by the Soviet Union to study Mars and its moons Phobos and Deimos. Phobos 2 became a Mars orbiter and returned 38 images with a resolution of up to 40 meters. Both probes suffered from critical failures. Phobos 1 and 2 were of a new spacecraft design, succeeding the type used in the Venera planetary missions of 1975-1985, last used during the Vega 1 and Vega 2 missions to comet Halley. Phobos 1 was launched on July 7, 1988 and Phobos 2 on July 12, 1988, each aboard a Proton-K rocket. They each had a mass of 2600 kg (6220 kg with orbital insertion hardware attached). The program featured co-operation from 14 other nations including Sweden, Switzerland, Austria, France, West Germany, and the United States (who contributed the use of its Deep Space Network for tracking the twin spacecraft). Objectives The objectives of the Phobos missions were to: y conduct studies of the interplanetary environment; y perform observations of the Sun; y characterize the plasma environment in the Martian vicinity; y conduct surface and atmospheric studies of Mars; and, y study the surface composition of the Martian satellite Phobos. Spacecraft design The main section of the spacecraft consisted of a pressurized toroidal electronics section, surrounding a modular cylindrical experiment section. Below these were mounted four spherical tanks (the Fregat vehicle) containing hydrazine for attitude control and, after the main propulsion module was to be jettisoned, orbit adjustment. A total of 28 thrusters (twenty-four 50 N thrusters and four 10 N thrusters) were mounted on the spherical tanks, with additional thrusters mounted on the spacecraft body and solar panels. Attitude was maintained through the use of a three-axis control system, with pointing maintained with Sun and star sensors. Phobos 1 until an expected communications session on September 2, 1988 failed to occur. The failure of controllers to regain contact with the spacecraft was traced to an error in the software uploaded on August 29/August 30, which had deactivated the attitude thrusters. By losing its lock on the Sun, the spacecraft could no longer properly orient its solar arrays, thus depleting its batteries. A natural question is "Why would a spacecraft have instructions that turn off the attitude control, normally a fatal operation?" In this case, these instructions were part of a routine used when testing the spacecraft on the ground. Normally this routine would be removed before launch. However, the software was coded in PROMs, and so removing the test code would have required removing and replacing the entire computer. Because of time pressure from the impending launch, engineers decided to leave the command sequence in, though it should never be used. However, a single character error in constructing an upload sequence resulted in the command executing, with subsequent loss of the spacecraft.[1] Phobos 2 Phobos 2 operated nominally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Shortly

before the final phase of the mission, during which the spacecraft was to approach within 50 m of Phobos' surface and release two landers, one a mobile "hopper", the other a stationary platform, contact with Phobos 2 was lost. The mission ended when the spacecraft signal failed to be successfully reacquired on March 27, 1989. The cause of the failure was determined to be a malfunction of the on-board computer.[1] The Phobos design was used again for the long delayed Mars 96 mission which ended in failure when the launch vehicle's fourth stage misfired. Controversial "last photo" In 1989 several photographs were published, which were made shortly before Phobos 2 failure. They led to speculations of large UFO with 20-25km size which supposedly prevented Phobos 2 from completing its mission. Shortly, these speculations were publicly dismissed [2] by Glavcosmos expert M.Naraeva, who attributed artifacts on images to a distorted image of the shadow of Phobos on the surface of Mars. Systems and sensors Phobos probes carried several instruments: solar x-ray and ultraviolet telescopes, a neutron spectrometer and the Grunt radar experiment designed to study the surface relief of Phobos. The lander had an x-ray/alpha spectrometer to provide information on the chemical element composition of the surface of Phobos, a seismometer to determine the internal structure of Phobos, and the "Razrez" penetrator with temperature sensors and an accelerometer for testing the physical and mechanical properties of the surface. The Phobos 2 infrared spectrometer (ISM) obtained 30 000 spectra in the near infrared (from 0.75 to 3.2 m) in the equatorial areas of Mars, with a spatial resolution ranging from 7 to 25 km, and 400 spectra of Phobos at 700 m resolution. These observations made it possible to retrieve the first mineralogical maps of the planet and its satellite, and to study the atmosphere of Mars. ISM was developed at IAS and DESPA (Paris Observatory) with support from CNES. List of instruments: y "VSK" TV imaging system y PROP-F "hopping" lander. Only carried by Phobos 2. o ARS-FP automatic X-ray fluorescence spectrometer o ferroprobe magnetometer o Kappameter magnetic permeability / susceptibility sensor o gravimeter o temperature sensors o BISIN conductometer / tiltmeter o mechanical sensors (penetrometer, UIU accelerometer, sensors on hopping mechanism) y "DAS" (long-lived autonomous station) lander o TV camera o ALPHA-X Alpha-Proton-X-Ray Spectrometer o LIBRATION sun sensor (also known as STENOPEE) o Seismometer o RAZREZ anchor penetrometer o Celestial mechanics experiment y "ISM" thermal infrared spectrometer/radiometer - 1 2 km resolution y near-infrared imaging spectrometer

y y y y y y y

thermal imaging camera; magnetometers gamma-ray spectrometers X-ray telescope radiation detectors radar and laser altimeters Lima-D laser experiment - designed to vaporise material from the Phobos surface for chemical analysis by a mass spectrometer "Grunt" imaging radar - Only carried by Phobos 1

SALYUT PROGRAMME
The Salyut program (Russian: , IPA: [s l ut], Salute or Fireworks) was the first space station program undertaken by the Soviet Union, which consisted of a series of nine singlemodule space stations launched over a period of eleven years from 1971 to 1982. Intended as a project to carry out long-term research into the problems of living in space and a variety of astronomical, biological and Earth-resources experiments, the program allowed space station technology to evolve from the engineering development stage to long-term research outposts in space. Ultimately, experience gained from the Salyut stations went on to pave the way for multimodular space stations such as Mir and the International Space Station, with each of those stations possessing a Salyut-derived core module at its heart. The program consisted of a series of six scientific research stations and three military reconnaissance stations, the latter being launched as part of the highly secretive Almaz program. Salyut broke several spaceflight records, including several mission duration records, the first ever orbital handover of a space station from one crew to another, and various spacewalk records. By the time the program concluded, in 1991, it had seen space station technology evolve from basic, single-docking port stations to complex, multi-ported orbital outposts with impressive scientific capabilities, whose technological legacy continues to the present day. Stations Development of the Soviet/Russian space stations and derivatives. Light gray arrows trace the evolution of space stations and satellites derived from space station hardware. Dark gray arrows trace the influence of concepts on later flown hardware. The stippled arrow leads from the Soyuz Programs chart (figure 1-1). Solid black arrows indicate modules joined to Mir, while dashed black arrows stand for modules to be added to Mir in the near future. These arrows lead from the Station Modules and Tug Programs chart The program was composed of DOS (Durable Orbital Station) civilian stations and OPS (Orbital Piloted Station) military stations. All were adapted from Vladimir Chelomei's original Almaz OPS spaceframe. For the military Orbital Piloted Stations modifications were small, and related to the rear docking port for Soyuz spacecraft. For the civilian DOS Orbital Space Station changes were great, with extra solar panels, rear and front docking ports for Soyuz spacecraft, TKS spacecraft and modules. Salyut 1 Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (Russian: -1; English: Salute 1) was launched April 19, 1971. It was the first space station to orbit Earth. Its first crew launched in Soyuz 10 but were unable to board it due to a failure in the docking mechanism; its second crew launched in Soyuz 11 and remained on board for 23 productive days. A pressure-equalization valve in the Soyuz 11 reentry capsule

opened prematurely when the crew returned to Earth, killing all three. Salyut 1 reentered Earth's atmosphere October 11, 1971. DOS-2 DOS-2 was launched on July 29, 1972. It was similar in design to Salyut 1. The second stage of its Proton rocket failed, which meant that it never reached orbit. It crashed into the Pacific Ocean. Salyut 2 Salyut 2 (OPS-1) (Russian: -2; English: Salute 2) was launched April 4, 1973. Despite its name, the space station was part of the highly classified prototype military space station program Almaz. It was given the designation Salyut 2 to conceal its true nature. Although it launched successfully, within two days the as-yet-unmanned Salyut 2 began losing pressure and its flight control failed; the cause of the failure was likely due to shrapnel piercing the station when the discarded Proton rocket upper stage that had placed it in orbit later exploded nearby. On April 11, 1973, 11 days after launch, an unexplainable accident caused four solar panels to be torn loose from the space station cutting off all power to the space station. Salyut 2 reentered on May 28, 1973. Cosmos 557 / DOS-3 Under the designation DOS-3, this Salyut space station launched on May 11, 1973, three days before the launch of Skylab, as part of the Almaz program. Due to errors in the flight control system while out of the range of ground control, the station fired its orbit-correction engines until it consumed all of its fuel. Since the spacecraft was already in orbit and had been registered by Western radar, the Soviets disguised the launch as "Cosmos 557" and quietly allowed it to reenter Earth's atmosphere and burn up a week later. It was revealed to have been a Salyut station only much later. Salyut 3 Salyut 3 (OPS-2) (Russian: -3; English: Salute 3) was launched on June 25, 1974. It was another Almaz military space station, this one launched successfully. It tested a wide variety of reconnaissance sensors, returning a canister of film for analysis. On January 24, 1975, after the station had been ordered to deorbit, trials of the on-board 23 mm Nudelman aircraft cannon (other sources say it was a Nudelman NR-30 30 mm gun) were conducted with positive results at ranges from 3000 m to 500 m.[1] Cosmonauts have confirmed that a target satellite was destroyed in the test. The next day, the station was ordered to deorbit. Only one of the three intended crews successfully boarded and crewed the station, brought by Soyuz 14; Soyuz 15 attempted to bring a second crew but failed to dock. Nevertheless, it was an overall success. The station's orbit decayed, and it re-entered the atmosphere on January 24, 1975. Salyut 4 Salyut 4 (DOS-4) (Russian: -4; English: Salute 4) was launched on December 26, 1974. It was essentially a copy of the DOS-3, and unlike its ill-fated sibling it was a complete success. Two crews made stays aboard Salyut 4 (Soyuz 17 and Soyuz 18), including one of 63 days

duration, and an unmanned Soyuz capsule (Soyuz 20) remained docked to the station for three months, proving the systems' long-term durability. Salyut 4 was deorbited February 2, 1977, and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on February 3. Salyut 5 Main article: Salyut 5 Salyut 5 (OPS-3) (Russian: -5; English translation Salute 5) was launched on June 22, 1976. It was the third and last Almaz military space station. Its launch and subsequent mission were both completed successfully, with three crews launching and two (Soyuz 21 and Soyuz 24) successfully boarding the craft for lengthy stays (the second crew on Soyuz 23 was unable to dock and had to abort). Salyut 5 reentered on August 8, 1977. Following Salyut 5 the Soviet Military decided that the tactical advantages were not worth the expense of the program and withdrew. The focus for the later missions was research and prestige. Salyut 6 Salyut 6 (DOS-5) (Russian: -6; English: Salute 6) was launched on September 29, 1977. Although it resembled the previous Salyut stations in overall design, it featured several revolutionary advances including a second docking port where an unmanned Progress cargo spacecraft could dock and refuel the station. From 1977 until 1982 Salyut 6 was visited by five long-duration crews and 11 short-term crews, including cosmonauts from Warsaw Pact countries. Some unconfirmed reports say the station was functionally capable of even more missions and years, but combating the ever-increasing mold in living quarters was becoming impossible, and in practice caused the retirement decision. The very first long-duration crew on Salyut 6 broke a record set on board Skylab, staying 96 days in orbit. The longest flight on board Salyut 6 lasted 185 days. The fourth Salyut 6 expedition deployed a 10-meter radio-telescope antenna delivered by a cargo ship. After Salyut 6 manned operations were discontinued in 1981, a heavy unmanned spacecraft called TKS and developed using hardware left from the canceled Almaz program was docked to the station as a hardware test. Salyut 6 was deorbited July 29, 1982. Salyut 7 Salyut 7 (DOS-6) (Russian: -7; English: Salute 7) was launched on April 19, 1982. It was the back-up vehicle for Salyut 6 and very similar in equipment and capabilities, though several more advanced features were included. It was aloft for eight years and ten months, during which time it was visited by 10 crews constituting 6 main expeditions and 4 secondary flights (including French and Indian cosmonauts). Aside from the many experiments and observations made on Salyut 7, the station also tested the docking and use of large modules with an orbiting space station. The modules were called "Heavy Cosmos modules." They helped engineers develop technology necessary to build Mir. Salyut 7 deorbited on February 7, 1991. DOS-7 It was planned that two other stations (DOS-7 and DOS-8) would follow. These would be equipped with a total of four docking ports; two at either end of the station and an additional two ports on either side of docking sphere at the front of the station. DOS-7 continued to be developed, becoming the Mir Core Module, featuring upgraded computers and solar arrays, accommodations for two cosmonauts each having their own cabin and six docking ports. DOS-8

DOS-8 evolved into the Mir-2 project, intended to replace the Mir space station. Finally, it became the International Space Station Zvezda Service Module. Data table Days in orbit Days occupie d Total crew and visitor s Visiting manned spacecraf t Visiting unmanne d spacecraf t

Space Station

Launched

Reentere d

Mass kg

Salyut 1

April 19, 1971 01:40:00 UTC July 29, 1972 April 4, 1973 09:00:00 UTC May 11, 1973 00:20:00 UTC June 25, 1974 22:38:00 UTC December 26, 1974 04:15:00 UTC June 22, 1976 18:04:00 UTC Septembe r 29, 1977 06:50:00 UTC

October 11, 1971 00:00:00 UTC July 29, 1972 May 28, 1973 00:00:00 UTC May 22, 1973 00:00:00 UTC January 24, 1975 00:00:00 UTC February 3, 1977 00:00:00 UTC

175

24

18,50 0 18,00 0 18,50 0

DOS-2

Salyut 2

54

Kosmo s 557

11

19,40 0

Salyut 3

213

15

18,50 0

Salyut 4

770

92

18,50 0

Salyut 5

August 8, 1977 412 00:00:00 UTC July 29, 1982 00:00:00 UTC 1,76 4

67

19,00 0

Salyut 6

683

33

16

14

19,82 4

Salyut 7

April 19, 1982 19:45:00 UTC

February 7, 1991 00:00:00 UTC

3,21 6

816

26

12

15

18,90 0

SOYUZ
The Soyuz programme (Russian: , pronounced [s jus], meaning "Union") is a human spaceflight programme that was initiated by the Soviet Union in the early 1960's. It was originally part of a Moon landing programme intended to put a Soviet cosmonaut on the Moon. Both the Soyuz spacecraft and the Soyuz rocket are part of this programme, which is now the responsibility of the Russian Federal Space Agency. Soyuz spacecraft The basic Soyuz spacecraft design was the basis for many projects, many of which never came to light. Its earliest form was intended to travel to the moon without employing a huge booster like the Saturn V or the Soviet N-1 by repeatedly docking with upper stages that had been put in orbit using the same rocket as the Soyuz. This and the initial civilian designs were done under the Soviet Chief Designer Sergei Pavlovich Korolev, who did not live to see the craft take flight. Several military derivatives actually took precedence in the Soviet design process, though they never came to pass. A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back): y a spheroid orbital module y a small aerodynamic reentry module y a cylindrical service module with solar panels attached There are several variants of the Soyuz spacecraft, including: y Soyuz A 7K-9K-11K circumlunar complex proposal(1963) y Soyuz 7K-OK (1967-1971) o Soyuz 7K-L1 Zond (1967-1970) o Soyuz 7K-L3 LOK o Soyuz 7K-OKS (1971)  Soyuz 7K-T or "ferry" (1973-1981)  Soyuz 7K-TM (1975-1976) y Military Soyuz (7K-P, 7K-PPK, R, 7K-VI Zvezda, and OIS) y Soyuz-T (1976-1986) y Soyuz-TM (1986-2003) y Soyuz-TMA (2003-.... ) y Soyuz-TMAT (2010/.... ) y Soyuz-ACTS (2012/....) Derivatives The Zond spacecraft was another derivative, designed to take a crew traveling in a figure-eight orbit around the Earth and the moon but never achieving the degree of safety or political need to be used for such. Finally, the Progress series of unmanned cargo ships for the Salyut and Mir space laboratories used the automatic navigation and docking mechanism (but not the re-entry capsule) of Soyuz.

As of 2011, Soyuz derivatives provide much of mankind's human spaceflight capability and are used to ferry personnel and supplies to and from the International Space Station. With the retirement of the USA's Space Shuttles, Russia will have the sole proven system for boosting crew to the station. While not a direct derivative, the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft follows the basic template originally pioneered by Soyuz. Soyuz (Russian: , IPA: [s jus]), Union) is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space program by the Korolyov Design Bureau in the 1960s, and still in service today. The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was originally built as part of the Soviet Manned Lunar program. The Soyuz spacecraft is launched by the Soyuz rocket, the most frequently used and most reliable launch vehicle to date.[1][2] The Soyuz rocket design is based on the Vostok launcher, which in turn was based on the 8K74 or R-7a intercontinental ballistic missile. The rockets are normally launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Plans are underway to have the rockets launched from the European space port in French Guiana. A simulated test launch was performed on May 6, 2011, with the first actual launch taking place later in the year. Plans are to have up to four launches a year from South America. [3] The first unmanned Soyuz mission was launched November 28, 1966; the first Soyuz mission with a crew (Soyuz 1) was launched April 23, 1967, but the cosmonaut on board, Vladimir Komarov, died during the flight's crash-landing. Soyuz 2 was an unmanned mission, and Soyuz 3, launched on October 26, 1968, was the first successful Soyuz manned mission. The only other fatal mission, Soyuz 11, killed the crew of three also during re-entry due to premature cabin depressurization. Despite these early fatalities, Soyuz is presently widely considered the world's safest, most cost-effective human spaceflight system[4] due to unparalleled length of operational history. The Soyuz spacecraft family is still in service.[5] Soyuz spacecraft were used to carry personnel to and from Salyut and later Mir Soviet space stations, and are now used for transport to and from the International Space Station. The International Space Station maintains docked Soyuz spacecraft at all times to be used as escape craft in the event of an emergency. Soyuz (Russian: , IPA: [s jus]), Union) is a series of spacecraft designed for the Soviet space program by the Korolyov Design Bureau in the 1960s, and still in service today. The Soyuz succeeded the Voskhod spacecraft and was originally built as part of the Soviet Manned Lunar program. The Soyuz spacecraft is launched by the Soyuz rocket, the most frequently used and most reliable launch vehicle to date.[1][2] The Soyuz rocket design is based on the Vostok launcher, which in turn was based on the 8K74 or R-7a intercontinental ballistic missile. The rockets are normally launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Plans are underway to have the rockets launched from the European space port in French Guiana. A simulated test launch was performed on May 6, 2011, with the first actual launch taking place later in the year. Plans are to have up to four launches a year from South America. [3] The first unmanned Soyuz mission was launched November 28, 1966; the first Soyuz mission with a crew (Soyuz 1) was launched April 23, 1967, but the cosmonaut on board, Vladimir Komarov, died during the flight's crash-landing. Soyuz 2 was an unmanned mission, and Soyuz 3, launched on October 26, 1968, was the first successful Soyuz manned mission. The only other fatal mission, Soyuz 11, killed the crew of three also during re-entry due to premature cabin

depressurization. Despite these early fatalities, Soyuz is presently widely considered the world's safest, most cost-effective human spaceflight system[4] due to unparalleled length of operational history.
The Soyuz spacecraft family is still in service.[5] Soyuz spacecraft were used to carry personnel to and from Salyut and later Mir Soviet space stations, and are now used for transport to and from the International Space Station. The International Space Station maintains docked Soyuz spacecraft at all times to be used as escape craft in the event of an emergency.

Design Diagram showing the three elements of the Soyuz-TMA spacecraft. A Soyuz spacecraft consists of three parts (from front to back): y A spheroid orbital module, which provides accommodation for the crew during their mission; y A small aerodynamic reentry module, which returns the crew to Earth; y A cylindrical service module with solar panels attached, which contains the instruments and engines. The orbital and service modules are single-use and are destroyed upon re-entry in the atmosphere. The orbital and reentry portions are habitable living space. By moving as much equipment as possible into the orbital module, which does not have to be shielded or decelerated during atmospheric re-entry, the Soyuz is both larger and lighter than the contemporary Apollo spacecraft's command module. The Apollo command module had six cubic meters of living space and a mass of 5000 Kg; the three-part Soyuz (command,orbital and service modules) provides the same crew with nine cubic meters of living space, an airlock, and a service module for the mass of the Apollo capsule alone. On nine Apollo missions (9 through 17) the astronauts also had access to the Lunar Module, which added 6.7 cubic metres of volume but also another 4500 Kg of mass (if counting just the ascent stage as being somewhat equivalent to the Soyuz orbital module; 14700 Kg when including the descent stage). Soyuz can carry up to three crew members and provide life support for them for about 30 person days. The life support system provides a nitrogen/oxygen atmosphere at sea level partial pressures. The atmosphere is regenerated through KO2 cylinders, which absorb most of the CO2 and water produced by the crew and regenerates the oxygen, and LiOH cylinders which absorb leftover CO2. The vehicle is protected during launch by a nose fairing, which is jettisoned after passing through the atmosphere. It has an automatic docking system. The ship can be operated automatically, or by a pilot independently of ground control. Orbital Module The forepart of the spacecraft is the orbital module (Russian: ( ); Bytovoi otsek (BO)) also known as Habitation section. It houses all the equipment that will not be needed for reentry, such as experiments, cameras or cargo. The module also contains a toilet, docking avionics and communications gear. On the latest Soyuz versions, a small window was introduced, providing the crew with a forward view.

A hatch between it and the descent module can be closed so as to isolate it to act as an airlock if needed, crew members exiting through its side port (near the descent module). On the launch pad, the crew enter the spacecraft through this port. This separation also lets the orbital module be customized to the mission with less risk to the life-critical descent module. The convention of orientation in zero gravity differs from that of the descent module, as crew members stand or sit with their heads to the docking port. Reentry Module The reentry module (Russian: ( ); Spuskaemyi apparat (SA)) is used for launch and the journey back to Earth. Half of the reentry module is covered by a heat-resistant covering to protect it during re-entry; this half faces the Earth during re-entry. It is slowed initially by the atmosphere, then by a braking parachute, followed by the main parachute which slows the craft for landing. At one meter above the ground, solid-fuel braking engines mounted behind the heat shield are fired to give a soft landing. One of the design requirements for the reentry module was for it to have the highest possible volumetric efficiency (internal volume divided by hull area). The best shape for this is a sphere, but such a shape can provide no lift, which results in a purely ballistic reentry. Ballistic reentries are hard on the occupants due to high deceleration and cannot be steered beyond their initial deorbit burn. That is why it was decided to go with the "headlight" shape that the Soyuz uses a hemispherical forward area joined by a barely angled conical section (seven degrees) to a classic spherical section heat shield. This shape allows a small amount of lift to be generated due to the unequal weight distribution. The nickname was thought up at a time when nearly every headlight was circular. Service Module At the back of the vehicle is the service module (Russian: ( ); Priborno-Agregatnyi Otsek (PAO)). It has a pressurized container shaped like a bulging can (Instrumentation compartment, PO (Priborniy Otsek) that contains systems for temperature control, electric power supply, long-range radio communications, radio telemetry, and instruments for orientation and control. A non-pressurized part of the service module (Propulsion compartment, AO (Agregatniy Otsek)) contains the main engine and a liquid-fuelled propulsion system for maneuvering in orbit and initiating the descent back to Earth. The ship also has a system of low-thrust engines for orientation, attached to the Intermediate compartment (PkhO or Perekhodnoi Otsek). Outside the service module are the sensors for the orientation system and the solar array, which is oriented towards the sun by rotating the ship. Re-entry procedure Because its modular construction differs from that of previous designs, the Soyuz has an unusual sequence of events prior to re-entry. The spacecraft is turned engine-forward and the main engine is fired for de-orbiting fully 180 ahead of its planned landing site. This requires the least propellant for re-entry, the spacecraft traveling on an elliptical Hohmann orbit to a point where it will be low enough in the atmosphere to re-enter. Early Soyuz spacecraft would then have the service and orbital modules detach simultaneously. As they are connected by tubing and electrical cables to the descent module, this would aid in their separation and avoid having the descent module alter its orientation. Later Soyuz spacecraft detach the orbital module before firing the main engine, which saves even more propellant, enabling the descent module to return more payload. The orbital module cannot remain in orbit as an addition to a space station, because the airlock hatch is part of the descent module.

Re-entry firing is done on the "dawn" side of the earth, so that the spacecraft can be seen by recovery helicopters as it descends in the evening twilight, illuminated by the sun when it is above the shadow of the Earth. The Soyuz craft is designed to come down on land, usually somewhere in the deserts of Kazakhstan in central Asia. This is in contrast to early US manned missions which "splashed down" in the ocean. Spacecraft systems y Thermal Control System Sistema Obespecheniya Teplovogo Rezhima, SOTR y Life Support System Kompleks Sredstv Obespecheniya Zhiznideyatelnosti, KSOZh y Power Supply System Sistema Elektropitaniya, SEP y Communication and Tracking Systems Rassvet (Dawn) radio communications system, Onboard Measurement System (SBI), Kvant-V spacecraft control, Klyost-M television system, Orbit Radio Tracking (RKO) y Onboard Complex Control System Sistema Upravleniya Bortovym Kompleksom, SUBK y Combined Propulsion System Kompleksnaya Dvigatelnaya Ustanovka, KDU y Chaika-3 Motion Control System (SUD) y 'Optical/Visual Devices (OVP) VSK-4 (Vizir Spetsialniy Kosmicheskiy-4),Night Vision Device (VNUK-K, Visir Nochnogo Upravleniya po Kursu), Docking light, Pilot's Sight (VP-1, Vizir Pilota-1), Laser Range Finder (LPR-1, Lazerniy Dalnomer-1) y Kurs rendezvous system y Docking System Sistema Stykovki i Vnutrennego Perekhoda, SSVP y Teleoperator Control Mode Teleoperatorniy Rezhim Upravleniya, TORU y Entry Actuators System Sistema Ispolnitelnikh Organov Spuska, SIO-S y Landing Aids Kit Kompleks Sredstv Prizemleniya, KSP y Portable Survival Kit Nosimiy Avariyniy Zapas, NAZ, containing a TP-82 or other pistol y Soyuz Launch Escape System Sistema Avariynogo Spaseniya, SAS Variants The Soyuz spacecraft has been the subject of continuous evolution since the early 1960s. Thus several different actual versions, proposals and projects exist. Technical data Soyuz Soyuz Soyuz- Soyuz- Soyuz Soyuz Soyuz Soyuz Soyuz-T 7K-OK 7K-T TM TMA TMA-M 7K-L3 7K-TM (1976 Version: A (1967 (1973 (1986 (2003 (2010 .... (1963) (LOK) (1975) 1986) 1971) 1981) 2002) .... ) ) Total Mass (kg) 5 880 6 560 9 850 6 800 6 680 6 850 7 250 7 220 7 150 Length 7.40 7.95 10.06 7.48 7.48 7.48 7.48 7.48 7.48 (m) Max Diameter 2 .50 2 .72 2 .930 2 .72 2 .72 2 .72 2 .72 2 .72 2 .72 (m) Span (m) ? 9 .80 ? 9 .80/ 8 .37 10 .6 10 .6 10 .7 10 .7

Orbital Module (BO) Mass (kg) 1 000 1 100 1 350 1 224 1 100 Length 3 .00 3 .45 2 .26 2 .98 3 .10 2 .98 (m) Diameter 2 .20 2 .25 2 .3 2 .26 2 .26 2 .26 (m) Volume 2 .20 5 .00 5 .00 5 .00 5 .00 (m) Reentry module (SA) Mass (kg) 2 480 2 810 2 804 2 850 2 802 3 000 Length 2 .30 2 .24 2 .19 2 .24 2 .24 2 .24 (m) Diameter 2 .17 2 .17 2 .2 2 .17 2 .17 2 .17 (m) Volume 4 .00 4 .00 3 .50 4 .00 4 .00 (m) Service module (PAO) Mass (kg) 2 400 2 650 2 700 2 654 2 750 Usable 830 500 3152[6] 500 500 700 mass (kg) Length 2 .10 2 .26 2 .82 2 .26 2 .26 2 .26 (m) Diameter 2 .50 2 .72 2 .2 2 .72 2 .72 2 .72 (m) Soyuz 7K (part of the 7K-9K-11K circumlunar complex) (1963)

1 450 2 .98 2 .26 5 .00

1 370 2 .98 2 .26 5 .00

2 850 2 .24 2 .17 3 .50

2 950 2 .24 2 .17 3 .50

2 950 880 2 .26 2 .72

2 900 880 2 .26 2 .72

Soyuz 7K manned spacecraft concept (1963). Korolyov initially promoted the Soyuz A-B-V circumlunar complex (7K-9K-11K) concept (also known as L1) in which a two-man craft Soyuz 7K would rendezvous with other components (9K and 11K) in Earth orbit to assemble a lunar excursion vehicle, the components being delivered by the proven R-7 rocket.

First generation

Soyuz 7K-OK(A) spacecraft with an active docking unit.

Soyuz 7K-OKS for Salyut space stations. The manned Soyuz spacecraft can be classified into design generations. Soyuz 1 through Soyuz 11 (1967 1971) were first-generation vehicles, carrying a crew of up to three without spacesuits and distinguished from those following by their bent solar panels and their use of the Igla automatic docking navigation system, which required special radar antennas. This first generation encompassed the original Soyuz 7K-OK and the Soyuz 7K-OKS for docking with the Salyut 1 space station. The probe and drogue docking system permitted internal transfer of cosmonauts from the Soyuz to the station. The Soyuz 7K-L1 was designed to launch a crew from the Earth to circle the moon, and was the primary hope for a Soviet circumlunar flight. It had several test flights in the Zond program from 1967 1970 (Zond 4 to Zond 8), which produced multiple failures in the 7K-L1's re-entry systems. The remaining 7K-L1s were scrapped. The Soyuz 7K-L3 was designed and developed in parallel to the Soyuz 7K-L1, but was also scrapped. The next manned version of the Soyuz was the Soyuz 7K-OKS. It was designed for space station flights and had a docking port that allowed internal transfer between spacecraft. The Soyuz 7KOKS had two manned flights, both in 1971. Soyuz 11, the second flight, depressurized upon reentry, killing its three-man crew. Second generation

Upgraded Soyuz 7K-T version. The second generation, called Soyuz Ferry or Soyuz 7K-T, comprised Soyuz 12 through Soyuz 40 (1973 1981). It was developed out of the military Soyuz concepts studied in previous years and was capable of carrying 2 cosmonauts with Sokol space suits (after the Soyuz 11 accident). Several models were planned, but none actually flew in space. These versions were named Soyuz 7K-P, Soyuz 7K-PPK, Soyuz R, Soyuz 7K-VI, and Soyuz OIS (Orbital Research Station). The Soyuz 7K-T/A9 version was used for the flights to the military Almaz space station. Soyuz 7K-TM was the spacecraft used in the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project in 1975, which saw the first and only docking of a Soyuz spacecraft with an Apollo spacecraft. It was also flown in 1976 for the earth-science mission, Soyuz 22. Soyuz 7K-TM served as a technological bridge to the third generation.

Third generation

Soyuz-T spacecraft. The third generation Soyuz-T (T: , Transportnyi meaning transport) spacecraft (1976 1986) featured solar panels allowing longer missions, a revised Igla rendezvous system and new translation/attitude thruster system on the Service module. It could carry a crew of three, now wearing spacesuits. Fourth generation Soyuz-TM (1986-2003)

Soyuz-TM spacecraft. Compare the antennae on the orbital module to those on Soyuz-T. Differences reflect the change from the Igla rendezvous system used on Soyuz-T to the Kurs rendezvous system used on Soyuz-TM. The Soyuz-TM crew transports (M: , Modifitsirovannyi meaning modified) were fourth generation Soyuz spacecraft, and were used from 1986 to 2003 for ferry flights to Mir and the International Space Station. Soyuz-TMA (2003 .... ) Soyuz TMA (A: , Antropometricheskii meaning anthropometric) features several changes to accommodate requirements requested by NASA in order to service the International Space Station, including more latitude in the height and weight of the crew and improved parachute systems. It is also the first expendable vehicle to feature "glass cockpit" technology. Soyuz-TMA looks identical to a Soyuz-TM spacecraft on the outside, but interior differences allow it to accommodate taller occupants with new adjustable crew couches. TMA-M (2010/....) In 2004, Russian space officials announced that they intended to replace Soyuz with the new Kliper and Parom spacecraft by early 2011.[7] Since then, Kliper appears to have been indefinitely postponed due to lack of government funding. It has since been announced that the Soyuz will receive an upgrade to make it suitable for up to one year in space, as well as new digital interior displays and updated docking equipment. This new version, known as Soyuz TMA-M, debuted on 7 October 2010 with the launch of TMA-01M, carrying the ISS Expedition 25 crew. Soyuz ACTS (2012/....)

Soyuz ACTS (Advanced Crew Transportation System), also known as Soyuz-K, is a proposed version of the Soyuz design capable of achieving lunar orbit. The upgrades could include a new habitation module developed by the European Space Agency. A novel, rocket-based precision landing system may also be implemented.[8] Missions could be launched from Baikonur or Related craft The unmanned Progress spacecraft were derived from Soyuz and are used for servicing space stations. While not being direct derivatives of Soyuz, the Chinese Shenzhou spacecraft and the Indian Orbital Vehicle follow the same general layout as that pioneered by Soyuz.

SPUTNIK
The Sputnik program (Russian: , Russian pronunciation: [ sputn k], which is translated as 'companion' or 'satellite') is the commonly known name of a group of various robotic spacecraft missions launched by the Soviet Union. The first of these, Sputnik 1, launched the first human-made object to orbit the Earth. That launch took place on October 4, 1957 as part of the International Geophysical Year and demonstrated the viability of using artificial satellites to explore the upper atmosphere. The Russian word sputnik literally means "co-traveler," "traveling companion," or "satellite." The satellite's R-7 launch vehicle was designed initially to carry nuclear warheads. Early flights Sputnik 1 launched on October 4, 1957. The satellite was 58 cm (about 23 in) in diameter and weighed approximately 83.6 kg (about 183 lb). Each of its 1440 elliptical orbits around the Earth took about 96 minutes. Monitoring of the satellite was done by many amateur radio operators and [1] the Jodrell Bank Observatory. Sputnik's R-7 booster had previously proven itself more than one month earlier as the world's first ICBM in the successful long-range test flight of August 21 (with the accomplishment published in Aviation Week). Sputnik 1 was not visible from the Earth but the casing of the R-7 booster, traveling behind it, was visible. Sputnik 2 was launched on November 3, 1957, and it carried the first living passenger into orbit, a female dog named Curly or sometimes Little Curly, but mostly Laika. The mission planners did not provide for the safe atmospheric re-entry of the spacecraft or its living passenger, making Laika the first orbital spaceflight casualty. The first attempt to launch Sputnik 3, on April 27, 1958,[2] failed, but the second on May 15 succeeded, and it carried a large array of instruments for geophysical research. Its tape recorder failed, making it unable to measure the Van Allen radiation belts. Impact The surprise launch of Sputnik 1, coupled with the spectacular failure of the United States of America's first two Project Vanguard launch attempts, shocked the United States, which responded with a number of early satellite launches, including Explorer 1, Project SCORE, and Courier 1B. The Sputnik crisis also led to the creation of the Advanced Research Projects Agency (renamed the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency in 1972): DARPA, and NASA, and an increase in U.S. government spending on scientific research and education. It also inspired a

generation of engineers and scientists. Homer Hickam's memoir Rocket Boys and the movie October Sky tell the story of how a coal miner's son, inspired by Sputnik, started building rockets to the consternation of the mining town where he lived. The launch of Sputnik 1 inspired U.S. writer Herb Caen to coin the term "beatnik" in an article about the Beat Generation in the San Francisco Chronicle on April 2, 1958.[3] Sputnik 40 and Sputnik 41 Sputnik 40, also called Sputnik PS2, Radio Sputnik 17 "RS-17" and Mini-Sputnik, was a 1 3-scale model amateur radio satellite launched from the Mir space station on 3 November 1997 to commemorate the 40th anniversary of Sputnik 1. The spacecraft body resembled Sputnik 1 and was built by students at the Polytechnic Laboratory of Nalchik in Kabardino-Balkaria. The transmitter was built by students from Jules Reydellet College in Runion, with technical support from AMSAT-France. Its batteries expired on 29 December 1998 and the VHF transmitter fell silent. Its international designator is 1997-058C, United States Space Command object 24958. Sputnik 41 (RS-18, designator 1998-62C, object 25533) was launched a year later, on 10 November 1998. It also carried a transmitter.

TKS PROGRAMME
TKS spacecraft was a Soviet spacecraft design in the late 1960s intended to supply the military Almaz space station. The spacecraft was designed for manned or autonomous cargo resupply use. The design was used on four test missions but was never flown manned due to the abandonment of the Almaz program. As of August 2009, Excalibur Almaz planned to use the Reusable Return Capsule portion of the TKS spacecraft for commercial purposes. These capsules will be fitted with small service modules - each designed according to its mission parameters. Design The TKS spacecraft was designed by Vladimir Chelomei[citation needed] as a manned spacecraft launched with Proton rocket alternative to the Soyuz spacecraft. Development began in 1965, but by the time the first flight articles were ready the Almaz programme had been abandoned. The VA ("Vozvrashaemiy Apparat") capsule was flown separately on four test missions with two capsules on one booster to test the design, as well as one "all-up" test mission and three resupply missions. It was never flown manned, although in December 1978 formation of a special group of six cosmonauts was approved for manned missions on board the TKS spacecraft.The project had further evolved with space station "Modulny" ("Modular") based on the TKS design outline, reworked to dock with Salyut 7, Mir and ISS space stations. This development was designated FGB, or Functional Cargo Block. The TKS spacecraft consisted of an 11F74 "Vozvraschaemyi Apparat" (or Return Vehicle commonly referred to as the VA), attached to an 11F77 "Transportniy Korabl Snabzheniya" (Functional/Cargo Block module or FGB). TKS VA The TKS VA was itself a very compact and efficient spacecraft. Typically it would reenter the atmosphere within 2 orbits, but could fly autonomously for up to 31 hours. The pressurized crew re-entry capsule (similar to the American Apollo but 30% smaller) was equipped with its own environmental control system, and topped with reaction control system, de-orbit braking

engine, parachute system, and soft landing engines. Although extensively flight tested, it never flew with a crew on board (due to political rivalry). The VA was derived from an earlier capsule designed for the Chelomei's planned LK-1 manned circumlunar spacecraft of the 1960s. It was also the basis for Chelomei's LK-700 Lunar Lander crew capsule. TKS FGB The FGB was entered from the VA capsule via a short tunnel. At the aft end a pilot station was equipped with controls and windows for manual docking with the Almaz space station. The docking port was also located here. Operational TKS would have delivered KSI film return capsules to Almaz stations. These would have been stored around the docking port for transfer to the film capsule airlock for loading. Details TKS Specifications Crew Size: 3 Design Life: 7 days Orbital Storage: 200 days Typical orbit: 223 km x 266 km at 52 degrees inclination Length: 13.2 m (43.31 ft) Maximum Diameter: 4.15 m (13.61 ft) Span: 17.00 m (55.00 ft) Habitable Volume: 45.00 m3 Mass: 17,510 kg (38,600 lb) Payload: 12,600 kg (27,700 lb) Main Engine Thrust: 7.840 kN (1,763 lbf) Main Engine Propellants: N2O4/UDMH Main Engine Propellants: 3,822 kg (8,426 lb) Main Engine Isp: 291 sec Spacecraft delta v: 700 m/s (2,290 ft/s) Electrical System: Solar panels 17 m span 40 m Electric System: 2.40 average kW Associated Launch Vehicle: Proton 8K82K Missions Cosmos 881 and Cosmos 882 : Orbital test of a pair of two VA capsules in 1976-12-15 that started jointly and reentered separately. TKS-1 (Cosmos 929) : Lone flight of full TKS-1 with FGB and VA capsule. Launched 1977-07-17.[2] The VA capsule returned to Earth 1977-08-16. The remainder of the spacecraft deorbited 197802-02. VA #009 : Launched at 1977-08-04. Launch vehicle failure on a suborbital test of two VA capsule. Cosmos 997 and Cosmos 998 : On 1978-03-30 pair of two VA capsules that started jointly and reentered separately

Cosmos 1100 and Cosmos 1101 : On 1979-05-23 pair of two VA capsules that started jointly and reentered separately TKS-2 (Cosmos 1267) : On April 25, 1981, TKS-2 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1267. The VA capsule was recovered on 24 May 1981. The FGB docked with Salyut 6 on June 19 after 57 days of autonomous flight. It remained attached to the station until both deorbited and were destroyed on 29 July 1982. TKS-3 (Cosmos 1443) : On 2 March 1983, TKS-3 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1443. This time, the VA remained attached and the TKS docked to Salyut 7 two days after launch. TKS-3 separated from the station on 14 August. The FGB and the VA re-entry capsule separated, and the FGB deorbited itself on 19 September 1983. The VA capsule continued in space for four more days demonstrating autonomous flight, before successfully re-entering on 23 August 1983, landing 100 km south-east of Arkalsk and returning 350 kg of material from the station. TKS-4 (Cosmos 1686) : TKS-4 was launched unmanned as Cosmos 1686 on 27 September 1985. In the VA capsule landing systems, the ECS, seats, and manned controls were removed and replaced with a high-resolution photo apparatus and optical sensor experiments (infrared telescope and Ozon spectrometer). The TKS successfully docked with Salyut 7. After 21 November 1985, Salyut 7 was moved to a higher orbit while awaiting the second 'TKS' crew, but control of the station was lost. There were plans to return using the Buran shuttle for inspection, but the first flight of the spaceplane was delayed. Salyut 7 and Cosmos 1686 burned up in the atmosphere together in a fiery show over Argentina on 7 February 1991. Further usage The TKS design, which has never been flown manned, has gone on to provide the basic structure for several space future space station components, such as: y Kvant-1 tug y Kvant-2 Mir module y Kristall Mir module y Spektr Mir module y Priroda Mir module y Polyus (FGB) spacecraft y Zarya (FGB-1) ISS module y Russian Research Module (FGB-2) ISS module y Multipurpose Laboratory Module (FGB-2) ISS module TKS/Almaz VA capsules are presently being modernized for commercial use, by the private spaceflight company, Excalibur Almaz.

VENERA PROGRAM
The Venera (Cyrillic: ) series probes were developed by the Soviet Union between 1961 and 1984 to gather data from Venus, Venera being the Russian name for Venus. As with some of the Soviet Union's other planetary probes, the later versions were launched in pairs with a second vehicle being launched soon after the first of the pair. Ten probes from the Venera series successfully landed on Venus and transmitted data from the surface, including the two Vega program and Venera-Halley probes. In addition, thirteen Venera probes successfully transmitted data from the atmosphere of Venus.

Among the other results, probes of the series became the first man-made devices to enter the atmosphere of another planet (Venera 4 on October 18, 1967), to make a soft landing on another planet (Venera 7 on December 15, 1970), to return images from the planetary surface (Venera 9 on June 8, 1975), and to perform high-resolution radar mapping studies of Venus (Venera 15 on June 2, 1983). So, the entire series could be considered highly successful. Unfortunately the surface conditions on Venus are extreme, which meant that the probes only survived on the surface for a duration of 23 minutes (initial probes) up to about two hours (final probes).

The Venera probes

Venera 1VA, 1 and 2 The first Soviet attempt at a flyby probe to Venus was launched on 4 February 1961, but failed to leave Earth orbit. In keeping with the (then) Soviet policy of not announcing details on failed missions, the launch was announced under the name Tyazhely Sputnik ("Heavy Satellite"). It is also known as Venera 1VA. Venera 1 and Venera 2 were intended as fly-by probes to fly past Venus without entering orbit. Venera 1 was launched on February 12, 1961. Telemetry on the probe failed seven days after launch. It is believed to have passed within 100,000 km of Venus and entered heliocentric orbit. Venera 2 launched on November 12, 1965, but also suffered a telemetry failure after leaving Earth orbit. Several other failed attempts at Venus flyby probes were launched by the Soviet Union in the early 1960s,[2][3] but were not announced as planetary missions at the time, and hence did not officially receive the "Venera" designation. Venera 3 to 6 The Venera 3 to 6 probes were similar. Weighing approximately one ton, and launched by the Molniya -type booster rocket, they included a cruise "bus" and a spherical atmospheric entry probe. The probes were optimised for atmospheric measurements, but not equipped with any special landing apparatus. Although it was hoped they would reach the surface still functioning, the first probes failed almost immediately, thereby disabling data transmission to Earth. Venera 3 became the first manmade object to impact another planet's surface as it crashlanded on March 1, 1966. However, as the spacecraft's dataprobes had failed upon atmospheric penetration, no data from within the Venusian boundary was retrieved from the mission. On 18 October 1967, Venera 4 became the first spacecraft to measure the atmosphere of another planet. While the Soviet Union initially claimed the craft reached the surface intact, re-analysis including atmospheric occultation data from the American Mariner 5 spacecraft that flew by Venus the day after its arrival demonstrated that Venus's surface pressure was 75-100 atmospheres, much higher than Venera 4's 25 atm hull strength, and the claim was retracted. Realizing the ships would be crushed before reaching the surface, the Soviets launched Venera 5 and Venera 6 as atmospheric probes. Designed to jettison nearly half their payload prior to entering the planet's atmosphere, these craft recorded 53 and 51 minutes of data, respectively, before their batteries failed. Venera 7 The Venera 7 probe was the first one designed to survive Venus surface conditions and to make a soft landing. Massively overbuilt to ensure survival, it had few experiments on board, and

scientific output from the mission was further limited due to an internal switchboard failure which stuck in the "transmit temperature" position. Still, the control scientists succeeded in extrapolating the pressure (90 atm) from the temperature data (465 C (869 F)), which resulted from the first direct surface measurements. The Doppler measurements of the Venera 4 to 7 probes were the first evidence of the existence of high-speed zonal winds (up to 100 metres per second (330 ft/s)) in the Venus atmosphere (super rotation). Venera 7's parachute failed shortly before landing, fortunately very close to the surface. It impacted at 17 metres per second (56 ft/s) and toppled over, but survived. Due to the resultant antenna misalignment, the radio signal was very weak, but was detected (with temperature telemetry) for 23 more minutes before its batteries expired. Thus, it became, on 15 December 1970, the first man-made probe to transmit data from the surface of Venus. Venera 8 Venera 8 was equipped with an extended set of scientific instruments for studying the surface (gamma-spectrometer etc.). The cruise bus of Venera 7 and 8 was similar to that of earlier ones, with the design ascending to the Zond 3 mission. The lander transmitted data during the descent and landed in sunlight. It measured the light level but had no camera. It continued to send back data for almost an hour. Venera 9 to 12 The Venera 9 to 12 probes were of a different design. They weighed approximately five tons and were launched by the powerful Proton booster. They included a transfer and relay bus that had engines to brake into Venus orbit (Venera 9 and 10, 15 and 16) and to serve as receiver and relay for the entry probe's transmissions. The entry probe was attached to the top of the bus in a spherical heat shield. The probes were optimized for surface operations with an unusual looking design that included a spherical compartment to protect the electronics from atmospheric pressure and heat for as long as possible. Beneath this was a shock absorbing "crush ring" for landing. Above the pressure sphere was a cylindrical antenna structure and a wide dish shaped structure that resembled an antenna but was actually an aerobrake. They were designed to operate on the surface for a minimum of 30 minutes. Instruments varied on different missions, but included cameras and atmospheric and soil analysis equipment. All four landers had problems with some or all or their camera lens caps not releasing. The Venera 9 lander operated for at least 53 minutes and took pictures with one of two cameras; the others lens cap did not release. The Venera 10 lander operated for at least 65 minutes and took pictures with one of two cameras; the others lens cap did not release. The Venera 11 lander operated for at least 95 minutes but neither cameras lens cap released. The Venera 12 lander operated for at least 110 minutes but neither cameras lens cap released. Venera 13 and 14 The descent craft/lander contained most of the instrumentation and electronics, and was topped by an antenna. The design was similar to the earlier Venera 9 12 landers. They carried instruments to take scientific measurements of the ground and atmosphere once landed, including cameras, a microphone, a drill and surface sampler, and a seismometer. They also had instruments to record electric discharges during its descent phase through the Venusian atmosphere. The two descent craft landed about 950 kilometres (590 mi) apart, just east of the eastern extension of an elevated region known as Phoebe Regio. The Venera 13 lander survived for 127

minutes, and the Venera 14 lander for 57 minutes, where the planned design life was only 32 minutes. The descent vehicles transmitted data to the buses, which acted as data relays as they flew by Venus. Veneras 15 and 16 Venera 15 and 16 were similar to previous probes, but replaced the entry probes with surface imaging radar equipment. Radar imaging was necessary to penetrate the dense cloud of Venus. Vega probes The Vega probes to Venus and comet Halley launched in 1985 also used this basic Venera design, including landers but also atmospheric balloons which relayed data for about two days. Scientific findings There were many scientific findings about Venus from the data retrieved by the Venera probes. For example, after analyzing the radar images returned from Venera 15 and 16, it was concluded that the ridges and grooves on the surface of Venus were the result of tectonic deformations.[4] Venera camera failures and success The Venera 9 and 10 landers had two cameras each. Only one functioned because the lens covers failed to separate from the second camera on each lander. The design was changed for Venera 11 and 12, but this change made the problem worse and all cameras failed on those missions. Venera 13 and 14 were the only landers on which all cameras worked properly; although unfortunately, the titanium lens cap on Venera 14 landed precisely on the area which was targeted by the soil compression probe. The external link at the bottom of the page shows all lander imagery. Flight data for all Venera missions Name Mission Launch Survival Time (minutes) Results Orbiter or probe (flyby, Lander atmospheric) n/a en n/a n/a

1VA (protoFlyby Venera) Venera 1 Sputnik 19 Flyby

February 4, n/a 1961 February 12, 1961 25, n/a n/a

Failed to leave earth orbit Communications route to Venus lost

Atmospher August ic Probe 1962

Escape stage failed; Reentered three days later Escape stage failed; Reentered five days later Third stage exploded; Spacecraft destroyed Did not reach parking orbit

Sputnik 20

Atmospher September ic Probe 1, 1962 Flyby Flyby September 12, 1962 February 19, 1964

n/a

n/a

Sputnik 21 Venera 1964A

n/a n/a

n/a n/a

Cosmos 27 Venera 2

Flyby Flyby

March 1964

27,

n/a n/a

Escape stage failed Communications lost just before arrival Communications lost just before atmospheric entry. This was the first manmade object to land on another planet on March 1966 (crash). Probable landing region: -20 to 20 N, 60 to 80 E. Failed to leave Earth orbit, and reentered the atmosphere. Believed by some researchers to have crashed near Kecksburg, Pennsylvania on December 9, 1965, an event which became known as the "Kecksburg Incident" among UFO researchers. All Soviet spacecraft that never left Earth orbit were customarily renamed "Kosmos" regardless of the craft's intended mission. Launcher failed Arrived October 18, 1967 and was the first probe to enter another planet's atmosphere and return data. Although it did not transmit from the surface, n/a this was the first interplanetary broadcast of any probe. Landed somewhere near latitude 19 N, longitude 38 E. Escape stage failed; Reentered eight days later

n/a n/a

November 12, 1965

Venera 3

Atmospher November ic Probe 16, 1965

n/a

n/a

Cosmos 96

Atmospher November ic Probe 23, 1965

n/a

n/a

Venera 1965A

Flyby

November 26, 1965

n/a

n/a

Venera 4

Atmospher June ic Probe 1967

12,

n/a

n/a

Cosmos 167

Atmospher June ic Probe 1967

17,

n/a

n/a

Venera 5

Atmospher January ic Probe 1969

5,

53*

Arrived May 16, 1969 and successfully returned atmospheric data before being crushed by pressure within 26 kilometres (16 mi) of the surface. Landed at 3 S, 18 E. Arrived May 17, 1969 and successfully returned atmospheric data before being crushed by pressure within 11 kilometres (6.8 mi) of the surface. Landed at 5 S, 23 E. Arrived December 15, 1970, was the first successful landing of a spacecraft on another planet and survived for 23 minutes before succumbing to the heat and pressure. This was the first broadcast from another planet's surface. Landed at 5 S, 351 E. Escape stage failed; Ended up in an elliptical Earth orbit Arrived July 22, 1972 and survived for 50 minutes before succumbing to the heat and pressure. Landed within a 150 kilometres (93 mi) radius of 10.70 S, 335.25 E. Escape stage exploded during Trans-Venus injection; Some pieces re- n/a entered and others remained in Earth orbit

n/a

Venera 6

Atmospher January 10, 51* ic Probe 1969

n/a

Venera 7

Lander

August 1970

17,

23

Cosmos 359 Lander

August 1970

22,

n/a

Venera 8

Lander

March 1972

27,

50

Cosmos 482 Probe

March 1972

31,

n/a

Venera 9

Orbiter and June 8, 1975 53 Lander

Arrived October 22, 1975, sent back the first (black and white) images of Venus' surface while the lander survived 53 minutes before succumbing to the heat and pressure. Landed within a 150 kilometres (93 mi) radius of 31.01 N, 291.64 E. Arrived October 25, 1975, the lander surviving 65 minutes before succumbing to the heat and pressure. Landed within a 150 kilometres (93 mi) radius of 15.42 N, 291.51 E. Arrived December 25, 1978, the lander survived for 95 minutes; however the imaging systems had failed. Landed at 14 S 299 E. Arrived December 21, 1978, the lander surviving for 110 minutes and recorded what is thought to be lightning. Landed at 7 S 294 E. Arrived March 1, 1982, returned the first colour images of Venus' surface and discovered leucite basalt in a soil sample using a spectrometer. Landed at 7.5 S, 303 E Arrived March 5, 1982, a soil sample revealed tholeiitic basalt (similar to that found on Earth's midocean ridges). Landed at 13.25 S, 310 E.

Venera 10

Orbiter and June Lander 1975

14,

65

Venera 11

Flyby and September Lander 9, 1978

95

Venera 12

Flyby and September Lander 14, 1978

110

Venera 13

Flyby and October 30, 127 Lander 1981

Venera 14

Flyby and November Lander 14, 1981

57

Venera 15

Orbiter

June 2, 1983 n/a

Arrived October 10, 1983 and mapped (along with Venera 16) the northern hemisphere down to 30 degrees from North (resolution 1-2 km) Arrived October 14, 1983 and mapped (along with Venera 15) the northern hemisphere down to 30 degrees from North (resolution 1-2 km)

n/a

Venera 16

Orbiter

June 7, 1983 n/a

n/a

Vega

2 Orbiters, June, 1985 2 landers

see main articles Vega 1, Vega 2

VEGA PROGRAM
The Vega program were a series of Venus missions which also took advantage of the appearance of Comet Halley in 1986. Vega 1 and Vega 2 were unmanned spacecraft launched in a cooperative effort among the Soviet Union (who provided the spacecraft and launch vehicle) and Austria, Bulgaria, Hungary, the German Democratic Republic, Poland, Czechoslovakia, France, and the Federal Republic of Germany in December 1984. They had a two-part mission to investigate Venus and also flyby Halley's Comet. The flyby of Halley's Comet had been a late mission change in the Venera program following on from the cancellation of the US Halley mission in 1981. A later Venera mission was cancelled and the Venus part of the Vega 1 mission was reduced. Because of this, the craft was designated Vega, a contraction of "Venera" and "Gallei" (Russian words for "Venus" and "Halley", respectively). The spacecraft design was based on the previous Venera 9 and Venera 10 missions. The two spacecraft were launched on December 15 and December 21, 1984, respectively. With their redesignated dual missions, the Vega probes became part of the Halley Armada, a group of space probes that studied Halley's Comet during its 1985/86 perihelion. The Vega spacecraft Vega solar system probe bus and landing apparatus (model) Vega 1 and 2 were identical sister ships. The spacecraft was a development of the earlier Venera craft. They were designed by Babakin Space Center and constructed as 5VK by Lavochkin at Khimki. The craft was powered by twin large solar panels and instruments included an antenna dish, cameras, spectrometer, infrared sounder, magnetometers (MISCHA), and plasma probes. The 4,920 kg craft was launched by a Proton 8K82K rocket from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Tyuratam, Kazakh SSR. Both Vega 1 and 2 were

three-axis stabilized spacecraft. The spacecraft were equipped with a dual bumper shield for dust protection from Halley's comet. Bus Instruments 1. imaging system 2. infrared spectrometer 3. ultraviolet, visible, infrared imaging spectrometer 4. shield penetration detector 5. dust detectors 6. dust mass spectrometer 7. neutral gas mass spectrometer 8. APV-V plasma energy analyzer 9. energetic-particle analyzer 10. magnetometer 11. wave and plasma analyzers The Venus mission Vega 1 arrived at Venus on June 11, 1985 and Vega 2 on June 15, 1985, and each delivered a 1,500 kg, 240 cm diameter spherical descent unit. The units were released some days before each arrived at Venus and entered the atmosphere without active inclination changes. Each contained a lander and a balloon explorer. Descent craft The landers were identical to that of the previous five Venera missions and were to study the atmosphere and surface, each had instruments to study temperature, pressure, a UV spectrometer, a water concentration meter, a gas-phase chromatograph, an X-ray spectrometer, a mass spectrometer and a surface sampling device. The Vega 1 lander's surface experiments were inadvertently activated at 20 km from the surface by an especially hard wind jolt, and so failed to provide results. It landed at 7.5N, 177.7E. The Vega 2 lander touched down at 03:00:50 UT on 15 June 1985 at 8.5 S, 164.5 E, in eastern Aphrodite Terra. The altitude of the touchdown site was 0.1 km above the planetary mean radius. The measured pressure at the landing site was 91 atm and the temperature was 736 K. The surface sample was found to be an anorthosite-troctolite. It transmitted data from the surface for 56 minutes. Payload y Meteocomplex T,P sensors y Sigma-3 gas chromatograph y LSA particle size spectrometer y IFP aerosol analyser y VM-4 hygrometer y ISAV-A nephelometer / scatterometer y Malakhit-V mass spectrometer y ISAV-S UV spectrometer y GZU VB-02 drill + BDRP-AM25 soil X-ray fluorescence spectrometer y GS-15-STsV gamma ray spectrometer y PrOP-V penetrometer y MSB small solar batteries

Balloon The two balloon aerobots were designed to float at 54 km from the surface, in the most active layer of the Venusian cloud system. The instrument pack had enough battery power for sixty hours of operation and measured temperature, pressure, wind speed and aerosol density. Both Vega-1 and Vega-2 balloons operated for more than 46 hrs from injection to the final transmission.[1] The balloons were spherical superpressure types with a diameter of 3.54 meters (11.6 ft) and filled with helium. A gondola assembly weighing 6.9 kilograms (15.2 pounds) and 1.3 meters (4.26 ft) long was connected to the balloon envelope by a tether 13 meters (42.6 ft) long. Total mass of the entire assembly was 21 kilograms (46 pounds). The top section of the gondola assembly was capped by a conical antenna 37 centimeters (14.6 inches) tall and 13 centimeters (5 1 8 inches) wide at the base. Beneath the antenna was a module containing the radio transmitter and system control electronics. The lower section of the gondola assembly carried the instrument payload and batteries. The instruments consisted of: y An arm carrying thin-film resistance thermometers and a velocity anemometer. The anemometer consisted of a free-spinning plastic propeller whose spin was measured by LED-photodetector optointerrupters. y A module containing a PIN diode photodetector to measure light levels and a vibrating quartz beam pressure sensor. y A package at the bottom carrying the batteries and a nephelometer to measure cloud density through light reflection. The small low-power transmitter only allowed a data transmission rate of 2,048 bits per second, though the system performed data compression to squeeze more information through the narrow bandwidth. Nonetheless, the sampling rate for most of the instruments was only once every 75 seconds. The balloons were tracked by two networks of 20 radio telescopes in total back on Earth: the Soviet network, coordinated by the USSR Academy of Sciences and the international network, coordinated by CNES. The balloons were dropped onto the planet's darkside and deployed at an altitude of about 50 kilometers (30 miles). They then floated upward a few kilometers to their equilibrium altitude. At this altitude, pressure and temperature conditions of Venus are similar to those of Earth, though the planet's winds moved at hurricane velocity and the carbon dioxide atmosphere is laced with sulfuric acid, along with smaller concentrations of hydrochloric and hydrofluoric acid. The balloons moved swiftly across the night side of the planet into the light side, where their batteries finally ran down and contact was lost. Tracking indicated that the motion of the balloons included a surprising vertical component, revealing vertical motions of air masses that had not been detected by earlier probe missions. The Halley mission After their encounters, the Vegas' motherships were redirected by Venus' gravity to intercept Comet Halley. Vega 1 made its closest approach on March 6, around 8,890 km from the nucleus, and Vega 2 made its closest approach on March 9 at 8,030 km. The data intensive examination of the comet covered only the three hours around closest approach. They were intended to measure the physical parameters of the nucleus, such as dimensions, shape, temperature and surface properties, as well as to study the structure and dynamics of the coma, the gas composition

close to the nucleus, the dust particles' composition and mass distribution as functions of distance to the nucleus and the cometary-solar wind interaction. In total Vega 1 and Vega 2 returned about 1,500 images of Comet Halley. Spacecraft operations were discontinued a few weeks after the Halley encounters. The on-board TV system was created in international cooperation of the scientific and industrial facilities from the USSR, Hungary, France and Czechoslovakia. TV data were processed by international team, including the USSR, Hungary, France, GDR and USA scientists. The basic steps of data acquisition and preprocessing were performed in IKI using the image processing computer system, based on PDP11/40 compatible host. Vega 1 and 2 are currently in heliocentric orbits.

VOSTOK PROGRAMME
The Vostok programme (Russian: , IPA: [v stok], Orient or East) was a Soviet human spaceflight project that succeeded in putting a person into Earths orbit for the first time. The programme developed the Vostok spacecraft from the Zenit spy satellite project and adapted the Vostok rocket from an existing ICBM design. Just before the first release of the name Vostok to the press, it was a classified word. Background The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, had been put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957. The next milestone in the history of space exploration would be to put a human in space, and both the Soviets and the Americans wanted to be the first. Cosmonaut selection and training Air Force rank* Cosmonaut Age* Senior Lieutenant Ivan Anikeyev 27 Major Pavel Belyayev 34 Senior Lieutenant Valentin Bondarenko 23 Senior Lieutenant Valery Bykovsky 25 Senior Lieutenant Valentin Filatyev 30 Senior Lieutenant Yuri Gagarin 25 Senior Lieutenant Viktor Gorbatko 25 Captain Anatoli Kartashov 27 Senior Lieutenant Yevgeny Khrunov 26 Captain Engineer Vladimir Komarov 32 Lieutenant Aleksei Leonov 25 Senior Lieutenant Grigori Nelyubov 25 Senior Lieutenant Andrian Nikolayev 30 Captain Pavel Popovich 29 Senior Lieutenant Mars Rafikov 26 Senior Lieutenant Georgi Shonin 24 Senior Lieutenant Gherman Titov 24 Senior Lieutenant Valentin Varlamov 25

Senior Lieutenant Boris Volynov Senior Lieutenant Dmitri Zaikin

25 27

By January 1959, the Soviets had begun preparations for human spaceflight.[1] Physicians from the Soviet Air Force insisted that the potential cosmonaut candidates be qualified Air Force pilots, arguing that they would have relevant skills such as exposure to higher g-forces, as well as ejection seat experience; also the Americans had chosen the Mercury Seven in April 1959, all of whom had aviation backgrounds.[1] The candidates had to be intelligent, comfortable in highstress situations, and physically fit.[2] Chief designer of the Soviet space program, Sergei Korolev, decided that the cosmonauts must be male, between 25 and 30 years old, no taller than 1.75 meters, and weigh no more than 72 kilograms.[3] The final specifications for cosmonauts were approved in June 1959. By September interviews with potential cosmonauts had begun. Although the pilots were not told they might be flying into space, one of the physicians in charge of the selection process believed that some pilots had figured this out.[3] Just over 200 candidates made it through the interview process, and by October a series of demanding physical tests were conducted on those remaining, such as exposure to low pressures, and a centrifuge test.[4] By the end of 1959, 20 men had been selected. Korolev insisted on having a larger group than NASA's seven astronaut team.[4] Of these 20, five were outside the desired age range; so the age requirement was relaxed. Unlike NASA's astronaut group, this group were not particularly experienced pilots; Belyayev was the most experience with 900 flying hours. The Soviet spacecraft were more automated than the American counterparts, so significant piloting experience was not necessary.[5] On January 11, 1960, Soviet Chief Marshal of Aviation Konstantin Vershinin approved plans to establish the Cosmonaut Training Center, whose exclusive purpose would be to prepare the cosmonauts for their upcoming flights; initially the facility would have about 250 staff.[4] Vershinin assigned the already famous aviator Nikolai Kamanin to supervise operations at the facility. By March, most of the cosmonauts had arrived at the training facility; on March 7 Vershinin gave a welcome speech, and those who were present were formally inducted into the cosmonaut group.[2] By mid-June all twenty were permanently stationed at the center. In March the cosmonauts were started on a daily fitness regime, and were taught classes on topics such as rocket space systems, navigation, geophysics, and astronomy. Due to the initial facility's space limitations, the cosmonauts and staff were relocated to a new facility in Star City (then known as Zelenyy), which has been the home of Russia's cosmonaut training program for over fifty years. The move officially took place on June 29, 1960.[6] The Vanguard Six At the Gromov Flight Research Institute, a spacecraft simulator had been built, and it was called the TDK-1. Due to the inefficiency of training all 20 cosmonauts in the simulator, it was decided they would select six men who would go through accelerated training.[7] This group, which would be known as The Vanguard Six, was decided on May 30, 1960, and initially consisted of Gagarin, Kartashov, Nikolayev, Popovich, Titov, and Varlamov.[7] Alexei Leonov recalls that these six were the shortest six out of the group of 20.[8] In July, shortly after relocation to Star City, two of the six would be replaced, on medical grounds. First, during a centrifuge test of 8 g's, Kartashov experienced some internal damage, causing minor hemorrhaging on his back. Despite Gagarin's requests for him to stay, the doctors decided to remove Kartashov from the group of six. Later in July, Varlamov was

involved in a swimming accident. During a dive into a lake near the training center, he hit his head on the bottom, displacing a cervical vertebra. So by the end of July, the Vanguard Six were: Gagarin, Bykovskiy, Nelyubov, Nikolayev, Popovich, and Titov. By January, 1961, these six had all finished parachute and recovery training, as well as threeday regimes in simulators. On January 17, the six participated in their final exams, including time spent in a simulator, and a written test. Based on these results, a commission, supervised by Kamanin, recommended the use of the cosmonauts in the following order: Gagarin, Titov, Nelyubov, Nikolayev, Bykovskiy, Popovich.[11] At this stage Gagarin was the clear favorite to be the first man in space, not only based on the exams, but also among an informal peer evaluation. Missions The first manned spaceflight, Vostok 1 in April 1961, was preceded by several preparatory flights. In the summer of 1960, the Soviets learned that the Americans could launch a suborbital manned spaceflight as early as January 1961. Korolev saw this as an important deadline, and was determined to launch a manned orbital mission before the Americans launched their manned suborbital mission. By April 1960, designers at Sergei Korolev's design bureau, then known as OKB-1, had completed a draft plan for the first Vostok spacecraft, called Vostok 1K. This design would be used for testing purposes; also in their plan was Vostok 2K, a spy satellite that would later become known as Zenit 2, and Vostok 3K, which would be used for all six manned Vostok missions. Despite the very large geographical size of the Soviet Union, there were obvious limitations to monitoring orbital spaceflights from ground stations within the country. To remedy this, the Soviets stationed about 7 naval vessels, or tracking ships, around the world. For each ground station or tracking ship, the duration of communications with an orbiting spacecraft was limited to five to ten minutes. Korabl-Sputnik 1 The first Vostok spacecraft was a variant not designed to be recovered from orbit; the variant was also called Vostok 1KP or (1P). At Korolev's suggestion, the media would call the spacecraft Korabl-Sputnik, ("Satellite-ship"); the name Vostok was still a secret codename at this point. This first Vostok spacecraft was successfully sent into orbit on May 15, 1960. Due to a system malfunction, on the spacecraft's 64th orbit, the thrusters fired and sent it into an even higher orbit. The orbit eventually decayed, and it reentered the atmosphere several years later. Vostok 1K Mission Spacecraft Launch Result Korabl-Sputnik 1 1P Unnamed 1K-1 Korabl-Sputnik 2 1K-2 Korabl-Sputnik 3 1K-3 Unnamed 1K-4 Korabl-Sputnik 4 3KA-1 May 15, 1960 July 28, 1960 August 19, 1960 Partial failure Failure Success

December 1, 1960 Partial failure December 22, 1960 Failure March 9, 1961 Success

Korabl-Sputnik 5 3KA-2 March 25, 1961 Success The next six launches were all of the Vostok 1K design, equipped with life-support facilities, and planned to be recovered after orbit. The spacecraft launched on July 28, 1960 carried two space

dogs, named Chayka and Lisichka. Unfortunately an explosion destroyed the spacecraft shortly after launch, killing both dogs; this mission wasn't given a name. The next mission, designated Korabl-Sputnik 2, was launched on August 19, 1960, carrying two more dogs, Belka and Strelka, as well as a variety of other biological specimens such as mice, insects, and strips of human skin. This mission was successful, and Belka and Strelka became the first living beings recovered from orbit. The spacecraft was only the second object ever to have been recovered from orbit, the first being the return capsule of the American Discoverer 13 the previous week. During the mission there was some concern for Belka and Strelka's health, after images of Belka vomiting had been obtained from the onboard cameras. The spacecraft and dogs were recovered following the 26 hour spaceflight, and extensive physiological tests revealed that the dogs were in good health. This represented a significant success for the Vostok programme. The success of Korabl-Sputnik 2 gave the designers confidence to put forward a plan leading to a manned spaceflight. A document regarding a plan for the Vostok programme, dated September 10, 1960, and declassified in 1991, was sent to the Central Committee of the Communist Party, and approved by Premier Nikita Khrushchev.[19] This document had been signed by the top leaders in the Soviet defence industry at the time, the most senior being Deputy Chairman Dmitriy Ustinov; this indicated the elevated importance of the document. The plan called for one or two more Vostok 1K flights, followed by two unmanned Vostok 3K' flights, followed by a manned flight in December 1960. A major setback occurred on October 24, when a rocket explosion killed over 100 people, including Chief Marshal of Artillery Mitrofan Nedelin, in what is now called the Nedelin catastrophe. This was one of the worst disasters in the history of spaceflight. It involved a rocket that was not designed by Korolev, and was not necessary for the Vostok programme; the rocket was by rival designer Mikhail Yangel, intended to be a new generation of Intercontinental ballistic missiles.[21] It would be two weeks before work on the Vostok programme continued, and it was realised that the original target of a December manned launch was unrealistic. On December 1, 1960, the next Vostok 1K spacecraft was launched, called Korabl-Sputnik 3 by the press, it carried the two dogs Pchyolka and Mushka. After about 24 hours, the engines were intended to fire to begin reentry, but they fired for less time than had been expected. This meant that the spacecraft would enter the atmosphere, but not over Soviet territory. For this reason the self-destruct system was activated, so the spacecraft and the two dogs, were destroyed. At the time the press reported that an incorrect attitude caused the cabin to be destroyed upon reentry. The next Vostok 1K spacecraft was launched December 22, 1960, but it was unnamed because it failed to reach orbit. It carried two dogs, named Kometa and Shutka. The third stage of the launch system malfunctioned, and the emergency escape system was activated. The spacecraft landed 3,500 kilometres downrange of the launch site. The resulting rescue operation took several days, in -40 C conditions. After a few days, the dogs were both recovered alive, and the spacecraft was returned to Moscow a few weeks later. Despite Korolev's desire to announce this failure to the press, the State Commission vetoed the idea. Vostok 3KA The two unmanned missions immediately preceding the first manned flight used the same spacecraft design as in the manned missions, a design called Vostok 3KA (or 3A). The only differences were they would carry a single dog into orbit, a life-size mannequin would be

strapped into the main ejection seat, and unlike the manned missions it had a self-destruct system. The recent failures of Vostok 1K were not encouraging, but it was decided to proceed with launches of an automated variant of Vostok 3KA, the spacecraft design that would conduct a manned spaceflight. The approval of a manned mission was contingent upon the success of the two automated Vostok 3KA missions. Unlike the previous Vostok 1K flights, the two unmanned Vostok 3KA flights were planned to last only a single orbit, to imitate the plan for the first manned flight. The first of these unmanned flights, Korabl-Sputnik 4, was launched on March 9, 1961. It carried the dog Chernushka into orbit, as well as a mannequin called Ivan Ivanovich, who wore a functioning SK-1 spacesuit. The dog was contained in a small pressurized sphere, which also contained 80 mice, several guinea pigs, and other biological specimens. Additional mice, guinea pigs, and other specimens were placed within the mannequin. After one orbit, the descent module successfully re-entered the atmosphere, the mannequin was safely ejected, and the dog and other specimens landed separated in the descent module by parachute. The spaceflight lasted 106 minutes, and the dog was recovered alive after landing. The mission was a complete success. On March 23, before the next mission, an accident occurred during training which led to the death of cosmonaut candidate Valentin Bondarenko. He was burned in a fire in oxygen-rich isolation chamber, and died in a hospital eight hours after the incident. Bondarenko was the first cosmonaut (or astronaut) fatality. It is not clear whether other cosmonauts were told of his death immediately, or several weeks later to preserve morale; the media didn't learn of Bondarenko's death or even of his existence until many years later, in 1986. The next unmanned flight, Korabl-Sputnik 5, was launched on March 25, two days after Bondarenko's death. Like the previous Vostok 3KA flight, it lasted for only a single orbit, carried a mannequin and a dog, Zvezdochka ("Starlet", or "Little star"). This mission was also a complete success, which was the final step required to get approval for a manned mission. The re-entry module of the Korabl-Sputnik 5 spacecraft, also called Vostok 3KA-2, is scheduled to be auctioned at Sotheby's on April 12, 2011, the 50th anniversary of the first manned spaceflight, Vostok 1.[32][dated info] Vostok manned flights Order Patch Mission Launch Duration Landing Crew Notes 1 Vostok 12 April 1 h 48 m 1 1961 12 April Yu. Gagarin First man in space. 1961 First manned lasting a full day. mission

2 3 4

Vostok 6 August 1 d 1 h 18 7 August G. Titov 2 1961 m 1961

Vostok 11 August 3 d 22 h 15 August First simultaneous flight of A. Nikolayev 3 1962 22 m 1962 two manned spacecraft. Vostok 12 August 2 d 22 h 15 August First simultaneous flight of P. Popovich 4 1962 56 m 1962 two manned spacecraft..

Vostok 14 June 4 d 23 h 7 19 June V. Bykovsky Longest solo orbital flight. 5 1963 m 1963

Vostok 16 June 2 d 22 h 19 June V. First woman in space. 6 1963 50 m 1963 Tereshkova

Cancelled missions One different (1963) and seven another original (going through to April 1966) Vostok flights were originally planned: y Vostok 6A - pair to Vostok 5 group flight with female cosmonaut instead fulfilled Vostok 6 flight y Vostok 7 - 8-days high altitude flight for radiological-biological studies with natural reentry from orbit y Vostok 8 - pair to Vostok 9 10-days group high altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit y Vostok 9 - pair to Vostok 8 10-days group high altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural re-entry from orbit y Vostok 10 - 10-days high altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural reentry from orbit y Vostok 11 - supplemental flight for extra-vehicular activity tests y Vostok 12 - supplemental flight for extra-vehicular activity tests y Vostok 13 - 10-days high altitude flight for extended scientific studies with natural reentry from orbit All these original missions were cancelled in spring 1964 and the components recycled into the Voskhod programme, which was intended to achieve more Soviet firsts in space.

VOSKHOD PROGRAMME
The Voskhod programme (Russian: , IPA: [v s xot], Ascent or Dawn) was a Soviet human spaceflight project. Voskhod development was both a follow-on to the Vostok programme and a recycling of components left over from that programme's cancellation following its first six flights. The two missions flown used the Voskhod spacecraft and rocket. Design The Voskhod spacecraft was basically a Vostok spacecraft that had a backup, solid fuel retrorocket added to the top of the descent module. The heavier weight of the craft was made possible by improvements to the R-7 Semyorka-derived booster. The ejection seat was removed and two or three crew couches were added to the interior at a 90-degree angle to that of the Vostok crew position. However, the position of the in-flight controls was not changed, so the crew had to crane their heads 90 degrees to see the instruments. In the case of Voskhod 2, an inflatable exterior airlock was also added to the descent module opposite the entry hatch. The airlock was jettisoned after use. This apparatus was needed because the vehicle avionics and environmental systems were air-cooled, and depressurization in orbit would cause overheating. There was no provision for crew escape in the event of a

launch or landing emergency. A solid fuel braking rocket was also added to the parachute lines to provide for a softer landing at touchdown. This was necessary because, unlike the Vostok, the Voskhod descent module landed with the crew still inside. Comparison with Gemini After the first-generation spacecraft Vostok and Mercury had proved the technical feasibility of manned spaceflight, NASA proceeded to build its second-generation capsule, Gemini, which was a completely new design which retained the successful features of Mercury such as the conical shape with a heat shield at the bottom while adding several new features for example engines strong enough to significantly alter orbit, docking and rendezvous facilities, and provisions for EVA, all of which were essential for practical applications of spaceflight, namely a manned Moon mission. In comparison to that, Voskhod capsules were simply modified Vostok craft, retaining most of Vostok's limitations. In the end, Voskhod turned out to be a dead end and was abandoned after only two manned missions. It was superseded by the much more capable Soyuz. Flights The Voskhod flights, with launch dates: Unmanned y Cosmos 47 - Unmanned test flight of the Voskhod hardware. y Cosmos 57 - Unmanned test flight, unsuccessful. y Cosmos 110 - Unmanned, sent two dogs, Veterok and Ugolyok, on 22-day flight, launched 22 February 1966. Manned Order Mission Launch Duration Landing Crew Notes 1 2 12 Voskhod October 1 1964 13 1 d 0 h 17 October m3s 1964 First multiV. K. B. person Komarov Feoktistov Yegorov spacecraft.

Voskhod 18 March 1 d 2 h 2 19 March P. First A. Leonov 2 1965 m 17 s 1965 Belyayev spacewalk. Cancelled y Voskhod 3 - 19-days two-crewed mission to study long-term weightlessness with artificial gravity, medical, military and other experiments y Voskhod 4 - 20-days single-crewed mission to study long-term weightlessness with artificial gravity, medical, military and other experiments y Voskhod 5 - 10-days all-female two-crewed mission with medical and other experiments and first female EVA-spacewalk y Voskhod 6 - 15-days two-crewed mission with military and other experiments and multiple spacewalks to test new EVA jet belt Results While the Vostok programme was dedicated more towards understanding the effects of space travel and microgravity on the human body, Voskhod's two flights were more aimed towards spectacular "firsts". Although achieving the first EVA ("spacewalk") became the main success of the programme, beating the U.S. Project Gemini to put the first multi-person crew in orbit was the objective that initially motivated the programme. Once both goals were realised, the programme was abandoned. This followed the change in Soviet leadership, which was less

concerned about stunt and prestige flights, and allowed the Soviet designers to concentrate on the Soyuz programme.

ZOND PROGRAMME
Zond ( ; Russian for "probe") was the name given to two distinct series of Soviet unmanned space program undertaken from 1964 to 1970. The first series based on 3MV planetary probe was intended to gather information about nearby planets. The second series of test spacecraft being a precursor to manned circumlunar loop flights used a stripped-down variant of Soyuz spacecraft, consisting of the service and descent modules, but lacking the orbital module. Missions based on the 3MV planetary probe The 3MV planetary probe (short for 3rd generation Mars-Venus) is a designation for a common design used by early Soviet unmanned probes to Mars and Venus. It was an incremental improvement of earlier 2MV probes and was used for Zond 1, Zond 1964A, Zond 2 and Zond 3 missions to Mars as well as several Venera probes. It was standard practice of the Soviet space program to use standardized components as much as possible. All probes shared the same general characteristics and differed only in equipment necessary for specific missions. Each probe also incorporated improvements based on experience with earlier missions. Design The probe consisted of three primary parts: The core of the stack was a pressurized compartment called the Orbital Compartment. This part housed the spacecraft's control electronics, radio transmitters and receivers, batteries, astro-orientation equipment, and so on. The compartment was pressurized to around 100 kPa and thermally controlled to simulate earth-like conditions, which removed the need for special electronic components that could reliably operate in extreme conditions (on Zond 1 the module depressurized in flight, severely damaging the probe's systems). Mounted on the outside of the Orbital Compartment were two solar panels which supplied power to the spacecraft. They were folded against the body of the probe during launch and were only deployed when the craft was already on its interplanetary trajectory. On the ends of each solar panel was a hemispherical radiator which radiated excess heat from the orbital compartment into space through a coolant loop. Also mounted on the Orbital Compartment was a 2 m parabolical high-gain antenna, used for long-range communications. Depending on the mission, the probe also used other antennas (for example, for communication with probes on the planet's surface). Below the Orbital Compartment was a second pressurized compartment called the Planetary Compartment. Depending on the mission the Planetary Compartment either housed scientific equipment for orbital observation of the planet or was designed to detach and land on the planet's surface. Course correction capabilities were provided by a KDU 414 engine attached to the top of the Orbital Compartment. It provided a maximum thrust of around 2 kN and used UDMH and nitric acid as propellants. Attitude control was achieved by several small cold gas thrusters. The whole stack was 3.6 m high and weighted around 1000 kg. Circumlunar missions The Soyuz 7K-L1 (also mentioned just as L1) spacecraft was designed to launch men from the Earth to circle the Moon without going into lunar orbit in the context of the Soviet manned moon-flyby program in Moon race. It was based on the Soyuz 7K-OK with several components stripped out to reduce the vehicle weight. The most notable modifications included the removal of the orbital module (providing extra space for living quarters or equipment) and a

reserve parachute. The spacecraft was capable of carrying 2 cosmonauts. In the beginning there were serious reliability problems with both the new Proton rocket and the similar new Soyuz spacecraft. Soviet space program conspiracy accusations suppose that Yuri Gagarin, first cosmonaut (astronaut) and head of Soviet "moon" team of cosmonauts, died during the alleged unsuccessful first manned flight around Moon onboard Zond 4 at 2 7 March 1968, not in the officially announced air crash of 27 March 1968. But after 4 unsuccessful unmanned test starts (see below), at that time the L1 spacecraft was not ready for manned missions. The mission of 2 7 March really was the first flight of the L1 spacecraft under the open designation "Zond". After the successful US Apollo 8 manned flight around Moon, the Soviet manned moon-flyby missions lost political motivation. The first manned flight of the L1/Zond spacecraft with Alexey Leonov and Valery Bykovsky planned for the end of 1968 into 1969 was cancelled. All L1/Zond spacecraft made only unmanned automatic flights from 1967 1970, from (Zond 4 to Zond 8), and four of these five Zond flights suffered malfunctions that would have injured or killed any crew. Test flights conducted around the Moon showed problems during re-entry. One direct descent re-entry was performed on a steep ballistic trajectory with deceleration of up to 20 Gs and splashed down in the Indian Ocean. Three others performed a maneuver known as "skip reentry" to shed velocity. One of those also performed an unsafe (for humans) descent of up to 20 Gs of deceleration, the other suffered main parachute failure, and only one flight Zond 7 - would have been safe for cosmonauts. Instrumentation flown on these missions gathered data on micrometeor flux, solar and cosmic rays, magnetic fields, radio emissions, and solar wind. Many photographs were taken and biological payloads were also flown. Zond 5 was the first spacecraft to carry a group of terrestrial creatures (tortoises being the most complex) on a circumlunar flight and return relatively safely to Earth. Zond 5 splashed down in the Indian Ocean after descending steeply with a 20 G deceleration rate. Although unsafe for humans these high Gs apparently didn't affect the tortoises' health, and they were reportedly able to breed afterwards. Along with the remaining 7K-L1s, the Soviet moon-flyby program was closed in 1970 without the achievement of its manned primary goal. The intended manned use of L1/Zond spacecraft was documented in official Soviet sources at first time but from 1968 until 1989 this and the moon-landing N1-L3 programs were classified and the Soviet government denied the existence of both. Planned schedule As of 1967, the Soyuz 7K-L1 launch schedule was: Mission y 2P -Develop Block D stage -Feb or Mar 67 y 3P -same -Mar 67 y 4L -Unmanned lunar flyby -May 67 (actually launched on September 27, 1967, booster failure) y 5L -Unmanned lunar flyby -Jun 67 (actually launched on November 22, 1967, booster failure) y 6L -Manned lunar flyby -Jun or Jul 67 y 7L&8L -Manned lunar flybys -Aug 67 (7L actually launched on April 23, 1968 as Zond 1968A, booster failure; 8L actually launched on July 21, 1968, booster explosion) y 9L&10L -Manned lunar flybys -Sep 67 (10L planned to launch as Zond 9, cancelled) y 11L&12L -Manned lunar flybys -Oct 67

13L -Reserve spacecraft (actually launched on January 20, 1969 as Zond 1969A, booster failure;) In July 1968 it was proposed that L1 spacecraft would be launched every month, and the first manned mission would be in December 1968 or January 1969 after 3-4 successful unmanned flights. In December 1969 dates for three manned L1 missions were set to March, May, and July 1969. Finally, in September 1969 one manned L1 mission was formally set for April 1970. Built spacecraft Fifteen Soyuz 7K-L1 were built. y s/n 1 - prototype not equipped with heat shield, intended to perfect orbital operation of the spacecraft without recovery of the capsule. Launched on 1967 March 10 as Cosmos 146 y s/n 2 - prototype not equipped with heat shield, intended to perfect orbital operation of the spacecraft without recovery of the capsule. y s/n 3 - Launched on 1967 April 8 as Cosmos 154 y s/n 4 - launched on September 27, 1967 as Zond 1967A, booster failure y s/n 5 - launched on November 22, 1967 as Zond 1967B, booster failure y s/n 6 - launched on 1968 March 2 as Zond 4 y s/n 7 - launched on April 23, 1968 as Zond 1968A, destroyed y s/n 8 - launched on July 21, 1968, destroyed y s/n 9 - launched on 1968 September 14 as Zond 5. The return capsule is on display at the Energia Museum, in Russia. y s/n 10 - planned to launch as Zond 9, canceled y s/n 11 - launched as Zond 7. The return capsule is on display at Orevo, Russia. y s/n 12 - launched on November 10, 1968 as Zond 6, returned to Earth on November 17, 1968 y s/n 13 - launched on January 20, 1969 as Zond 1969A, failure, capsule recovered. y s/n 14 - launched on October 20, 1970 as Zond 8, returned to Earth on October 27, 1970 y s/n 15 - planned to launch as Zond 10, canceled Test missions o First stage -1 RD-253 failed, y Cosmos 146 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 1) resulting at T+67 sec in o Launched March 10, 1967 deviation from flight path. o Prototype Soyuz 7K-L1P y Soyuz 7K-L1 No.5L (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n launched by Proton into 5L) planned highly elliptical o Launched November 22, earth orbit. 1967 y Cosmos 154 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 3) o Second stage - 1 x RD-0210 o Launched April 8, 1967 failure, shutoff of stage 4 o Prototype Soyuz 7K-L1P seconds after ignition. launched by Proton and Launcher crashed failed into planned downrange. translunar trajectory. y Zond 4 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 6) y Soyuz 7K-L1 No.4L (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n o Launched March 2, 1968 4L) o Study of remote regions of o Launched September 27, circumterrestrial space, 1967
y

development of new onboard systems and units of space stations. o Returned to Earth March 7, 1968 - Self destruct system automatically blew up the capsule at 10 to 15 km altitude, 180 200 km off the African coast at Guinea. Zond 1968A (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 7L) o Launched April 23, 1968 o Second stage failed 260 seconds after launch. o Attempted Lunar flyby Zond 1968B (Zond 7K-L1 s/n 8L) o Launched July 21, 1968 o Block D stage exploded on pad, killing three people. Zond 5 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 5) o Launched September 15, 1968 o Circumlunar September 18, 1968 o Returned to Earth September 21, 1968 Zond 6 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 12) o Launched November 10, 1968 o Circumlunar November 14, 1968 o Returned to Earth November 17, 1968 Zond 1969A (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 13L) o Launched January 20, 1969 (planned December 8, 1968)

y y

Stage two shutdown 25 seconds early. Automatic flight abort. Capsule was safely recovered. o Attempted Lunar flyby (planned first manned flight to beat American) Zond L1S-1 o Launched February 21, 1969 o First stage failure. Capsule escape system fired 70 seconds after launch. Capsule was recovered. o Attempted Lunar orbiter and N1 rocket test Zond L1S-2 o Launched July 3, 1969 o First stage failure. Zond capsule was recovered. o Attempted Lunar orbiter and N1 rocket test Zond 7 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 11) o Launched August 7, 1969 o Lunar flyby August 11, 1969 o Returned to Earth August 14, 1969 Zond 8 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 14) o Launched October 20, 1970 o Lunar flyby October 24, 1970 o Returned to Earth October 27, 1970 Zond 9 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 10L) o Planned but canceled Zond 10 (Soyuz 7K-L1 s/n 15L) o Planned but canceled
o

THE FIRST ACHEIVEMENTS Sputnik 1

Sputnik 1

Major contractors Mission type Satellite of Orbits Launch date

OKB-1, Soviet Ministry Radiotechnical Industry Atmospheric studies Earth 1,440

Mass 83.6 kg (184.3 lb) of Orbital elements Semimajor axis Eccentricity 6,955.2 km (4,321.8 mi) 0.05201 65.1 7,310 km (4,540 mi) from centre, 939 km (583 mi) from surface 6,586 km (4,092 mi) from centre, 215 km (134 mi) from surface 96.2 minutes

Inclination 19:28:34, October 4, 1957 (UTC) (22:28:34 MSK) Apoapsis Launch Sputnik rocket vehicle Periapsis Mission 3 months duration Orbital period Orbital decay 4 January 1958 COSPAR ID 1957-001B

Homepage NASA NSSDC Master Catalog Sputnik 1 (Russian: "C -1" Russian pronunciation: [ sput n k], "Satellite-1", -1 (PS1, i.e. " -1", or Elementary Satellite-1)) was the first artificial satellite to be put into Earth's orbit. It was launched into an elliptical low Earth orbit by the Soviet Union on 4 October 1957, and was the first in a series of satellites collectively known as the Sputnik

program. The unanticipated announcement of Sputnik 1's success precipitated the Sputnik crisis in the United States and ignited the Space Race within the Cold War. The launch ushered in new political, military, technological, and scientific developments. While the Sputnik launch was a single event, it marked the start of the Space Age.[1] Apart from its value as a technological first, Sputnik also helped to identify the upper atmospheric layer's density, through measuring the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen in the satellite's body provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection. If a meteoroid penetrated the satellite's outer hull, it would be detected by the temperature data sent back to Earth[citation needed]. Sputnik 1 was launched during the International Geophysical Year from Site No.1, at the 5th Tyuratam range, in Kazakh SSR (now at the Baikonur Cosmodrome). The satellite travelled at 29,000 kilometers (18,000 mi) per hour, taking 96.2 minutes to complete an orbit, and emitted radio signals at 20.005 and 40.002 MHz[2] which were monitored by amateur radio operators throughout the world.[3] The signals continued for 22 days until the transmitter batteries ran out on 26 October 1957.[4] Sputnik 1 burned up on 4 January 1958, as it fell from orbit upon reentering Earth's atmosphere, after travelling about 60 million km (37 million miles) and spending 3 months in orbit.[5] Before the launch Satellite construction project The history of the Sputnik 1 project dates back to 27 May 1954, when Sergei Korolev addressed Dmitriy Ustinov, then Minister of Defence Industries, proposing the development of an Earthorbiting [artificial satellite. Korolev also forwarded Ustinov a report by Mikhail Tikhonravov with an overview of similar projects abroad.[6] Tikhonravov emphasized that an artificial satellite is an inevitable stage in the development of rocket equipment, after which "interplanetary communication" would become possible.[7] On 29 July 1955 the U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower announced, through his press secretary, that the United States would launch an artificial satellite during the International Geophysical Year (IGY).[8] A week later, on 8 August the Presidium of the Central Committee of the CPSU approved the idea of creating an artificial satellite.[9] On 30 August Vasily Ryabikov the head of the State Commission on R-7 rocket test launches held a meeting where Korolev presented calculation data for a spaceflight trajectory to the Moon. They decided to develop a three-stage version of the R-7 rocket for satellite launches.[10] On 30 January 1956 the Council of Ministers approved practical work on an artificial Earthorbiting satellite. This satellite, named "Object D", was planned to be completed in 1957-58; it would have a mass of 1,000 to 1,400 kg (2,200 to 3,090 lb) and would carry 200 to 300 kg (440 to 660 lb) of scientific instruments.[11] The first test launch of "Object D" was scheduled for 1957.[7] According to that decision, work on the satellite was to be divided between institutions as follows:[12] y USSR Academy of Sciences was responsible for the general scientific leadership and research instruments supply y Ministry of Defence Industry and its main executor OKB-1 were assigned the task of creating the satellite as a special carrier for scientific research instruments y Ministry of Radiotechnical Industry would develop the control system, radio/technical instruments and the telemetry system y Ministry of Ship Building Industry would develop gyroscope devices y Ministry of Machine Building would develop ground launching, refueling and transportation means

Ministry of Defence was responsible for conducting launches By July 1958 the draft was completed and the scientist tasks to be carried out by a satellite were defined. It included measuring the density of the atmosphere, its ion composition, corpuscular solar radiation, magnetic fields, cosmic rays, etc. Data, valuable in creating future satellites, was also to be collected. A ground observational complex was to be developed, that would collect information transmitted by the satellite, observe the satellite's orbit, and transmit commands to the satellite. Such a complex should include up to 15 measurement stations. Because of the limited time frame, they should have means designed for rocket R-7 observations. Observations were planned for only 7 to 10 days and orbit calculations were expected to be not quite accurate.[13] Unfortunately, the complexity of the ambitious design and problems in following exact specifications meant that some parts of 'Object D', when delivered for assembly, simply did not fit with the others, causing costly delays. By the end of 1956 it became clear that plans for 'Object D' were not to be fulfilled in time because of difficulties creating scientific instruments and the low specific impulse produced by the completed R-7 engines (304 sec instead of the planned 309 to 310 sec). Consequently the government re-scheduled the launch for April 1958.[7] Object D would later fly as Sputnik 3. Fearing the U.S. would launch a satellite before the USSR, OKB-1 suggested the creation and launch of a satellite in April May 1957, before the IGY began in July 1957. The new satellite would be simple, light (100 kg or 220 lb), and easy to construct, forgoing the complex, heavy scientific equipment in favour of a simple radio transmitter. On 15 February 1957 the Council of Ministers of the USSR approved this, providing for launching the simplest version satellite, designated 'Object PS'.[14] This version also facilitated the satellite to be visually tracked by Earth-based observers while in orbit, and transmit tracking signals to ground-based receiving stations.[14] Launch of two satellites PS-1 and PS-2 with two R-7 rockets (8K71) was allowed, but only after one or two successful R-7 test launches.[14] Launch vehicle preparation and launch site selection The two-stage R-7 rocket was initially designed as an ICBM by OKB-1. The decision to build it was made by the CPSU Central Committee and the Council of Ministers of the USSR on 20 May 1954.[15] A special reconnaissance commission selected Tyuratam as a place for the construction of a rocket proving ground (the 5th Tyuratam range, usually referred to as "NIIP-5", or "GIK-5" in the post-Soviet time). The selection was approved on 12 February 1955 by the Council of Ministers of the USSR, but the site would not be completed until 1958.[16] Actual work on the construction of the site began on 20 July by military building units. On 14 June 1956 Sergei Korolev decided to adapt the R-7 rocket to the 'Object D',[17] that would later be replaced by the much lighter 'Object PS'. The first launch of an R-7 rocket (8K71 No.5L) occurred on 15 May 1957. The flight was controlled until the 98th second, but a fire in a strap-on rocket led to an unintended crash 400 km from the site.[18] Three attempts to launch the second rocket (8K71 No.6) were made on 10 11 June, which failed because of a mistake made during the rocket's assembly.[19] The unsuccessful launch of the third R-7 rocket (8K71 No.7) took place on 12 July.[18] During the flight the rocket began to rotate about its longitudinal axis and its engines were automatically turned off. The packet of stages was destroyed 32.9 seconds into the flight. The stages fell 7 km (4.3 mi) from the site and exploded.[20] The launch of the fourth rocket (8K71 No.8), on 21 August at 15:25 Moscow Time,[18] was successful. Its head part separated, reached the defined region, entered the atmosphere, and was destroyed at a height of 10 km (6.2 mi) because of thermodynamic overload after traveling
y

6,000 km. On 27 August TASS in the USSR issued a statement on the launch of a long-distance multistage ICBM. The launch of the fifth R-7 rocket (8K71 No.9), on 7 September[18] was also successful, but the head part was also destroyed in the atmosphere,[20] and hence needed a long redesign to completely fit its military purpose. The rocket, however, was already suitable for scientific satellite launches and this "time-out" of the rocket's military exploitation was used to launch the PS-1 and PS-2 satellites.[21] On 22 September a modified R-7 rocket, named the Sputnik rocket (Russian: ) and indexed as 8K71PS, with the satellite PS-1, arrived at the proving ground and preparations for the launch began.[22] As the R-7 was designed to carry the much heavier Object D, its adaptation to PS-1 reduced its initial mass from 280 to 272.83 short tons (254 to 248 metric tons) and its mass at launch was 267 short tons (242 metric tons); its length with PS-1 was 29.167 metres (95 ft 8.3 in) and the thrust was 3.90 MN (880,000 lbf).[23] Observation complex The measurement complex at the proving ground for monitoring the launch vehicle from its launch was completed prior to the first R-7 rocket test launches in December 1956. It consisted of six static stations: IP-1 through IP-6, with IP-1 situated at a distance of 1 km (0.62 mi) from the launch pad.[21] The main monitoring devices of these stations were telemetry and trajectory measurement stations, "Tral," developed by OKB MEI. They received and monitored data from the "Tral" system transponders mounted on the R-7 rocket;[24] an on-board system that provided precise telemetric data about Sputnik 1's launch vehicle. The data was useful even after the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket; Sputnik 1's location was calculated from the data on the second stage's location (which followed Sputnik 1 at a known distance) using nomograms developed by P.E. Elyasberg.[25] An additional observation complex, established to track the satellite after its separation from the rocket, was completed by a group led by Colonel Yu.A.Mozzhorin in accordance with the General Staff directive of 8 May 1957. It was called the Command-Measurement Complex and consisted of the coordination center in NII-4 by the Ministry of Defence of the USSR (at Bolshevo) and seven ground tracking stations, situated along the line of the satellite's ground track. They were: NIP-1 (at Tyuratam station, Kazakh SSR, situated not far from IP-1), NIP-2 (at Makat station, Guryev Oblast), NIP-3 (at Sary-Shagan station, Dzhezkazgan Oblast), NIP-4 (at Yeniseysk), NIP-5 (at village Iskup, Krasnoyarsk Krai), NIP-6 (at Yelizovo) and NIP-7 (at Klyuchi).[21][26] The complex had a communication channel with the launch pad. Stations were equipped with radar, optical instruments, and communications systems. PS-1 was not designed to be controlled, it could only be observed. Data from stations were transmitted by telegraphs into NII-4 where ballistics specialists calculated orbital parameters. The complex became an early prototype of the Soviet Mission Control Center[27] Design The chief constructor of Sputnik 1 at OKB-1 was M.S.Khomyakov.[28] The satellite was a 585 mm (23 in) diameter sphere, assembled from two hemispheres which were hermetically sealed using o-rings and connected using 36 bolts.[29] The hemispheres, covered with a highly polished 1 mm-thick heat shield[30] made of aluminium-magnesium-titanium AMG6T ("AMG" is an abbreviation for "aluminium-magnesium" and "T" stands for "titanium", the alloy contains 6% of magnesium and 0.2% of titanium[31]) alloy, were 2 mm-thick.[32] The satellite carried two antennas designed by the Antenna Laboratory of OKB-1 led by M.V.Krayushkin.[12] Each antenna was made up of two whip-like parts: 2.4 and 2.9 meters (7.9 and 9.5 ft) in length,[33] and had an almost spherical radiation pattern,[34] so that the satellite beeps were transmitted with equal power in all directions; making reception of the transmitted signal independent of the satellite's

rotation. The whip-like pairs of antennas resembled four long "whiskers" pointing to one side, at equal 35 degrees angles with the longitudinal axis of the satellite.[35] The power supply, with a mass of 51 kg (110 lb),[36] was in the shape of an octahedral nut with the radio transmitter in its hole.[37] It consisted of three silver-zinc batteries, developed at the All-Union Research Institute of Current Sources (VNIIT) under the leadership of N. S. Lidorenko. Two of them powered the radio transmitter and one powered the temperature regulation system.[36] They were expected to fade out in two weeks, but ended up working for 22 days. The power supply was turned on automatically at the moment of the satellite's separation from the second stage of the rocket.[35] The satellite had a one-watt, 3.5 kg (7.7 lb)[21] radio transmitting unit inside, developed by V. I. Lappo from NII-885,[35] that worked on two frequencies, 20.005 and 40.002 MHz. Signals on the first frequency were transmitted in 0.3 sec pulses (under normal temperature and pressure conditions on-board), with pauses of the same duration filled by pulses on the second frequency.[38] Analysis of the radio signals was used to gather information about the electron density of the ionosphere. Temperature and pressure were encoded in the duration of radio beeps, which additionally indicated that the satellite had not been punctured by a meteorite. A temperature regulation system contained a fan, a dual thermal switch, and a control thermal switch.[35] If the temperature inside the satellite exceeded 36 C (97 F) the fan was turned on and when it fell below 20 C (68 F) the fan was turned off by the dual thermal switch.[34] If the temperature exceeded 50 C (122 F) or fell below 0 C (32 F), another control thermal switch was activated, changing the duration of the radio signal pulses.[35] Sputnik 1 was filled with dry nitrogen, pressurized to 1.3 atm.[39] For the pressure control the satellite had a barometric switch, activated when the pressure inside the satellite fell below 0.35 kg/cm2 (5.0 psi), changing the duration of radio signal impulse.[39] While attached to the rocket, Sputnik 1 was protected by a cone-shaped payload fairing, with a height of 80 cm (31.5 in) and an aperture of 48 degrees.[21] The fairing separated from both Sputnik 1 and the rocket at the same time when the satellite was ejected.[35] Tests of the satellite were conducted at OKB-1 under the leadership of O. G. Ivanovsky.[28] Sputnik 1 was launched by an R-7 rocket on 4 October 1957. It burned up upon re-entry on 4 January 1958. Launch and mission The control system of the Sputnik rocket was tuned to provide an orbit with the following parameters: perigee height - 223 km (139 mi), apogee height - 1,450 km (900 mi), orbital period - 101.5 min.[40] A rocket trajectory with these parameters was calculated earlier by Georgi Grechko,[41] after completing the calculations over several nights on the USSR Academy of Sciences' mainframe computer.[21] The Sputnik rocket was launched at 19:28:34 UTC, on 4 October 1957, from Site No.1 at NIIP5.[42] Processing of the information, obtained from the "Tral" system showed[21] that the side boosters separated 116.38 seconds into the flight and the second-stage engine was shut down 294.6 seconds into the flight.[40] At this moment the second stage with PS-1 attached had a height of 223 km (139 mi) above Earth's surface, a velocity of 7,780 m/s (25,500 ft/s) and velocity vector inclination to the local horizon was 0 degrees 24 minutes. This motion resulted in an orbit with initial parameters: perigee height - 223 km, apogee height - 950 km (590 mi), initial orbital period - 96.2 minutes.[40] After 3.14 seconds PS-1 separated from the second stage[40] and at the same moment at the small "Finnish house" of IP-1 station Junior Engineer-Lieutenant V.G. Borisov heard the "Beepbeep-beep" signals from the radio receiver R-250 (see ru: -250 ( )). Reception lasted for two minutes, while PS-1 was above the horizon. There were many people in the

house, both military and civil, and they were probably the first to celebrate the event.[21][43] After 325.44 seconds a corner reflector on the second stage was opened, that also allowed measurement of its orbit parameters like the working "Tral" system did.[30] The designers, engineers and technicians who developed the rocket and satellite watched the launch from the range.[44] After the launch they ran to the mobile radio station to listen to signals from the satellite.[44] They waited about 90 minutes to ensure that the satellite had made one orbit and was transmitting, before Korolyov called Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev.[45] The downlink telemetry included data on temperatures inside and on the surface of the sphere. On the first orbit the Telegraph Agency of the Soviet Union (TASS) transmitted: "As result of great, intense work of scientific institutes and design bureaus the first artificial Earth satellite has been built".[46] The Sputnik 1 rocket booster (second stage of the rocket) also reached Earth orbit and was visible from the ground at night as a first magnitude object following the satellite. Korolyov had intentionally requested reflective panels placed on the booster in order to make it so visible.[45] The satellite itself, a small but highly polished sphere, was barely visible at sixth magnitude, and thus more difficult to follow optically. Ahead of Sputnik 1 flew the third object the payload fairing, 80 cm (31 in)-long cone, i.e. a little bit bigger than the satellite. Feedback Teams of visual observers at 150 stations in the United States and other countries were alerted during the night to watch for the Soviet sphere at dawn and during the evening twilight. They had been organized in Project Moonwatch to sight the satellite through binoculars or telescopes as it passed overhead.[48] The USSR asked radio amateurs and commercial stations to record the sound of the satellite on magnetic tape.[48] News reports at the time pointed out that "anyone possessing a short wave receiver can hear the new Russian earth satellite as it hurtles over his area of the globe". Directions, provided by the American Radio Relay League were to "Tune in 20 megacycles sharply, by the time signals, given on that frequency. Then tune to slightly higher frequencies. The 'beep, beep' sound of the satellite can be heard each time it rounds the globe,"[49] The first recording of Sputnik 1's signal was made by RCA engineers near Riverhead, Long Island. They then drove the tape recording into Manhattan for broadcast to the public over NBC radio. However, as Sputnik rose higher over the East Coast, its signal was picked up by ham station W2AEE, the ham radio station of Columbia University. Students working in the university's FM station, WKCR, made a tape of this, and were the first to rebroadcast the Sputnik 1 signal to the American public (or such of it as could receive the FM station). The next morning two FBI agents took the tape from the station. It has never been returned.[citation needed] At first the Soviet Union agreed to use equipment "compatible" with that of the United States, but later announced the lower frequencies.[48] The White House declined to comment on military aspects of the launch, but said it "did not come as a surprise."[50] On 5 October the Naval Research Laboratory announced it had recorded four crossings of Sputnik-1 over the United States.[48] U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower obtained photographs of the Soviet facilities from Lockheed U-2 flights conducted since 1956.[51] The USSR's launch of Sputnik spurred the United States to create the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA or DARPA) in February 1958 to regain a technological lead.[52][53] 1957 - October 4th - the USSR launches Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite. 1958 - February 7th - In response to the launch of Sputnik, the US Department of Defense issues directive 5105.15 establishing the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).

The organization united some of America's most brilliant people, who developed the United States' first successful satellite in 18 months. Several years later ARPA began to focus on computer networking and communications technology. Propaganda The propaganda value of Sputnik 1 was seen in both the response of the United States and the elevated status of the Soviet Union. The launch provided both pride for the Soviet people and embarrassment for the Americans. The propaganda value of Sputnik 1 for the Soviet Union was not capitalized immediately after the launch because the Soviets were distracted by their own scientific goals and determination to win the Space Race.[55] The United States was presently working on a separate development, Project Vanguard, and was caught off guard by the Soviets' early launch, placing it behind the Soviets in the newly emerged space race. However, the Soviets accomplishments were kept quiet in the homeland to prevent any exploitation of their failures or loss of secrets, which undermined the propaganda opportunity The original article announcing the first launch never made a headline in the daily Pravda. Sputnik was a stunning propaganda achievement for the Soviets that was only recognized in hindsight. The value of Sputnik 1 as Soviet propaganda was especially evident in the response of the American public. Sputnik crushed the American perception of the United States as the technological superpower by demonstrating that the Soviets were not the ignorant Easterners they had been perceived as prior to the launch. As a result, panic overtook the American public, which created an enormous sense of vulnerability regarding the United States' ability to defend its territory. Adding to this fear was the element of surprise with which Sputnik entered the world, which left the American public in what was observed as a wave of near-hysteria . The United States appeared at the mercy of a new technological power which shattered any notion of internal security or confidence for the American people and significantly elevated the perception of the Soviet Union in the international community. The elevated status of the Soviet Union was further solidified by the actions of the American government following Sputnik 1. American society underwent an enormous shift that emphasized science and technological research. Sputnik forced the Americans to take up a more offensive stance in the emerging space race. Everything from the military to education systems were revamped by the government and unimaginable economic possibilities ensued. The federal government began pouring unmatched amounts of money into science education, engineering and mathematics at all levels of education. An advanced research group was assembled for military purposes. These research groups developed weapons such as ICBMs and missile defence systems, as well as spy satellites for the US. After several failed attempts, the US successfully launched a satellite, Explorer I, on January 31, 1958. The launch of Sputnik 1 both united the people of the Soviet Union and humiliated the United States with its lack of comparable technology. State propaganda increased the pride the Soviet people had in the project; millions of people listened to Sputnik 1's signals on the radio. Citizens were told a particular place in the sky and time of night when they could see Sputnik 1. However, this was only something they were told by Pravda. The people actually witnessed a stage of the carrier rocket. Russians began to use their expedition into space as a form of propaganda and political leverage, mimicked by the United States. However, the United States' temporary status as second-rate technological superpower brought great embarrassment to the American people. Some theorize that this embarrassment provided the much-needed push that accelerated America's moon landing.

LAIKA ON SPUTNIK 2
.

Species Sex Born Died Nation from Known for In 1957, Laika became the first animal launched into orbit, paving the way for human spaceflight. This photograph shows her in a flight harness.

Canis lupus familiaris Female c. 1954 Moscow, Soviet Union November 3, 1957 Soviet Union First animal to orbit the earth

Laika (Russian: , literally meaning "Barker"; c. 1954 November 3, 1957) was a Soviet space dog that became the first animal to orbit the Earth as well as the first animal to die in orbit. As little was known about the impact of spaceflight on living creatures at the time of Laika's mission, and the technology to de-orbit had not yet been developed, there was no expectation of Laika's survival. Some scientists believed humans would be unable to survive the launch or the conditions of outer space, so engineers viewed flights by non-human animals as a necessary precursor to human missions. Laika, a stray dog, originally named Kudryavka (Russian: Little Curly), underwent training with two other dogs, and was eventually chosen as the occupant of the Soviet spacecraft Sputnik 2 that was launched into outer space on November 3, 1957. Laika likely died within hours after launch from overheating, possibly caused by a failure of the central R-7 sustainer to separate from the payload.[3] The true cause and time of her death was not made public until 2002; instead, it was widely reported that she died when her oxygen ran out, or (as Soviet government initially claimed) she was euthanised prior to oxygen depletion.[citation needed] Nonetheless, the experiment proved that a living passenger could survive being launched into orbit and endure weightlessness, paving the way for human spaceflight and providing scientists with some of the first data on how living organisms react to spaceflight environments. On April 11, 2008, Russian officials unveiled a monument to Laika. A small monument in her honour was built near the military research facility in Moscow which prepared Laika's flight to space. It features a dog standing on top of a rocket. Sputnik 2 After the success of Sputnik 1, Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet leader, wanted a spacecraft launched on November 7, 1957, the 40th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. A more sophisticated satellite was already under construction, but it would not be ready until December; this satellite would later become Sputnik 3.[5] To meet the November deadline, a new craft would have to be built. Khrushchev specifically wanted his engineers to deliver a "space spectacular," a mission that would repeat the triumph of Sputnik I, stunning the world with Soviet prowess. The planners settled on an orbital flight with a dog. Soviet rocket engineers had long intended a canine orbit before attempting human

spaceflight; since 1951, they had lofted 12 dogs into sub-orbital space on ballistic flights, working gradually toward an orbital mission possibly some time in 1958. To satisfy Khrushchev's demands, the orbital canine flight was expedited for the November launch.[6] According to Russian sources, the official decision to launch Sputnik 2 was made on October 10 or 12, leaving the team only four weeks to design and build the spacecraft.[7] Sputnik 2, therefore, was something of a rush job, with most elements of the spacecraft being constructed from rough sketches. Aside from the primary mission of sending a living passenger into space, Sputnik 2 also contained instrumentation for measuring solar radiation and cosmic rays.[5] The craft was equipped with a life-support system consisting of an oxygen generator and devices to avoid oxygen poisoning and to absorb carbon dioxide. A fan, designed to activate whenever the cabin temperature exceeded 15 C (59 F), was added to keep the dog cool. Enough food (in a gelatinous form) was provided for a seven-day flight, and the dog was fitted with a bag to collect waste. A harness was designed to be fitted to the dog, and there were chains to restrict her movements to standing, sitting or lying down; there was no room to turn around in the cabin. An electrocardiogram monitored heart rate and further instrumentation tracked respiration rate, maximum arterial pressure and the dog's movements.[2][8] Training Laika was found as a stray wandering the streets of Moscow. Soviet scientists chose to use Moscow strays since they assumed that such animals had already learned to endure conditions of extreme cold and hunger.[6] This specimen was an eleven-pound[9] mongrel female, approximately three years old. Another account reported that she weighed about 6 kg (13 lb). Soviet personnel gave her several names and nicknames, among them Kudryavka (Russian for Little Curly), Zhuchka (Little Bug) and Limonchik (Little Lemon). Laika, the Russian name for several breeds of dogs similar to the husky, was the name popularized around the world. The American press dubbed her Muttnik (mutt + suffix -nik) as a pun on Sputnik,[10] or referred to her as Curly.[11] Her true pedigree is unknown, although it is generally accepted that she was part husky or other Nordic breed, and possibly part terrier.[6] A Russian magazine described her temperament as phlegmatic, saying that she did not quarrel with other dogs.[9] The Soviet Union and United States had previously sent animals only on sub-orbital flights.[12] Three dogs were trained for the Sputnik 2 flight: Albina, Mushka, and Laika.[13] Soviet space-life scientist Oleg Gazenko selected and trained Laika.[14] Albina flew twice on a high-altitude test rocket, and Mushka was used to test instrumentation and life support.[8][12] To adapt the dogs to the confines of the tiny cabin of Sputnik 2, they were kept in progressively smaller cages for periods up to 20 days. The extensive close confinement caused them to stop urinating or defecating, made them restless, and caused their general condition to deteriorate. Laxatives did not improve their condition, and the researchers found that only long periods of training proved effective. The dogs were placed in centrifuges that simulated the acceleration of a rocket launch and were placed in machines that simulated the noises of the spacecraft. This caused their pulses to double and their blood pressure to increase by 30 65 torr. The dogs were trained to eat a special high-nutrition gel that would be their food in space. Before the launch, one of the scientists took Laika home to play with his children. In a book chronicling the story of Soviet space medicine, Dr. Vladimir Yazdovsky wrote, "I wanted to do something nice for her: She had so little time left to live." Voyage According to a NASA document, Laika was placed in the satellite on October 31, 1957 three days before the start of the mission. At that time of year the temperatures at the launch site were extremely cold, and a hose connected to a heater was used to keep her container warm.

Two assistants were assigned to keep a constant watch on Laika before launch. Just prior to liftoff on November 3, 1957 from Baikonur Cosmodrome, Laika's fur was sponged in a weak alcohol solution and carefully groomed, while iodine was painted onto the areas where sensors would be placed to monitor her bodily functions. At peak acceleration Laika's respiration increased to between three and four times the prelaunch rate. The sensors showed her heart rate was 103 beats/min before launch and increased to 240 beats/min during the early acceleration. After reaching orbit, Sputnik 2's nose cone was jettisoned successfully; however the "Block A" core did not separate as planned, stopping the thermal control system from operating correctly. Some of the thermal insulation tore loose, raising the cabin temperature to 40 C (104 F). After three hours of weightlessness, Laika's pulse rate had settled back to 102 beats/min, three times longer than it had taken during earlier ground tests, an indication of the stress she was under. The early telemetry indicated that Laika was agitated but eating her food. After approximately five to seven hours into the flight, no further signs of life were received from the spacecraft. The Russian scientists had planned to euthanize Laika with a poisoned serving of food. For many years, the Soviet Union gave conflicting statements that she had died either from oxygen starvation when the batteries failed, or that she had been euthanized. Many rumors circulated about the exact manner of her passing. In 1999, several Russian sources reported that Laika had died when the cabin overheated on the fourth day. In October 2002, Dimitri Malashenkov, one of the scientists behind the Sputnik 2 mission, revealed that Laika had died by the fourth circuit of flight from overheating. According to a paper he presented to the World Space Congress in Houston, Texas, "It turned out that it was practically impossible to create a reliable temperature control system in such limited time constraints." Over five months later, after 2,570 orbits, Sputnik 2 disintegrated along with Laika's remains during re-entry on April 14, 1958. Controversy NASA named this soil target on Mars after Laika during the Mars Exploration Rover mission Due to the overshadowing issue of the Soviet vs. US Space Race, the ethical problems of this experiment went largely unaddressed for some time. As newspaper clippings from 1957 show, the press was more preoccupied with reporting the political perspective, while the health and retrieval or lack thereof of Laika was hardly mentioned. Only later were there discussions regarding the fate of the dog which some initially insisted be called Curly rather than Laika. Sputnik 2 was not designed to be retrievable, and Laika had always been intended to die.[7] The mission sparked a debate across the globe on the mistreatment of animals and animal testing in general to advance science. In the United Kingdom, the National Canine Defence League called on all dog owners to observe a minute's silence, while the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) received protests even before the Soviet Union had finished announcing the mission's success. Animal rights groups at the time called on members of the public to protest at Soviet embassies.[21] Others demonstrated outside the United Nations in New York;[14] nevertheless, laboratory researchers in the U.S. offered some support for the Soviets, at least before the news of Laika's death.

In the Soviet Union, there was less controversy. Neither the media, books in the following years, nor the public openly questioned the decision to send a dog into space to die. It was not until 1998, after the collapse of the Soviet regime, that Oleg Gazenko, one of the scientists responsible for sending Laika into space, expressed regret for allowing her to die: Work with animals is a source of suffering to all of us. We treat them like babies who cannot speak. The more time passes, the more I'm sorry about it. We shouldn't have done it... We did not learn enough from this mission to justify the death of the dog. Laika is memorialized in the form of a statue and plaque at Star City, Russia, the Russian Cosmonaut training facility.[23] Future space missions carrying dogs would be designed to be recovered. The only other dogs to die in a Soviet space mission were Pchyolka and Mushka, who died when Korabl-Sputnik 3 accidentally disintegrated on re-entry on December 1, 1960.

LUNA 1
Luna 1 (E-1 series), first known as First Cosmic Ship,[1] then known as Mechta (Russian: , [2] lit.: Dream) was the first spacecraft to reach the vicinity of the Moon and the first of the Luna program of Soviet automatic interplanetary stations successfully launched in the direction of the Moon. While traveling through the outer Van Allen radiation belt, the spacecraft's scintillator made observations indicating that a small number of high energy particles exist in the outer belt. The measurements obtained during this mission provided new data on the Earth's radiation belt and outer space. The Moon was found to have no detectable magnetic field. The first ever direct observations and measurements of the solar wind,[1][3][4] a strong flow of ionized plasma emanating from the Sun and streaming through interplanetary space, were performed. That ionized plasma concentration was measured to be some 700 particles per cm3 at altitudes 2025 thousand km and 300 to 400 particles per cm3 at altitudes 100-150 thousand km.[5] The spacecraft also marked the first instance of radio communication at the half-million-kilometer distance. A malfunction in the ground-based control system caused an error in the rocket's burntime, and the spacecraft missed the target and flew by the Moon at a distance of 5,900 km at the closest point. Luna 1 then became the first man-made object to reach heliocentric orbit and was then dubbed a "new planet" and renamed Mechta. Its orbit lies between those of Earth and Mars. The name "Luna-1" was applied retroactively years later. Luna-1 was originally referred to as the "First Cosmic Rocket", in reference to its achievement of escape velocity. The spacecraft The scientific equipment and the satellite's power center were located in the spherical container, combining for a mass of 361.3 kg. Five antennae extended from one hemisphere. Instrument ports also protruded from the surface of the sphere. The spacecraft contained radio equipment, a tracking transmitter, a telemetry system, five different sets of scientific devices for studying interplanetary space (including a magnetometer, geiger counter, scintillation counter, and micrometeorite detector), and other equipment. The total final (with fuel spent) mass of the third (upper) stage rocket with the spacecraft was 1472 kg. It was intended that after a completion of its scientific mission of in-flight measurements, Luna1 would crash into the Moon, delivering two metallic pennants with the Soviet coat of arms that were included into its package. The flight

Luna 1 was launched 2 January 1959 at 16:41 GMT (19:41 Moscow Time) from the Baikonur Cosmodrome by a Luna 8K72 rocket. Luna 1 became the first ever man-made object to reach the escape velocity of the Earth (what is also known as the second cosmic velocity), when it separated from its 1472 kg third stage. The third stage, 5.2m long and 2.4m in diameter, traveled along with Luna 1. On 3 January, 3:56:20 Moscow Time, at a distance of 119,500 km from Earth,[5] a large (1 kg) cloud of sodium gas was released by the spacecraft, thus making this probe also the first artificial comet. This glowing orange trail of gas, visible over the Indian Ocean with the brightness of a sixth-magnitude star for a few minutes, was photographed by Mstislav Gnevyshev at the Mountain Station of the Main Astronomical Observatory of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR near Kislovodsk.[5] It served as an experiment on the behavior of gas in outer space. Luna 1 passed within 5995 km of the Moon's surface on 4 January after 34 hours of flight. It went into orbit around the Sun, between the orbits of Earth and Mars.

MARS 1
Mars 1, also known as 1962 Beta Nu 1, Mars 2MV-4 and Sputnik 23, was an automatic interplanetary station launched in the direction of Mars on November 1, 1962, the first of the Soviet Mars probe program, with the intent of flying by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km. It was designed to image the surface and send back data on cosmic radiation, micrometeoroid impacts and Mars' magnetic field, radiation environment, atmospheric structure, and possible organic compounds. After leaving Earth orbit, the spacecraft and the booster fourth stage separated and the solar panels were deployed. Early telemetry indicated that there was a leak in one of the gas valves in the orientation system so the spacecraft was transferred to gyroscopic stabilization. Sixty-one radio transmissions were held, initially at two day intervals and later at five days in which a large amount of interplanetary data were collected. On 21 March 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth on its way to Mars, communications ceased, probably due to failure of the spacecraft's antenna orientation system. Mars 1 closest approach to Mars occurred on June 19, 1963 at a distance of approximately 193,000 km, after which the spacecraft entered a heliocentric orbit. Spacecraft design Mars 1 was a modified Venera-type spacecraft in the shape of a cylinder 3.3 m long and 1.0 m in diameter. The spacecraft measured 4 meters across with the solar panels and radiators deployed. The cylinder was divided into two compartments. The upper 2.7 m, the orbital module, contained guidance and on-board propulsion systems. The experiment module, containing the scientific instrumentation, comprised the bottom 0.6 m of the cylinder. A 1.7 m parabolic high gain antenna was used for communication, along with an omnidirectional antenna and a semi-directional antenna. Power was supplied by two solar panel wings with a total area of 2.6 square meters affixed to opposite sides of the spacecraft. Power was stored in a 42 ampere-hour cadmium-nickel battery. Communications were via a decimeter wavelength radio transmitter mounted in the orbital module which used the high-gain antenna. This was supplemented by a meter wavelength range transmitter through the omnidirectional antenna. An 8 centimeter wavelength transmitter mounted in the experiment module was designed to transmit the TV images. Also mounted in the experiment module was a 5-centimeter range impulse transmitter. Temperature control was achieved using a binary gas-liquid system and hemispherical radiators mounted on the ends of the solar panels. The craft carried various scientific instruments

including a magnetometer probe, television photographic equipment, a spectroreflexometer, radiation sensors (gas-discharge and scintillation counters), a spectrograph to study ozone absorption bands, and a micrometeoroid instrument. Scientific results The probe recorded one micrometeorite strike every two minutes at altitudes ranging from 6000 to 40,000 km due to the Taurids meteor shower and also recorded similar densities at distances from 20 to 40 million km. Magnetic field intensities of 3 4 nanoteslas (nT, also known as gammas) with peaks as high as 6 9 nT were measured in interplanetary space and the solar wind was detected. Measurements of cosmic rays showed that their intensity had almost doubled since 1959. The radiation zones around the Earth were detected and their magnitude confirmed. This spacecraft is also referenced as Sputnik 23 and Mars 2MV-4. It was originally designated Sputnik 30 in the U.S. Naval Space Command Satellite Situation Summary.

VOSTOK 1
Vostok 1 (Russian: -1, East 1 or Orient 1) was the first spaceflight in the Vostok program and the first human spaceflight in history. The Vostok 3KA spacecraft was launched on April 12, 1961. The flight took Yuri Gagarin, a cosmonaut from the Soviet Union, into space. The flight marked the first time that a human entered outer space, as well as the first orbital flight of a manned vehicle. Vostok 1 was launched by the Soviet space program, and was designed by Soviet engineers guided by Sergey Korolyov under military supervision of Kerim Kerimov and others.[7] The spaceflight consisted of a single orbit of the Earth. According to official records, the spaceflight took 108 minutes from launch to landing. As planned, Gagarin landed separately from his spacecraft, having ejected with a parachute 7 km (23,000 ft) above ground. Historian Asif Siddiqi has claimed that Gagarin was in the spacecraft for 108 minutes after launch, and that he didn't touch ground for another 10 minutes.[8] (The exact duration is useful to prove that Gagarin completed a full 360-degree orbit in inertial space. The longitude of launch to landing spanned a little more than 340 degrees, but the Earth also was rotating underneath him at about 15 degrees per hour while Gagarin was aloft.) Due to the secrecy surrounding the Soviet space program at the time, many details of the spaceflight only came to light years later, and several details in the original press releases turned out to be false. Background The world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, had been put into orbit by the Soviets in 1957, and this could be considered the beginning of the Space Race, between the Soviet Union and the United States. Both nations wanted to develop their spaceflight technology quickly, and in particular, both wanted to be the first to launch a successful human spaceflight. The Soviet programme for doing this was the Vostok programme. Prior to a manned spaceflight, the Soviets launched several precursor unmanned missions between May 1960 and March 1961, to test and develop the Vostok rocket and Vostok spacecraft technology. These missions had varied success, but the final two unmanned missions Korabl-Sputnik 4 and Korabl-Sputnik 5 were outright successes, opening the door for a manned flight. Crew 27 year-old Yuri Gagarin was the only crew member of Vostok 1. The Vostok spacecraft were designed to carry a single cosmonaut. The primary and secondary backup cosmonauts for the

mission were Gherman Titov and Grigori Nelyubov. The assignments were formally made on April 8, four days before the mission, but Gagarin had been a favourite among the cosmonaut candidates for at least several months. The final decision of who would fly the mission relied heavily on the opinion of Nikolai Kamanin. In an April 5 diary entry, Kamanin wrote that he was still undecided between Gagarin and Titov. He wrote: "The only thing that keeps me from picking [Titov] is the need to have the stronger person for the one day flight." Kamanin was referring to the second mission, Vostok 2, which would last a full day, compared to the relatively short single-orbit mission of Vostok 1. When Gagarin and Titov were informed of the decision during a meeting on April 9, Gagarin was very happy, and Titov was disappointed. On April 10, this meeting was reenacted in front of television cameras, so there would be official footage of the event. This included an acceptance speech by Gagarin. As an indication of the level of secrecy involved, one of the other cosmonaut candidates, Alexey Leonov, later recalled that he didn't know who was chosen for the mission until after the spaceflight had begun. Medical exam Gagarin was examined by a team of doctors prior to his flight. One doctor gave her recollection of the events in an interview with RT in April 2011: "Gagarin looked more pale than usual. He was unsociable and quiet, which was not like him at all. He would answer by nodding or a short 'yes' to all questions. Sometimes he would start humming some tunes. This was a different Gagarin. We geared him up, and hugged. And I said, "Yury, everything will be fine." And he nodded back." [15] Preparations Unlike later Vostok missions, there were no dedicated tracking ships available to receive signals from the spacecraft. Instead they relied on the network of ground stations, also called Command Points to communicate with the spacecraft; all of these Command Points were located within the Soviet Union.[16] Because of weight constraints, there was no backup retrorocket engine. The spacecraft carried 10 days of provisions to allow for survival and natural decay of the orbit in the event the retrorockets failed. Automatic control The entire mission would be controlled by either automatic systems, or by ground control. This was because medical staff and spacecraft engineers were unsure how a human might react to weightlessness, and therefore it was decided to lock the pilot's manual controls. In an unusual move, a code to unlock the controls was placed in an onboard envelope, for Gagarin's use in case of emergency. But prior to the flight, Kamanin told Gagarin the code anyway. April 11, 1961 On the morning of April 11, 1961, the Vostok-K rocket, together with the attached Vostok 3KA spacecraft, were transported several miles to the launch pad, in a horizontal position. Once they arrived at the launch pad, Sergei Korolev inspected the rocket and spacecraft for problems, and without finding any, the rocket was raised into the upright position. At 10am (Moscow Time), Gagarin and Titov were given a final review of the flight plan. They were informed that launch was scheduled to occur at 9:07am Moscow Time. This time was chosen so that when the spacecraft started to fly over Africa, which was when the retrorockets would need to fire for reentry, the solar illumination would be ideal for the orientation system's sensors. At 6 pm, once various physiological readings had been taken, the doctors instructed the cosmonauts not to discuss the upcoming missions. That evening Gagarin and Titov relaxed by

listening to music, playing pool, and chatting about their childhoods. At 9:50 pm, both men were offered sleeping pills, to ensure a good night's sleep, but they both declined. Physicians had attached sensors to the cosmonauts, to monitor their condition throughout the night, and they believed that both had slept well. Gagarin's biographers Doran and Bizony, say that neither Gagarin nor Titov slept that night. Korolev didn't sleep that night, due to anxiety caused by the imminent spaceflight. Mission At 5:30 am Moscow time, on the morning of April 12, 1961, both Gagarin and his backup Titov were woken. They were given breakfast, assisted into their spacesuits, and then were transported to the launch pad. Gagarin entered the Vostok 1 spacecraft, and at 7:10 am local time (04:10 UTC), the radio communication system was turned on. Once Gagarin was in the Vostok 1 spacecraft, his picture appeared on television screens in the launch control room from an onboard camera. Launch would not occur for another two hours, and during the time Gagarin chatted with the mission's main CapCom, as well as Chief Designer Sergei Korolev, Nikolai Kamanin, and a few others. Following a series of tests and checks, about forty minutes after Gagarin entered the spacecraft, its hatch was closed. It was soon discovered that the seal was not complete, so technicians spent nearly an hour removing all the screws and sealing the hatch again. During this time Gagarin requested some music to be played over the radio. Sergei Korolev was very nervous in the lead up to the launch; he experienced chest pains, and took a pill to calm his heart. Gagarin, on the other hand, was described as calm; about half an hour before launch his pulse was recorded at 64 beats per minute. Launch y 06:07 UTC Launch occurs from the Baikonur Cosmodrome Site No.1. Korolev radioed, "Preliminary stage..... intermediate..... main..... LIFT OFF! We wish you a good flight. Everything is all right." Gagarin replied, " ! (Let's ride!)." y 06:09 UTC Two minutes into the flight and the four strap-on booster sections of the Vostok rocket have used up the last of their propellant; they shut down and drop away from the core vehicle. (T+ 119 s) y 06:10 UTC The payload shroud covering Vostok 1 is released. This uncovers the window at Gagarin's feet with the optical orientation device Vzor (lit. "look" or "glance"). (T+ 156 s) y 06:12 UTC Five minutes into the flight and the Vostok rocket core stage has used up its propellant, shuts down and falls away from the Vostok spacecraft and final rocket stage. The final rocket stage ignites to continue the journey to orbit. (T+ 300 s) y 06:13 UTC The rocket is still firing, pushing Vostok 1 toward orbit. Gagarin reports, "...the flight is continuing well. I can see the Earth. The visibility is good.... I almost see everything. There's a certain amount of space under cumulus cloud cover. I continue the flight, everything is good." y 06:14 UTC The rocket continues to fire, starting to pass over central Russia now. Gagarin reports, "Everything is working very well. All systems are working. Let's keep going!" y 06:15 UTC Three minutes into the burn of the final rocket stage and Gagarin reports, "Zarya-1, Zarya-1, I can't hear you very well. I feel fine. I'm in good spirits. I'm continuing the flight..." Vostok 1 is moving further downrange from the Baikonur Cosmodrome. He is reporting back to Zarya-1 (the Baikonur ground station) and must be starting to move out of radio range of that station. Time in orbit

Ground controllers did not know if a stable orbit had been achieved until 25 minutes after launch. y 06:17 UTC The Vostok rocket final stage shuts down, ten seconds later the spacecraft separates and Vostok 1 reaches orbit. (T+ 676 s) Gagarin reports, "The craft is operating normally. I can see Earth in the view port of the Vzor. Everything is proceeding as planned". Vostok 1 passes over Soviet Union and moves on over Siberia. y 06:21 UTC Vostok 1 passes over the Kamchatka peninsula and out over the North Pacific Ocean. Gagarin radios, "...the lights are on on the descent mode monitor. I'm feeling fine, and I'm in good spirits. Cockpit parameters: pressure 1; humidity 65; temperature 20; pressure in the compartment 1; first automatic 155; second automatic 155; pressure in the retro-rocket system 320 atmospheres...." y 06:25 UTC As Vostok 1 begins its diagonal crossing of the Pacific Ocean from Kamchatka peninsula to the southern tip of South America, Gagarin asks, "What can you tell me about the flight? What can you tell me?". He is requesting information about his orbital parameters. The ground station at Khabarovsk reports back, "There are no instructions from No. 20 (Sergey Korolyov), and the flight is proceeding normally" They are telling Gagarin that they don't have his orbital parameters yet because the spacecraft has been in orbit for only 6 minutes, but the spacecraft systems are performing well. y 06:31 UTC Gagarin transmits to the Khabarovsk ground station, "I feel splendid, very well, very well, very well. Give me some results on the flight!". Vostok 1 is nearing the VHF radio horizon for Khabarovsk and they respond, "Repeat. I can't hear you very well". Gagarin transmits again, "I feel very good. Give me your data on the flight!" Vostok 1 passes out of VHF range of the Khabarovsk ground station and contact is lost. y 06:37 UTC Vostok 1 continues on its journey as the Sun sets over the North Pacific. Gagarin crosses into night, northwest of the Hawaiian Islands. Out of VHF range with ground stations, communications must now take place via HF radio. y 06:46 UTC Khabarovsk ground station sends the message "KK" via telegraph (on HF radio to Vostok 1). This message means, "Report the monitoring of commands." They were asking Gagarin to report when the spacecraft automated descent system had received its instructions from the ground control. Gagarin reported back at 06:48 UTC. y 06:48 UTC Vostok 1 crosses the equator at about 170 West, traveling in a south east direction and begins crossing the South Pacific. Gagarin transmits over HF radio, "I am transmitting the regular report message: 9 hours 48 minutes (Moscow Time), the flight is proceeding successfully. Spusk-1 is operating normally. The mobile index of the descent mode monitor is moving. Pressure in the cockpit is 1; humidity 65; temperature 20; pressure in the compartment 1.2 ... Manual 150; First automatic 155; second automatic 155; retro rocket system tanks 320 atmospheres. I feel fine...." y 06:49 UTC Gagarin reports he is on the night side of the Earth. y 06:51 UTC Gagarin reports the sun-seeking attitude control system has been switched on. The sun-seeking attitude control system is used to orient Vostok 1 for retrofire. The automated orientation system consisted of two redundant systems: an automatic/solar orientation system and a manual/visual orientation system. Either system could operate the two redundant cold nitrogen gas thruster systems, each with 10 kg (22 lb) of gas. y 06:53 UTC The Khabarovsk ground station sends Gagarin the following message via HF radio, "By order of No.33 (General Nikolai Kamanin) the transmitters have been switched on, and we are transmitting this: the flight is proceeding as planned and the

orbit is as calculated." They tell Gagarin that Vostok 1 is in a stable orbit. He acknowledges the message. y 06:57 UTC Vostok 1 is over the South Pacific between New Zealand and Chile when Gagarin sends this message, "...I'm continuing the flight, and I'm over America. I transmitted the telegraph signal "ON". y 07:00 UTC Vostok 1 crosses the Strait of Magellan at the tip of South America. News of the Vostok 1 mission is broadcast on Radio Moscow. y 07:04 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, similar to the one sent at 06:48. The message is not received by ground stations. y 07:09 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. y 07:10 UTC Passing over the South Atlantic, the Sun rises and Vostok 1 is in daylight again. Vostok 1 is 15 minutes from retrofire. y 07:13 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, similar to the one sent at 06:48. Moscow picks up this partial message from Gagarin, "I read you well. The flight is going...." y 07:18 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. y 07:23 UTC Gagarin sends spacecraft status message, the message is not received by ground stations. The automatic system brought Vostok 1 into alignment for retrofire about 1 hour into the flight. Reentry and landing At 07:25 UTC, the spacecraft's automatic systems brought it into the required attitude (orientation) for the reentry engine firing, and shortly afterwards, the engine firing occurred, also known as retrofire. This took place over the west coast of Africa, near Angola, about 8,000 km (5,000 mi) from the desired landing point. The liquid-fueled retrorockets fired for about 42 seconds. Ten seconds after retrofire, commands were sent to separate the Vostok service module from the reentry module (sharik), but the Vostok equipment module unexpectedly remained attached to the reentry module by a bundle of wires. At around 07:35 UTC, the two halves of the spacecraft begin reentry and went through strong gyrations as Vostok 1 neared Egypt. At this point the wires broke, the two modules separated, and the descent module settled into the proper reentry attitude. Gagarin telegraphed "Everything is OK" despite continuing gyrations; he later reported that he did not want to "make noise" as he had (correctly) reasoned that the gyrations did not endanger the mission (and were apparently caused by the spherical shape of the reentry module). As Gagarin continued his descent, he experienced about 8 g (Gagarin's own report states "over 10 g") during reentry but remained conscious. At 07:55 UTC, when Vostok 1 was still 7 km from the ground, the hatch of the spacecraft was released, and two seconds later Gagarin was ejected. At 2.5 km (8,200 ft) altitude, the main parachute was deployed from the Vostok spacecraft. Two schoolgirls witnessed the Vostok landing and described the scene: "It was a huge ball, about two or three metres high. It fell, then it bounced and then it fell again. There was a huge hole where it hit the first time." Gagarin's parachute opened almost right away, and about ten minutes later, at 08:05 UTC, Gagarin landed. Both he and the spacecraft landed via parachute 26 km (16 mi) south west of Engels, in the Saratov region at 5116 14 N 4559 50 E / 51.270682N 45.99727E. A farmer and her daughter observed the strange scene of a figure in a bright orange suit with a large

white helmet landing near them by parachute. Gagarin later recalled, "When they saw me in my space suit and the parachute dragging alongside as I walked, they started to back away in fear. I told them, don't be afraid, I am a Soviet like you, who has descended from space and I must find a telephone to call Moscow!" Reactions and legacy Soviet reaction The Soviet press later reported that minutes before boarding the spacecraft Gagarin made a speech: "Dear friends, you who are close to me, and you whom I do not know, fellow Russians, and people of all countries and all continents: in a few minutes a powerful space vehicle will carry me into the distant realm of space. What can I tell you in these last minutes before the launch? My whole life appears to me as one beautiful moment. All that I previously lived through and did, was lived through and done for the sake of this moment." He actually recorded the speech "a stream of banalities prepared by anonymous speechwriters" in Moscow.[9]:274 American reaction Officially, the U.S. congratulated the Soviet Union on its accomplishments.[32] Writing for the ``New York Times`` shortly after the flight, however, journalist Arthur Krock described mixed feelings in the United States due to fears of the spaceflight's potential military implications for the Cold War,[33] and the Detroit Free Press wrote that "the people of Washington, London, Paris and all points between might have been dancing in the streets" if it were not for "doubts and suspicions" about Soviet intentions.[34]. Other US writers reported worries that the spaceflight had won a propaganda victory on behalf of Communism. President John F. Kennedy was quoted as saying that it would be "some time" before the US could match the Soviet booster technology, and that "the news will be worse before it's better";[35] on the other hand, Kennedy also sent congratulations to the Soviet Union for their "outstanding technical achievement." Opinion pages of many US newspapers urged renewed efforts to overtake the Soviet scientific accomplishments. Adlai Stevenson, then the US ambassador to the United Nations, was quoted as saying, "Now that the Soviet scientists have put a man into space and brought him back alive, I hope they will also help to bring the United Nations back alive," and on a more serious note urged international agreements covering the use of space (which did not occur until the Outer Space Treaty of 1967). Other world reactions Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India praised the Soviets for "a great victory of man over the forces of nature"[35] and urged that it be "considered as a victory for peace."[34] The Economist voiced worries that orbital platforms might be used for surprise nuclear attacks.[34] The Svenska Dagbladet in Sweden chided "free countries" for "splitting up and frittering away" their resources,[34] while West Germany's Die Welt argued that America had the resources to have sent a man into space first but was beaten by Soviet purposefulness.[34] Japan's Yomiuri Shimbun urged "that both the United States and the Soviet Union should use their new knowledge and techniques for the good of mankind,"[34] and Egypt's Akhbar El Yom likewise expressed hopes that the cold war would "turn into a peaceful race in infinite space" and turn away from armed conflicts such as the Laotian Civil War.[34] World record The FAI rules in 1961 required that a pilot must land with the spacecraft to be considered an official spaceflight for the FAI record books. At the time, the Soviet Union insisted that Gagarin had landed with the Vostok; the government forced the cosmonaut to lie in press conferences,

and the FAI certified the flight. The Soviet Union admitted in 1971 that Gagarin had ejected and landed separately from the Vostok descent module.[9]:283 When Soviet officials filled out the FAI papers to register the flight of Vostok 1, they stated that the launch site was Baykonur at 4722 00 N 6529 00 E / 47.3666667N 65.4833333E. In reality, the launch site was near Tyuratam at 4555 12.72 N 6320 32.32 E / 45.9202N 63.3423111E, 250 km (160 mi) to the south west of "Baykonur". They did this to try to keep the location of the Space Center a secret. In 1995, Russian and Kazakh officials renamed Tyuratam Baikonur. Legacy The landing site is now a monument park. The central feature in the park is a 25 meter tall monument that consists of a silver metallic rocketship rising on a curved metallic column of flame, from a wedge shaped, white stone base. In front of this is a 3 meter tall, white stone statue of Yuri Gagarin, wearing a spacesuit, with one arm raised in greeting and the other holding a space helmet. In 2011, documentary film maker Christopher Riley partnered with European Space Agency astronaut Paolo Nespoli to record a new film of what Gagarin would have seen of the Earth from his spaceship, by matching historical audio recordings to video from the International Space Station following the ground path taken by Vostok 1. The resulting film, First Orbit, was released online to celebrate the 50th anniversary of human spaceflight.

VOSKHOD 2
Voskhod 2 (Russian: -2) was a Soviet manned space mission in March 1965. Vostokbased Voskhod 3KD spacecraft with two crew members on board, Pavel Belyaev and Alexei Leonov, was equipped with an inflatable airlock. It established another milestone in space exploration when Alexei Leonov became the first person to leave the spacecraft in a specialized spacesuit to conduct a 12 minute "spacewalk". Mission highlights The Voskhod 3KD spacecraft had an inflatable airlock extended in orbit. Cosmonaut Alexey Leonov donned a space suit and left the spacecraft while the other cosmonaut of the two-man crew, Pavel Belyayev, remained inside. Leonov began his spacewalk 90 minutes into the mission at the end of the first orbit. Cosmonaut Leonov's spacewalk lasted 12 minutes and 9 seconds (08:34:51 08:47:00hrs UTC), beginning over north-central Africa (northern Sudan/southern Egypt), and ending over eastern Siberia. The Voskhod 2 spacecraft is a Vostok spacecraft with a backup, solid fuel retrorocket, attached atop the descent module. The ejection seat was removed and two seats were added, (at a 90degree angle relative to the Vostok crew seats position). An inflatable exterior airlock was also added to the descent module opposite the entry hatch. After use, the airlock was jettisoned. There was no provision for crew escape in the event of a launch or landing emergency. A solid fuel braking rocket was also added to the parachute lines to provide for a softer landing at touchdown. This was necessary because, unlike the Vostok, the crew lands with the Voskhod descent module. Though Leonov was able to complete his spacewalk successfully, both that task and the overall mission were plagued with problems. After his 12 minutes and 9 seconds outside the Voskhod, Leonov found that his suit had stiffened to the point where he could not re-enter the airlock. He was forced to bleed off some of his suit's pressure, in order to be able to bend the joints,[2]:456 Leonov did not report his action on the radio to avoid alarming others, but Soviet

state radio and television had earlier stopped their live broadcasts from the spacecraft when the mission experienced difficulties. The two crewmembers subsequently experienced difficulty in sealing the hatch properly, followed by a troublesome re-entry in which malfunction of the automatic landing system forced the use of its manual backup.[3] The spacecraft was so cramped that the two cosmonauts, both wearing spacesuits, could not return to their seats to restore the ship's center of gravity for 46 seconds after orienting the ship for reentry[2]:457-459 and a landing near Perm. The orbital module did not properly disconnect from the landing module, causing the spacecraft to spin wildly until the modules disconnected at 100 km.[3] The delay of 46 seconds caused the spacecraft to land 386 km from the intended landing zone in an inhospitable part of the Ural Mountains, in Siberia. Although mission control had no idea where the spacecraft had landed or whether Leonov and Belyayev had survived, their families were told that they were resting after having been recovered. The two men were both familiar with the harsh climate and knew that bears and wolves, made aggressive by mating season, lived in the taiga; the spacecraft carried a pistol and "plenty of ammunition". Although aircraft quickly located the cosmonauts, the area was so heavily forested that helicopters could not land. Night arrived, the temperature fell to below -22 degrees Fahrenheit, and the spacecraft's hatch had been blown open by explosive bolts. Leonov and Belyayev had to strip naked, wring out the sweat from their underwear, and redon it and the inner linings of their spacesuits to stay warm. A rescue party arrived on skis the next day with food and hot water, and chopped wood for a fire and a log cabin. After a more comfortable second night in the forest, the cosmonauts skied to a waiting helicopter several kilometers away and flew to Perm, then Baikonur.[2]:457-459[3] General Kamanin's diary later gave the landing location of the Voskhod 2, Saransk (ball), as: "54 deg 12 min North, 45 deg 10 min East." Also according to General Kamanin's diary, a commander of one of the search helicopters reported finding Voskhod 2, "On the forest road between the villages of Sorokovaya and Shchuchino, about 30 kilometers southwest of the town of Berezniki, I see the red parachute and the two cosmonauts. there is deep snow all around ..." The capsule is currently on display at the museum of RKK Energiya in Korolyov, near Moscow. Voskhod 2 EVA details On reaching orbit in Voskhod 2, Leonov and Belyayev attached the EVA backpack to Leonov s Berkut ( Golden Eagle ) space suit, a modified Vostok Sokol-1 intravehicular (IV) suit. The white metal EVA backpack provided 45 minutes of oxygen for breathing and cooling. Oxygen vented through a relief valve into space, carrying away heat, moisture, and exhaled carbon dioxide. The space suit pressure could be set at either 40.6 kPa (5.89 psi) or 27.40 kPa (3.974 psi). Belyayev then deployed and pressurized the Volga inflatable airlock. The airlock was necessary because Vostok and Voskhod avionics were cooled with cabin air and would overheat if the capsule was depressurized for the EVA. The Volga airlock was designed, built, and tested in nine months in mid-1964. At launch, Volga fitted over Voskhod 2 s hatch, extending 74 cm (29 in) beyond the spacecraft's hull. The airlock comprised a 1.2 m (3.9 ft) wide metal ring fitted over Voskhod 2 s inward-opening hatch, a double-walled fabric airlock tube with a deployed length of 2.50 m (8.2 ft), and a 1.2 m (3.9 ft) wide metal upper ring around the 65 cm (26 in) wide inward-opening airlock hatch. Volga s deployed internal volume was 2.50 m3 (88 cu ft). The fabric airlock tube was made rigid by about 40 airbooms, clustered as three, independent groups. Two groups sufficed for deployment. The airbooms needed seven minutes to fully inflate. Four spherical tanks held sufficient oxygen to inflate the airbooms and pressurize the

airlock. Two lights lighted the airlock interior, and three 16mm cameras two in the airlock, one outside on a boom mounted to the upper ring recorded the historic first spacewalk. Belyayev controlled the airlock from inside Voskhod 2, but a set of backup controls for Leonov was suspended on bungee cords inside the airlock. Leonov entered Volga, then Belyayev sealed Voskhod 2 behind him and depressurized the airlock. Leonov opened Volga s outer hatch and pushed out to the end of his 5.35 m (17.6 ft) umbilicus. He later said the umbilicus gave him tight control of his movements an observation purportedly belied by subsequent American spacewalk experience. Leonov reported looking down and seeing from the Straits of Gibraltar to the Caspian Sea. After Leonov returned to his couch, Belyayev fired pyrotechnic bolts to discard the Volga. Sergei Korolev, Chief Designer at OKB-1 Design Bureau (now RKK Energia), stated after the EVA that Leonov could have remained outside for much longer than he did, while Mstislav Keldysh, chief theoretician of the Soviet space program and President of the Soviet Academy of Sciences, said that the EVA showed that future cosmonauts would find work in space easy. The government news agency, TASS, reported that, outside the ship and after returning, Leonov feels well ; however, post-Cold War Russian documents reveal a different story that Leonov s Berkut space suit ballooned, making bending difficult. Because of this, Leonov was unable to reach the shutter switch on his thigh for his chest-mounted camera. He could not take pictures of Voskhod 2, nor was he able to recover the camera mounted on Volga which recorded his EVA for posterity. After 12 minutes Leonov re-entered Volga. Recent accounts report Cosmonaut Leonov violated procedure by entering the airlock headfirst, then became stuck sideways when he turned to close the outer hatch, forcing him to flirt with decompression sickness (the bends ) by lowering the suit pressure so he could bend to free himself. Recently, Leonov said that he had a suicide pill to swallow had he been unable to re-enter the Voskhod 2, and Belyayev been forced to abandon him in orbit. Doctors reported that Leonov nearly suffered heatstroke his core body temperature increased by 1.8C (3.2F) in 20 minutes; Leonov said he was up to his knees in sweat, which sloshed in the suit. In an interview published in the Soviet Military Review in 1980, Leonov downplayed his difficulties, saying that building manned orbital stations and exploring the Universe are inseparably linked with man s activity in open space. There is no end of work in this field.

LUNOKHOD 1
Lunokhod 1 ( , moon walker in Russian; 8 203, vehicle 8 203) was the first of two unmanned lunar rovers landed on the Moon by the Soviet Union as part of its Lunokhod program. The spacecraft which carried Lunokhod 1 was named Luna 17. Lunokhod was the first roving remote-controlled robot to land on another celestial body.

Rover description Lunokhod 1 was a lunar vehicle formed of a tub-like compartment with a large convex lid on eight independently powered wheels. Its length was 2.3 metres (7 ft 7 in). Lunokhod was equipped with a cone-shaped antenna, a highly directional helical antenna, four television cameras, and special extendable devices to impact the lunar soil for soil density and mechanical property tests. An X-ray spectrometer, an X-ray telescope, cosmic ray detectors, and a laser device were also included. The vehicle was powered by batteries which were recharged during the lunar day by a solar cell array mounted on the underside of the lid. To be able to work in vacuum a special fluoride based lubricant was used for the mechanical parts and the electric motors (one in each wheel hub) were enclosed in pressurised containers.[1][2] During the lunar nights, the lid was closed and a polonium-210 radioisotope heater unit kept the internal components at operating temperature. Lunokhod was intended to operate through three lunar days (approximately 3 Earth months) but actually operated for eleven lunar days. Launch and lunar orbit Luna 17 was launched on November 10, 1970 at 14:44:01 UTC. After reaching earth parking orbit, the final stage of Luna 17's launching rocket fired to place it into a trajectory towards the Moon (1970-11-10 at 14:54 UTC). After two course correction maneuvers (on November 12 and 14), it entered lunar orbit on November 15, 1970 at 22:00 UTC. Landing and surface operations The spacecraft soft-landed on the Moon in the Sea of Rains on November 17 at 03:47 UTC. The lander had dual ramps from which the payload, Lunokhod 1, could descend to the lunar surface. At 06:28 UT the rover moved onto the moon's surface. The rover would run during the lunar day, stopping occasionally to recharge its batteries via the solar panels. At night the rover hibernated until the next sunrise, heated by the radioactive source. 1970: y November 17 - November 22: The rover drives 197 m, returns 14 close up pictures of the Moon and 12 panoramic views, during 10 communication sessions. It also conducts analyses of the lunar soil. y December 9 - December 22: 1,522 m 1971: y January 8 - January 20: 1,936 m y February 8 - February 19: 1,573 m y March 9 - March 20: 2,004 m y April 8 - April 20: 1,029 m y May 7 - May 20: 197 m y June 5 - June 18: 1,559 m y July 4 - July 17: 220 m y August 3 - August 16: 215 m y August 31 - September 14: 88 m End of mission and results Controllers finished the last communications session with Lunokhod 1 at 13:05 UT on September 14, 1971. Attempts to reestablish contact were finally discontinued and the operations of Lunokhod 1 officially ceased on October 4, 1971, the anniversary of Sputnik 1. During its 322 Earth days of operations, Lunokhod traveled 10,540 metres and returned more than 20,000 TV images and 206 high-resolution panoramas. In addition, it performed 25 lunar

soil analyses with its RIFMA x-ray fluorescence spectrometer and used its penetrometer at 500 different locations. Current location The final location of Lunokhod 1 was uncertain until 2010, as lunar laser ranging experiments had failed to detect a return signal from it since 1971. On March 17, 2010, Albert Abdrakhimov found both the lander and the rover[3] in Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter image M114185541RC.[4] In April 2010, the Apache Point Observatory Lunar Laser-ranging Operation (APOLLO) team from the University of California at San Diego used the LRO images to locate the orbiter closely enough for laser range (distance) measurements. On April 22, 2010 and days following, the team successfully measured the distance several times. The intersection of the spheres described by the measured distances then pinpoint the current location of Lunokhod 1 to within 1 meter.[5][6] APOLLO is now using Lunokhod 1's reflector for experiments, as they discovered, to their surprise, that it was returning much more light than other reflectors on the moon. According to a NASA press release, APOLLO researcher Tom Murphy said, "We got about 2,000 photons from Lunokhod 1 on our first try. After almost 40 years of silence, this rover still has a lot to say."[7] By November 2010, the location of the rover had been determined to about a centimeter. The location near the limb of the moon, combined with the ability to range the rover even when it is in sunlight, promises to be particularly useful for determining aspects of the Earth-Moon system.

SALYUT 1
Salyut 1 (DOS-1) (Russian: -1; English translation: Salute 1) was the first space station of any kind, launched by the USSR on April 19, 1971. It was launched unmanned using a Proton-K rocket. Its first crew came later in Soyuz 10, but was unable to dock completely; its second crew launched in Soyuz 11 and remained on board for 23 days. However, a pressure-equalization valve in the Soyuz 11 reentry capsule opened prematurely when the crew was returning, killing all three. Following the accident, missions were temporarily suspended and the station was burned in the atmosphere purposely[1] after a total of 6 months in orbit. Structure At launch, the announced purpose of Salyut was to test the elements of the systems of a space station and to conduct scientific research and experiments. The craft was described as being 20 m in length, 4 m in maximum diameter, and 99 m in interior space with an on-orbit dry mass of 18,425 kg. Of its several compartments, three were pressurized (100 m total), and two could be entered by the crew.[citation needed] Transfer compartment The transfer compartment was to connect directly with Soyuz. The docking cone had a 2 m front diameter and a 3 m aft diameter.[citation needed] Main compartment The second, and main, compartment was about 4 m in diameter. Televised views showed enough space for eight big chairs (seven at work consoles), several control panels, and 20 portholes (some obstructed by instruments).[citation needed] Auxiliary compartments The third pressurized compartment contained the control and communications equipment, the power supply, the life support system, and other auxiliary equipment. The fourth, and final, unpressurized compartment was about 2 m in diameter and contained the engine installations

and associated control equipment. Salyut had buffer chemical batteries, reserve supplies of oxygen and water, and regeneration systems. Externally mounted were two double sets of solar cell panels that extended like wings from the smaller compartments at each end, the heat regulation system's radiators, and orientation and control devices.[citation needed] Salyut 1 was modified from one of the Almaz airframes. The unpressurized service module was the modified service module of a Soyuz craft. Orion 1 Space Observatory The astrophysical Orion 1 Space Observatory designed by Grigor Gurzadyan of Byurakan Observatory in Armenia, was installed in Salyut 1. Ultraviolet spectrograms of stars were obtained with the help of a mirror telescope of the Mersenne system and a spectrograph of the Wadsworth system using film sensitive to the far ultraviolet. The dispersion of the spectrograph was 32 /mm (3.2 nm/mm), while the resolution of the spectrograms derived was about 5 at 2600 (0.5 nm at 260 nm). Slitless spectrograms were obtained of the stars Vega and Beta Centauri between 2000 and 3800 (200 and 380 nm).[2] The telescope was operated by crew member Viktor Patsayev, who became the first man to operate a telescope outside the Earth s atmosphere. Specifications y Length - 15.8 m y Maximum diameter - 4.15 m y Habitable volume - 90 m y Mass at launch - 18,900 kg y Launch vehicle - Proton (three-stage) y Span across solar arrays - about 10 m y Area of solar arrays - 28 m y Number of solar arrays - 4 y Resupply carriers - Salyut 1-type Soyuz y Number of docking ports - 1 y Total manned missions - 2 y Total long-duration manned missions - 1 Visiting spacecraft and crews Soyuz 10 After taking 24 h for rendezvous and approach, Soyuz 10 soft-docked with Salyut on April 23[1] and remained for 5.5 h. Hard-docking was unsuccessful as latches stuck at 9 cm. The crew did not transfer to the space station. Expedition Crew Launch Flight Landing Flight Duration Notes date up date down (days) Vladimir Shatalov, Aleksei April 23, Soyuz April 25, Soyuz Failed and Nikolai Soyuz 10 Yeliseyev 0 1971 10 1971 10 docking Rukavishnikov Soyuz 11 Soyuz 11 required 3 h 19 min on June 7 to complete docking. The crew transferred to Salyut and their mission was announced as: y Checking the design, units, onboard systems, and equipment of the orbital piloted station y Testing the station's manual and autonomous procedures for orientation and navigation, as well as the control systems for maneuvering the space complex in orbit

Studying Earth's surface geology and geography, meteorology, and snow and ice cover Studying physical characteristics, processes, and phenomena in the atmosphere and outer space in various regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and y Conducting medico-biological studies to determine the feasibility of having cosmonauts in the station perform various tasks, and studying the influence of space flight on the human organism. On June 29, after flying 362 orbits docked with Salyut, the mission was cut short due to problems aboard the station, including an electrical fire. The crew transferred back to Soyuz 11 and reentered the Earth's atmosphere. The crew was killed on descent due to a loss of cabin atmosphere and the circumstance that they were not wearing pressure suits. Expedition Crew Launch date Flight Landing Flight Duration Notes up date down (days) June 6, June 29, Georgi Dobrovolski, Crew died 1971 Soyuz 1971 Soyuz Soyuz 11 Viktor 23.77 Patsayev, on 04:55:09 23:16:52 11 11 Vladislav Volkov reentry UTC UTC Re-entry Salyut 1 was moved to a higher orbit in July and August 1971 to ensure that it would not be destroyed prematurely through orbital decay. In the meantime, Soyuz capsules were being substantially[3] re-designed to allow pressure suits to be worn during launch, docking maneuvers, and reentry. As Salyut 1 ran out of supplies, the engines were fired for the last time on October 11 to lower its orbit and ensure prompt destructive re-entry over the Pacific Ocean. After 175 days in space, the first real space station came to an end. Pravda (October 26, 1971) reported that 75 percent of Salyut 1's studies were carried out by optical means and 20 percent by radio-technical means, while the remainder involved magneto-metrical, gravitational, or other measurements. Synoptic readings were taken in both the visible and invisible parts of the electromagnetic spectrum.
y y

FROM HARBINGERS TO MESSENGERS

ENERGIA
Energia (Russian: , Energiya, "Energy") was a Soviet rocket that was designed by NPO Energia to serve as a heavy-lift expendable launch system as well as a booster for the Buran spacecraft. Control system main developer enterprise was the NPO "Electropribor".[3][4] The Energia used four strap-on boosters powered by a four-chamber RD-170 engine burning with kerosene/LOX, and a central core stage with 4 one-chamber RD-0120 (11D122) engines fueled with liquid hydrogen/LOX. The launch system had two functionally different operational variants: Energia-Polyus, the initial test configuration, in which the Polyus system was used as a final stage to put the payload into orbit, and Energia-Buran, in which the Buran spacecraft was the payload and the source of the orbit insertion impulse. The rocket had the capacity to place about 100 metric tons in Low Earth orbit, up to 20 t to the geostationary orbit and up to 32 t to the lunar mission trajectory.

Development Work on the Energia/Buran system began in 1976 after the decision was made to cancel the unsuccessful N1 rocket. The cancelled N1 rocket-based Manned Lunar Launch Facilities and Infrastructure were used for Energia (notably the huge horizontal assembly building), just as NASA reused infrastructure designed for the Saturn V in the Space Shuttle program. Energia also replaced the "Vulkan" concept, which was a design based on the Proton rocket and using the same hypergolic fuels, but much larger and more powerful. The "Vulkan" designation was later given to a variation of the Energia which has eight boosters and multiple stages. The Energia was designed to launch the Russian "Buran" reusable shuttle,[6] and for that reason was designed to carry its payload mounted on the side of the stack, rather than on the top, as is done with other launch vehicles. After design of the Energia-Buran system, it was also proposed that the booster could be used without the Buran as a heavy-lift cargo launch vehicle; this configuration was originally given the name "Buran-T". This configuration required the addition of an upper stage to reach orbit. In fact, the first launch of the Energia was in the configuration of a heavy launch vehicles, with a large military satellite as a payload. Due to the termination of the Buran program the Energia program was concluded after only two launches, and further the payload on the first launch didn't perform the final boost properly. The legacy of Energia/Buran project manifests itself most visibly in form of the RD-170 family of rocket engines, and the Zenit launcher, with the first stage roughly the same as one of the Energia first stage boosters. First launch (Energia-Polyus) The Energia was first test-launched on 15 May 1987, with the Polyus spacecraft as the payload. A FGB ("Functional Cargo Block") engine section originally built as a cancelled Mir module was incorporated into the upper stage used to inject the payload into orbit, similarly to modern geostationary satellites providing apogee impulse themselves, since the planned "Buran-T" upper stage had not yet progressed beyond the planning stage. The intended orbit was altitude 280 km (170 mi), inclination 64.6. The Soviets had originally announced that the launch as a successful sub-orbital test of the new Energia booster with a dummy payload, but some time later it was revealed that the flight had, in fact, been intended to orbit the Polyus, a UKSS military payload. The two stages of the Energia launcher functioned as designed, but the Polyus payload failed to reach orbit. Due to a software error in its attitude control system, the burn of the Polyus' orbital insertion motor failed to insert the payload into orbit. Instead, the payload reentered the atmosphere over the Pacific ocean. Second launch (Energia-Buran) The second flight, and the first one where payload successfully reached orbit, was launched on 15 November 1988. This mission launched the unmanned Soviet Shuttle vehicle, Buran. At apogee, the Buran spacecraft made a 66.7 m/s burn to reach a final orbit of 251 km x 263 km. Both the Energia and Buran programs

were designed to maintain strategic parity with the United States. Discontinuation Production of Energia rockets ended with the fall of the Soviet Union and the end of the Buran shuttle project. Ever since, there have been persistent rumors of the renewal of production, but given the current political realities, that is highly unlikely. While the Energia is no longer in production, the Zenit boosters are still in production and in use. The four strap-on liquid-fuel boosters, which burned kerosene and liquid oxygen, were the basis of the Zenit rocket which used the same engines. The engine is the RD-170, a powerful, modern, and efficient design. Its derivative, the RD-171, is still used on the Zenit rocket. A half-sized derivative of the engine, the RD-180, powers Lockheed Martin's Atlas V rocket. The quarter size derivative of the engine, the RD-191, has been used to launch Korean Naro-1 rocket and is to be used in the Russian Angara rocket. Variants Three major variants were planned after the original configuration, each with vastly different payloads. Energia M The Energia M was the smallest design configuration. The number of Zenit boosters was reduced from four to two, and instead of four RD-0120 engines in the core, it had only one. It was designed to replace the Proton rocket, but lost the 1993 competition to the Angara rocket. Energia II (Uragan) Energia II, named Uragan (Russian: , Hurricane), was a rocket planned to be fully reusable and would have been be able to land on a conventional airfield. Unlike the Energia, which was planned to be semireusable (like that of the U.S. Space Shuttle), the Uragan design would have allowed the complete recovery of all Buran/Energia elements, like that of the original totally reusable Orbiter/Booster concept of the U.S. Shuttle. The Energia II core as proposed would be capable of re-entering and gliding to a landing, presumably using technology developed for the Buran. Vulkan-Hercules The final unflown configuration was also the largest. With eight Zenit booster rockets and an Energia-M core as the upper stage, the "Vulkan" (which was the same name of another Soviet heavy lift rocket that was cancelled years earlier) or "Hercules" (which is the same name designated to the N-1 rockets) configuration could have launched up to 175 tonnes into orbit. The development of rocket-carrier "Vulcan" and the refurbishment of the "Energia" launch pad for its launches was in progress in 1990-1993. But later on the work on this project was cancelled due to lack of funds and the collapse of Soviet Union. ENERGIA LIVES ON IN THE BOEING SEALAUNCH PROGRAMME One part of the Energia system which currently is still in service are the Zenit strap-on boosters. They form the basis of the Boeing SeaLaunch satellite launch system.The Zenit's single, fournozzle engine is the RD-170, and has more thrust than the single chamber Saturn V F-1 engine. When 'chopped in half,' the RD-170 becomes the RD-180, now the main engine for Lockheed's brand new Atlas V EELV (Evolved Expendable launch Vehicle.).The picture below illustrates in

basic terms the Zenit s relationship to Energia and the SeaLaunch Venture. The coverings on the Buran version are the casings for it s parachute recovery system, which obviously isn t used on SeaLaunch.

KOSMOS ROCKET FAMILY

The Kosmos (also spelled Cosmos, Russian: ) rockets are a series of Soviet and subsequently Russian rockets, derived from the R-12 and R-14 missiles,[1][2] the most well known of which is the Kosmos-3M, which has made over 440 launches, and is still in service. The Kosmos family contains a number of rockets, both carrier rockets and sounding rockets, for orbital and sub-orbital spaceflight respectively. The first variant, the Kosmos-2I, first flew on 27 October 1961. Over 700 Kosmos rockets have been launched overall.

Variants Designati GRAU Purpos Derive Maiden Final on index e d from flight flight Kosmos-2I 63S1 Carrier R-12 rocket Carrier R-14 rocket R-12 24 May 18 June 1966 1977 16 27 Novemb August er 1966 1968 15 May 1967 1 January Active Active 27 19 October Decemb 1961 er 1967 18 August 1964 28 Decemb er 1965 Remar ks

Kosmos-1 65S3 Kosmos2M

63S1M Both

Kosmos-2I 11K63

Carrier R-12 rocket

Carrier Kosmos-3 11K65 R-14 rocket Kosmos3M Kosmos3MR 11K65 Carrier R-14 M rocket 65MR Soundin R-14 g rocket

1973 Kosmos3MP Kosmos3MRB 65MP Soundin R-14 g rocket 5 21 June Decemb 1988 er 1980

Soundin 65MRB R-14 g rocket

N1 ROCKET
N1 or N-1 or 11A52 ( 1, -1, 11 52 in Russian) was a secret family of Soviet heavy lifting rockets intended to launch large military space stations, or to send Soviet cosmonauts to the Moon or the planet Mars. The Soviet classified technical name N1 was an abbreviation from the Russian word (nositel' short for raketa-nositel', "rocket booster/bearer"). 11A52 was an alphanumeric designation for the N1 on its design and production documents. It is also known by NATO as the G-1e or SL-15. No official public name for the N1 was ever adopted. The N1-L3 version was developed to compete with the United States Apollo Saturn V to land a man on the Moon. The basic N1 launch vehicle had three stages, which carried the L3 lunar payload into Low Earth orbit. The L3 contained an Earth departure stage and a lunar landing assist stage, in addition to the single-cosmonaut LK Lander spacecraft, and a two-cosmonaut Soyuz 7K-L3 lunar orbital spacecraft. N1-L3 was underfunded, undertested, and started development in October 1965, almost four years after the Saturn V. After four launch attempts all failed to reach orbit, the program was suspended in 1974, and in 1976 was officially cancelled. The N1 program (along with the rest of the Soviet manned moon programs) was kept secret almost until the collapse of the Soviet Union in December 1991; information about the N1 was first published in 1990. History Early work Development of the N1 began in 1959 under the direction of Sergey Korolyov at his OKB-1 Design Bureau. The original design proposed a 50 ton payload intended as a launcher for military space stations and a manned Mars flyby using a nuclear engine upper stage. The N1 was the largest of three proposed designs; the N2 was somewhat smaller and intended to compete with Vladimir Chelomei's proposed UR-200, and the much smaller N3, which would replace Korolyov's "workhorse" R-7 rocket. At this point the N-series was strictly a "paper project". In December 1959 a meeting was called with all of the chief designers, who presented their latest designs to the military. Korolyov presented the N-series along with a much more modest series of upgrades to the R-7. Vladimir Chelomei, Korolyov's rival, presented his "Universal Rocket" series, which used a common lower stage in various clustered configurations to meet a wide variety of payload requirements. Mikhail Yangel, perhaps the most successful of the three but with little political power, presented the

small R-26 intended to replace the R-16, the much larger R-36 ICBM, as well as the SK-100, a space launcher based on a huge cluster of R-16's. In the end the military planners selected Chelomei's UR-100 as the new "light" ICBM, and Yangel's R-36 for the "heavy" role. They saw no need for any of the larger dedicated launchers, but also gave Korolyov funding to develop the Molniya (8K78) adaptation of the R-7. In March 1961, during a meeting at Baikonur, designers discussed the N1 design, along with a competing Glushko design, the R-20. In June, Korolyov was given a small amount of funding for N1 development between 1961 and 1963. In May 1961 a government report, On Reconsideration of the Plans for Space Vehicles in the Direction of Defense Purposes, set the first test launch of the N1 rocket for 1965. Moon missions When the US announced the goal of landing a man on the Moon in May 1961, Korolyov proposed a lunar mission based on a new spacecraft, eventually known as Soyuz, that was designed for Earth orbit rendezvous. Several launches would be used to build up a complete moon package, one for the Soyuz, another for the lunar lander, and additional launches with cislunar engines and fuel. This approach makes the least demands on the launch vehicle, as the payload mass is reduced for any one launch. This is at the expense of requiring a rapid launch rate to ensure that the modules are built up before running out of consumables while waiting on-orbit. Even using this profile the lunar boosters and fuel were too large for any existing Soviet launcher. Korolyov thus proposed development of the N1 with a 50-ton payload much smaller than the N1 design that would eventually be delivered. To power the new design, Valentin Glushko, who then held a near-monopoly on rocket engine design in the Soviet Union, proposed a new engine, the RD-270, running on unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and nitrogen tetroxide (N2O4). This formula is hypergolic (i.e. its components ignite on contact, reducing the complexity of the combustion system), and was widely used in Glushko's existing engine designs used on various ICBMs. The propellant pair UDMH/N2O4 has a lower specific impulse than kerosene/liquid oxygen, and Korolyov felt that any realistic high-performance design would need to use higher-performance fuels. Korolyov also felt that the toxic nature of the fuels and their exhaust presented a safety risk for manned space flight. The difference of opinions led to a falling out between Korolyov and Glushko. In 1962 a committee that was appointed to break the logjam agreed with Korolyov. Since Glushko refused to work on such a design, Korolyov eventually "gave up" and decided to enlist the help of Nikolai Kuznetsov, the OKB-276 jet engine designer. Kuznetsov, who had limited experience in rocket design, responded with a fairly small engine known as the NK-15, which would be delivered in several versions tuned to different altitudes. To achieve the required amount of thrust, it was proposed that a large number of NK-15s would be used in a clustered configuration around the outer rim of the lower-stage booster. The "inside" of the ring of engines would be open, with air piped into the hole via inlets near the top of the booster stage. The air would be mixed with the exhaust in order to provide thrust augmentation, as well as additional combustion with the deliberately fuel-rich exhaust. The ring-like arrangement of so many rocket engine nozzles on the N1's first stage could have been an attempt at creating a crude version of a toroidal aerospike engine system; more conventional aerospike engines were also studied. Meanwhile, Chelomei's OKB-52 proposed an alternate mission with much lower risk. Instead of a manned landing, Chelomei proposed a series of circumlunar missions which he felt would be able to beat the US. He also proposed a new booster for the mission, clustering three of his

existing UR-200 designs (known as the SS-11 in the west) to produce a single larger booster, the UR-500. However, these plans were dropped when Glushko offered Chelomei the RD-270, which allowed the construction of a much simpler "monoblock" design, also known as the UR500. He also proposed adapting an existing spacecraft design for the circumlunar mission, the single-cosmonaut LK-1. Chelomei felt that improvements in early UR-500/LK-1 missions would allow the spacecraft to be adapted for two cosmonauts. The Soviet military, specifically the Strategic Missile Forces, was reluctant to support what was essentially a politically-motivated project with little military utility, but both Korolyov and Chelomei pushed for a lunar mission. For some time, between 1961 and 1964, Chelomei's less aggressive proposal was accepted, and development of his UR-500 and the LK-1 were given a high priority. Space race When Gemini missions put the US in the lead in space development, Korolyov pressured Nikita Khrushchev into making a lunar landing before the US. Since there were a number of unknowns in the Earth orbit rendezvous profile that could not be tested in time, a direct ascent profile similar to Apollo was selected. This required much larger boosters. Korolyov proposed a larger N1, combined with a new lunar package known as the L3. The L3 combined the lunar engines, an adapted Soyuz spacecraft (the LOK) and the new LK lunar lander in a single package. Chelomei responded with a clustered UR-500-derived vehicle, topped with the L1 spacecraft already under development, and a lander of their own design. Korolyov's proposal was selected as the winner in August 1964, while Chelomei was told to continue with his circumlunar UR-500/L1 work. When Khrushchev was overthrown later in 1964, infighting between the two teams started anew. In October 1965 the Soviet government ordered a compromise; the circumlunar mission would be launched on Chelomei's UR500 using Korolyov's Soyuz spacecraft in place of their own Zond design, aiming for a launch in 1967, the 50th anniversary of the Bolshevik Revolution. Korolyov, meanwhile, would continue with his original N1-L3 proposal. Korolyov had clearly won the argument, but work on the L1 continued anyway, as well as the Zond. Korolyov died in 1966 due to complications after minor surgery, and the work was taken over by his deputy, Vasily Mishin. Mishin did not have Korolyov's political astuteness or power, a problem that led to the eventual downfall of the N1, and of the lunar mission as a whole. Description A comparison of the U.S. Saturn V rocket with the Soviet N1/L3. The N1 was a very large rocket, standing 105 metres (345 feet) tall among the world's largest launch vehicles, essentially equal to the Saturn V in height and mass, and greater in lift-off thrust, though with significantly less payload capability. The N1-L3 consisted of five stages in total, three for immediate boost into orbit (the N1), and another two for the lunar portion (the L3). Fully loaded and fueled, the N1-L3 weighed 2788 metric tons (6.1 million lb). The lower three stages were shaped to produce a single truncated cone just over 10 m wide at the base, while the L3 section was cylindrical at about 4.4 m wide. The conical shaping of the lower stages was due to the arrangement of the tanks within, a smaller spherical kerosene tank on top of the larger liquid oxygen tank below.

The first stage, Block A, was powered by 30 NK-15 engines arranged in two rings, the main ring of 24 at the outer edge of the booster, the inner of 6 at about half diameter. The engines were the first ever staged combustion cycle engines. The control system was primarily based on differential throttling of the engines, the outer ring for pitch and yaw, the inner six on gimballing mounts for roll. The Block A also included four grid fins, which were later used on Soviet air-to-air missile designs. In total, the Block A produced 43 meganewtons (9,700,000 lbf)[1] of thrust. This exceeded the 33.7 meganewtons (7,600,000 lbf)[2] thrust of the Saturn V. The second stage, Block B, was powered by 8 NK-15V engines arranged in a single ring. The only major difference between the NK-15 and -15V was the engine bell and various tunings for airstart and high-altitude performance. The upper stage, Block V (V being the third letter in the Russian alphabet), mounted four smaller NK-21 engines in a square. During the N1's lifetime, a series of improved engines was introduced to replace those used in the original design. The first stage used an adaptation of the NK-15 known as the NK-33, the second stage a similar modification known as the NK-43, and finally the third stage used the NK31. The resulting modified N1 was known as the N1F, but did not fly before the project's cancellation. In comparison with the American Saturn V, the N1 is slightly shorter, more slender overall, but wider at the base. Generally the N1 produced much more thrust than the Saturn V. It used only kerosene fuel in all three of its stages, and had somewhat lesser overall performance than the Saturn; the N1 stack was intended to place about 95 tons of payload into Low Earth orbit, whereas the Saturn V could orbit about 130 tons. The US's experience with higher energy liquid hydrogen as fuel gave them the confidence to use it on the Saturn upper stages, which significantly reduced the upper stages' take-off weight and increased the payload fraction. The Saturn V also had a superior reliability record: it never lost a payload in 13 operational launches, while four N1 launch attempts all resulted in failure, with two payload losses. The US spent more money[citation needed] developing the Saturn V. Development of the Saturn V also began almost four years sooner, in January of 1962. Problems Complex plumbing was needed to feed fuel and oxidizer into the clustered arrangement of rocket engines. This proved to be extremely fragile, and was a major factor in the design's launch failures. Furthermore the N1's Baikonur launch complex could not be reached by heavy barge. To allow transport by rail, all the stages had to be broken down and re-assembled. As a result, the complex and destructive vibrational modes (which ripped apart propellant lines and turbines) as well as exhaust plume fluid dynamic problems (causing vehicle roll, vacuum cavitation, and other problems) were not discovered and worked out before flight. As a result of its technical difficulties, in turn due to lack of funding for full-up testing, the N1 never successfully completed a test flight. All four unmanned launches out of 12 planned tests ended in failure, each before first-stage separation. The longest flight lasted 107 seconds, just before 1st stage separation. Two test launches occurred in 1969, one in 1971 and the final one in 1972. Mishin continued with the N1F project after the cancellation of plans for a manned moon landing in the hope that the booster would be used to launch a large

space station comparable to the US Skylab. The program was terminated in 1974 when Mishin was replaced by Glushko. Two N1Fs were being readied for launch at the time, but these plans were cancelled. The program was followed by the "Vulkan" concept for a huge Proton-like hypergolic-fueled vehicle, and then in 1976 by the commencement of the Energia/Buran program. N1 vehicles y N1 1M1 - Static test model, two first stages painted gray, third stage gray-white and L3 white. y N1 1L and 2L - test vehicles y N1 3L - first launch attempt, engine fire, exploded at 12 km y N1 4L - never launched, parts used for other launchers y N1 5L - partially painted gray; early launch failure destroyed pad y N1 6L - launched from the second pad 110, deficient roll control, destroyed at 1 km y N1 7L - all white, last launch attempt; pogo failure, cutoff at 40 km y N1 8L, 9L and 10L Remains The two flight-ready N1Fs were scrapped and their remains could still be found around Baikonur years later used as shelters and storage sheds. The boosters were deliberately broken up in an effort to cover up the USSR's failed moon attempts, which was publicly stated to be a paper project in order to fool the US into thinking there was a race going on. This cover story lasted until glasnost, when the remaining hardware was seen publicly on display. The advanced engines for the N1F escaped destruction. Although the rocket as a whole was unreliable, the NK-33 and NK-43 engines are considered rugged and reliable when used as a standalone unit. About 150 engines survived, and in the mid-1990s, Russia sold 36 engines to Aerojet General for $1.1 million each. This company also acquired a license for the production of new engines. Supplied through Aerojet, three of the engines were incorporated into Japanese rockets J-1 and J-2. The US company Kistler Aerospace worked on incorporating these engines into a new rocket design, with which Kistler sought to eventually offer commercial launch services, before declaring bankruptcy. In Russia, N1 engines were not used again until 2004, when the remaining 70 or so engines were incorporated into a new rocket design. As of 2005, the project has been frozen due to the lack of funding. The current design of Orbital Science's Taurus II launch vehicle includes two NK-33s as the first stage engines. Launch history y February 21, 1969 Vehicle serial number 3L Due to unexpected high-frequency oscillations in the gas generator, one of the pipes broke apart and a fire started. This fire reached the engine control system which at the 68.7 s of flight sent the command to shut down the engines. The rocket exploded at 12,200 m altitude, 69 seconds after liftoff. The emergency rescue system was activated and did its job properly, saving the mockup of the spacecraft. All subsequent flights had freon fire extinguishers installed next to every engine. y July 3, 1969 Vehicle serial number 5L At liftoff a loose bolt was ingested into a fuel pump, which failed. After detecting the inoperative fuel pump, the automatic engine control shut off 29 of 30 engines, which caused the rocket to stall. The rocket exploded 23 seconds after shutting off the engines, destroying the rocket and launch tower in the biggest explosion in the history of rocketry. 2,600 tons of fuel had the power of a small nuclear bomb. The destroyed complex was photographed by American satellites,

disclosing that the Soviet Union was building a Moon rocket. The rescue system saved the dummy spacecraft again. After this flight, fuel filters were installed in later models. y June 26, 1971 Vehicle serial number 6L experienced an uncontrolled roll immediately after liftoff beyond the capability of the control system to compensate; the vehicle was destroyed 51 seconds after liftoff at 1 km altitude. This vehicle had dummy upper stages without the rescue system. The next, last vehicle had much more powerful stabilization system with dedicated engines (in the previous versions stabilization was done by directing exhaust from the main engines). The engine control system was also reworked, increasing the number of sensors from 700 to 13,000. y November 23, 1972 Vehicle serial number 7L the engines ran for 106.93 seconds after which pogo oscillation of the first stage caused engine cutoff (a problem which also plagued the engineers of the US Saturn V) at 40 km altitude; a programmed shutdown of some of the engines to prevent over-stressing of the structure led to an explosion of the oxygen pump on the engine number 4. The vehicle disintegrated. Confusion on designation The overall rocket system actually bore the designation N1-L3: N1 was the booster, while the L3 was mounted on top for the trip to lunar orbit and, it was hoped, lunar landing. There is a great deal of confusion among Russian online sources as to whether it is N1-L3 (Russian: 1- 3) or N1-LZ (Russian: 1- ) because of the similarity of the Cyrillic letter Ze for "Z" and the number "3". Sometimes both forms will be used within the same Russian website (or even the same article). English sources refer only to N1-L3, and it seems clear it is a number because there were lunar projects with code names from L1 to L5.

R-7 ROCKET FAMILY

The R-7 family (Russian: -7) is a series of rockets, derived from the Soviet R-7 Semyorka, the world's first ICBM. More R-7 rockets have been launched than any other family of large rockets. The R-7 turned out to be impractical as a ballistic missile, but found a long application in the Soviet and then Russian space programmes. The R-7 family consists of both missiles, and orbital carrier rockets. Derivatives include the Vostok, Voskhod and Soyuz rockets, which have been used for all Soviet, and later Russian manned spaceflights Later modifications were standardised around the Soyuz design. The Soyuz-U, Soyuz-FG and Soyuz-2 are currently in use. The Soyuz-U and FG are to be retired over the next few years, in favour of the Soyuz-2. R-7 rockets are launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome and the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. A third launch site, at the Guiana Space Centre in French Guiana, was to open in 2009 but the first Soyuz launch has been postponed several times. The current target date for the first Soyuz-2 launch from Guiana Space centre is April 2011. This will be used primarily for commercial launches to geosynchronous orbit, taking advantage of the launch site's proximity to the equator. As of 2011, every manned Russian or Soviet spaceflight has been launched by an R-7 rocket.

Summary of variants Name R-7 Semyorka Sputnik-PS Sputnik Luna R-7A Semyorka Vostok-L GRAU index 8K71 Function N Core Maiden Stages* flight 1 Final flight Launches Remarks Total Success Failure 18 9 World's first ICBM World's first carrier rocket Launched Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2 Launched Sputnik 3 Launched probes first Lunar

ICBM Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket ICBM Carrier

8K71PS 8A91 8K72

1 1 2

8K74 8K72L

1 2

27 15 May February 27 1957 1961 3 4 October November 2 1957 1957 27 April 15 May 2 1958 1958 23 16 April September 9 1960 1958 23 25 July December 21 1967 1959 15 May 1 4

2 1 2

0 1 7

18 3

3 1

rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket Carrier rocket

1960

Molniya

8K78

December 1960 3 20 January December 26 1960 1965 22 10 July December 13 1964 1960 Unbuilt 1 June 12 May 45 1962 1967 1 12 April November 2 1964 1963 16 29 June 300 November 1976 1963 19 30 February September 297 1964 2010[1] 28 August 29 August 94 1964 1991 27 20 July December 2 1966 1965 28 24 May November 30 1975 1966 Unbuilt Unbuilt Unbuilt

12

14 Used for manned Vostok missions First rocket to launch a man into space

Vostok-K

8K72K

11

Molniya-L Vostok-2 Polyot

8K78L 8A92 11A59

4 2 1

40 2

5 0 Launched manned Voskhod 1 and Voskhod 2 missions

Voskhod

11A57

277

23

Molniya-M Vostok-2M

8K78M 8A92M

3 2 3

276 92 2

21 2 0 Launched several manned Soyuz missions

Soyuz/Vostok 11A510

Soyuz Soyuz-B Soyuz-V Soyuz-R Soyuz-L

11A511 11K55 11K56 11A514

2 2 2 2 2

28

Carrier 11A511L rocket 11A511M Carrier rocket

Soyuz-M Soyuz-U

2 2

11A511U Carrier

24 12 August November 3 3 1971 1970 27 31 March December 8 8 1976 1971 18 May Active 727 706

0 19 Single most launched

rocket

1973

carrier rocket ever built Used for a number of manned Soyuz launches 90? 29 3 2? 0 1 Used for a number of manned Soyuz launches Used for current manned Soyuz launches

Soyuz-U2 Soyuz-FG Soyuz-2.1a

11A511U2

Carrier rocket

2 2 2

11A511U- Carrier FG rocket 14A14A Carrier rocket Carrier rocket

Soyuz-2.1b

14A14B

23 3 December September 92? 1982 1995 20 May Active 29 2001 8 November Active 4 2004 27 3 December Active 2006

* Not including boosters

LUNA VARIANT
The Luna 8K72 vehicles were carrier rockets used by the Soviet Union for nine space probe launch attempts in the Luna programme between 1958-09-23 and 1960-04-16.[1] Like many other Soviet launchers of that era the Luna 8K72 vehicles were derived from the R-7 Semyorka design, which is also the basis for the modern Soyuz rocket. The first flight of a Luna 8K72, which was to launch the Luna E-1 No.1 probe, ended 92 seconds after launch when the rocket broke up and exploded, destroying the payload.[2] The second flight of a Luna 8K72, which was to launch the Luna E-1 No.2 probe, ended 104 seconds after launch when the rocket broke up and exploded, destroying the payload. The third flight of a Luna 8K72, which was to launch the Luna E-1 No.3 probe, ended 245 seconds after launch when the rocket broke up and exploded, destroying the payload.

POLYOT VARIANT
The Polyot (Also known as Sputnik, GRAU index 11A59) was an interim orbital carrier rocket, built to test ASAT spacecraft. It was required as a stopgap after the cancellation of the UR-200 programme, but before the Tsyklon could enter service. Only two were ever launched, the first on 1 November 1963, and the last on 12 April 1964. Both of these flights were successful. The rocket consisted of a core stage, and four boosters, which were taken from a Voskhod 11A57 rocket. It was capable of delivering a 1,400kg payload into a 300km by 59o Low Earth orbit. It is a member of the R-7 family.

MOLNIYA VARIANT
Molniya 8K78 was a modification of the well-known R-7 Semyorka rocket and had four stages.

This derivative of the original three stage Vostok rocket was especially designed to bring high flying satellites into orbit or to launch probes to other planets. The first launch of this rocket was on October 10 in 1960 from Baikonur Cosmodrome. It was used in the 1960s to launch the majority of Soviet space probes to Moon, Mars and Venus. In the mid 1960s, it was superseded by the modernised Molniya-M. Molniya ( ) is Russian for 'Lightning'.

MOLNIYA M VARIANT
The Molniya-M (Russian: , meaning "lightning"), designation 8K78M, was a Russian (previously Soviet) carrier rocket derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. First launched in 1964, it had replaced its predecessor, Molniya, by the end of 1965. It made 297 launches and experienced 21 failures, the last of which occurred on 21 June 2005 when a third stage malfunction prevented its payload, a Molniya-3K communications satellite from reaching orbit.[1] The final flight of a Molniya-M was conducted on 30 September 2010. It will be replaced by the Soyuz-2/Fregat. For most of its operational life, the Molniya-M was used to launch its namesake Molniya and also Oko satellites into Molniya orbits, orbits of high eccentricity that allow satellites to dwell over polar regions. Variants There were four main variants of the Molniya-M, which varied in terms of their upper stage. Originally, the Block L stage was used, however uprated versions replaced this with more powerful, or specialised, stages, for different missions. The Molniya-M/2BL, used to launch Oko missile defence spacecraft, had a Block 2BL upper stage, The Molniya-M/ML had a Block ML upper stage, and the Molniya-M/SO-L had a Block SO-L stage. Retirement The Molniya-M/ML was scheduled to be the last variant to fly, with two launches of Molniya spacecraft scheduled to occur in 2008, however they were cancelled in light of the launch failure in 2005, in favour of the Meridian spacecraft. The Molniya-M was believed to have been retired on 23 October 2007 after launching the an Oko spacecraft, however this later proved to have been incorrect, when a Molniya-M was used to launch another Oko satellite on 2 December 2008.[3] Following a launch on 30 September 2010, the Russian Space Forces confirmed that it had been retired from service.

SOYUZ VARIANT
The Soyuz (Russian: , meaning "union", GRAU index 11A511) was a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed by OKB-1 and manufactured by State Aviation Plant No. 1 in Samara, Russia. It was used to launch Soyuz spacecraft as part of the Soyuz programme, initially on unmanned test flights, followed by the first 19 manned launches of the programme.[1] The Soyuz first flew in 1966, and was derived from the Voskhod rocket,[2] it was a member of the R-7 family of rockets. It was a two-stage rocket, with four liquid-fuelled strap-on boosters clustered around the first stage, with a Block I second stage. Soyuz rockets are assembled horizontally in the MIK Building at the launch site. The rocket is then rolled out, and erected on the launch pad.

SOYUZ L VARIANT
The Soyuz-L (Russian: , meaning "union"), GRAU index 11A511L was a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed by OKB-1 and manufactured by State Aviation Plant No. 1 in Samara, Russia. It was used for tests of the LK Lunar lander in low Earth orbit, as part of the Soviet lunar programme.The Soyuz-L was essentially a two stage derivative of the Molniya-M, itself derived from the original Soyuz. It featured the reinforced first stage and boosters used to provide support for the Molniya's third stage, allowing it to carry a larger and more massive payload. A larger payload fairing was also fitted, to accommodate the LK spacecraft.[1] The Soyuz-L made its maiden flight in 1970, and was retired in 1971, having made three launches. All three launches were successful.[1] The later Soyuz-U used a similar configuration to the Soyuz-L.

SOYUZ M VARIANT
The Soyuz-M (Russian: , meaning "Union"), GRAU index 11A511M was a Soviet expendable carrier rocket designed by OKB-1 and manufactured by State Aviation Plant No. 1 in Samara, Russia. It was originally built to launch manned Soyuz 7K-VI spacecraft for the Soviet armed forces. Following the cancellation of this programme, development of the rocket continued for the Soyuz 7K-S spacecraft. After this too was cancelled, Soyuz-M development was also abandoned, and the rockets that had been completed were used to launch reconnaissance satellites. While the exact details of the Soyuz-M are not known, it is believed to be a two stage rocket, derived from the Soyuz. It may have been similar to the later SoyuzU.[1] Following the cancellation of the Soyuz 7K-S, eight were launched with Zenit-4MT spacecraft.[1] The first of these launches occurred on 27 December 1971, and the last on 31 March 1976. All launches occurred from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, the first used Site 43/4, however the sites used by the subsequent launches were not recorded.

SOYUZ U2 VARIANT
The Soyuz-U2 (GRAU index 11A511U2) was a Soviet, later Russian, carrier rocket. It was derived from the Soyuz-U, and a member of the R-7 family of rockets. It featured increased performance compared to the baseline Soyuz-U, due to the use of syntin propellant, as opposed to RP-1 paraffin, used on the Soyuz-U. The increased payload of the Soyuz-U2 allowed heavier spacecraft to be launched, while lighter spacecraft could be placed in higher orbits, compared to those launched by Soyuz-U rockets. In 1996, it was announced that the Soyuz-U2 had been retired, as the performance advantage gained through the use of syntin did not justify the additional cost of its production. The final flight had occurred in the previous year. The Soyuz-U2 was primarily used to launch Yantar reconnaissance satellites, and Soyuz and Progress spacecraft to the Mir space station. Due to the similarity

between the Soyuz-U and U2, the exact number of Soyuz-U2 launches is in doubt, with estimates ranging from 66 to 92 launches. It is also unclear how many launches failed, however most sources suggest there were either zero or two failures.

SOYUZ/VOSTOK COMBINATION DESIGN

The Soyuz/Vostok, also known as just Soyuz or Vostok, or by its GRAU index, 11A510 was an interim expendable carrier rocket used by the Soviet Union in 1965 and 1966. Two were launched with prototype US-A satellites.[1] The Soyuz/Vostok was launched from Site 31/6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. It consisted of the first stage and boosters from a Soyuz rocket combined with the second stage of the Vostok-2, and an unknown third stage.[1] Along with the Voskhod-derived Polyot, it was built as an interim between the cancellation of the UR-200 development programme, and the introduction of the Tsyklon-2, which took over US-A launches once it entered service.

SPUTNIK VARIANT SPECIFICATIONS

The Sputnik rocket was an unmanned orbital carrier rocket designed by Sergey Korolyov, derived from the R-7 Semyorka ICBM. On 4 October 1957, it was used to perform the world's first satellite launch, placing Sputnik 1 into a low Earth orbit. Two versions of the Sputnik were built, the Sputnik-PS (GRAU index 8K71PS), which was used to launch Sputnik 1 and later Sputnik 2, and the Sputnik (8A91), which failed to launch a satellite in April 1958, and subsequently launched Sputnik 3 on 15 May 1958.[1] A later member of the R-7 family, the Polyot, used the same configuration as the Sputnik rocket, but was constructed from Voskhod components. Because of the similarity, the Polyot was sometimes known as the Sputnik 11A59. Specifications y Stage number: 0 - Strap-on boosters; 4 x 8K71PS-0 [vague] o Gross mass: 43.0 tons o Empty mass: 3.400 tons o Thrust (vac): 4 99,000 kgf = 396 Mgf (3.89 MN) o Isp: 306 s (3,000 Ns/kg) o Burn time: 120 s (2 min) o Isp(sl): 250 s (2,450 Ns/kg) o Diameter: 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) o Span: 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) o Length: 19 metres (62 ft) o Propellants: LOX/RP-1 o Engines: 1 x RD-107-8D74PS per booster = 4 y Stage number: 1 - Core stage; 1 x 8K71PS-1 o Gross mass: 94.0 tons o Empty mass: 7.495 tons o Thrust (vac): 99,000 kgf (970 kN) o Isp: 308 s (3,020 Ns/kg) o Burn time: 310 s (5 min 10 s)

y y y

Isp(sl): 241 s (2,360 Ns/kg) Diameter: 3 metres (9.8 ft) Span: 3 metres (9.8 ft) Length: 28 metres (92 ft) Propellants: Lox/RP-1 Engine: 1 x RD-108-8D75PS Total mass: 267 tons (534,000 lb) LEO payload: 500 kg Total liftoff thrust: 3.89 MN
o o o o o o

Sputnik 8A91
The Sputnik 8A91 had more powerful 8D76 and 8D77 engines installed,[2], increasing its payload capacity, and allowing it to launch much heavier satellites than Sputnik 1 and Sputnik 2. It was launched two times, in 1958.[3] The first launch, on 27 April, failed due to vibrations that unexpectedly occurred during the flight along the longitudinal axis of the rocket. On 5 May, it successfully launched Sputnik 3.[4] Sputnik 8A91 specifications y Stage number: 0 - Strap-on boosters; 4 x Sputnik 8A91-0 o Gross mass: 43.0 tons o Empty mass: 3.400 tons o Thrust (vac): 4 99,000 kgf = 396 Mgf (3.89 MN) o Isp: 310 s (3,040 Ns/kg) o Burn time: 130 s (2 min 10 s) o Isp(sl): 252 s (2,470 Ns/kg) o Diameter: 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) o Span: 2.7 metres (8.9 ft) o Length: 19 metres (62 ft) o Propellants: Lox/RP-1 o Engines: 1 x RD-107-8D76 per booster = 4 y Stage number: 1 - Core stage; 1 x Sputnik 8A91-1 [vague] o Gross mass: 95.0 tons o Empty mass: 7.100 tons o Thrust (vac): 82,000 kgf (804 kN) o Isp: 315 s (3,090 Ns/kg) o Burn time: 360 s (6 min) o Isp(sl): 246 s (2,410 Ns/kg) o Diameter: 2.99 metres (9.8 ft) o Length:28 metres (92 ft) o Propellants: LOX/RP-1 o Engine: 1 x RD-108-8D77 [vague] y Total mass: 269.3 tons y LEO payload: 1,327 kg (2,925 lb) y Total liftoff thrust: 385,950 kgf (3.784 MN, 850,870 lbf)

VOSKHOD ROCKET
The Voskhod rocket (Russian: , "ascent", "dawn") was a derivative of the Soviet R-7 ICBM designed for the human spaceflight programme but later used for launching Zenit reconnaissance satellites. It combined the R-7 with an upper stage that had been originally designed to launch interplanetary probes. There was only one main variant of the Voskhod, designated 11A57. Between 1963 and 1976 it was used for some 300 launches.

Voskhod 11A57
y

Stage Number: 0 - Strap-on boosters; 4 x Voskhod 11A57-0 o Gross Mass: 43,400 kg o Empty Mass: 3,800 kg. o Thrust (vac): 4 x 995.4 kN = 3,981.5 kN o Isp: 314 s (3.08 kNs/kg) o Burn time: 119 s o Isp(sl): 257 s (2.52 kNs/kg) o Diameter: 2.68 m o Span: 8 m o Length: 19.00 m o Propellants: Lox/Kerosene o Engines: 4 x RD-107-8D74K Stage Number: 1 - Core stage; 1 x Voskhod 11A57-1 o Gross Mass: 100,500 kg o Empty Mass: 6,800 kg o Thrust (vac): 941.4 kN o Isp: 315 s (3.09 kNs/kg) o Burn time: 301 s o Isp(sl): 248 s (2.43 kNs/kg) o Diameter: 2.99 m o Span: 2.60 m o Length: 28.00 m o Propellants: Lox/Kerosene o Engine: 1 x RD-108-8D75K Stage Number: 2 - Final Stage; 1 x Voskhod 11A57-2 o Gross Mass: 24,300 kg o Empty Mass: 2,000 kg o Thrust (vac): 294.2 kN o Isp: 330 s (3.24 kNs/kg) o Burn time: 240 s o Diameter: 2.56 m o Length: 2.84 m o Propellants: Lox/Kerosene o Engine: 1 x RD-0108

VOSTOK ROCKET FAMILY

Vostok (Russian , translated as "East") was a family of rockets derived from the Soviet R7 Semyorka ICBM designed for the human spaceflight programme. This family of rockets launched the first artificial satellite ("sputnik") and the first manned spacecraft in human history. It was a subset of the R-7 family of rockets. On March 18, 1980 a Vostok-2M rocket exploded on its launch pad at Plesetsk during a fueling operation, killing 48. An investigation into a similar but avoided accident revealed that the substitution of lead-based for tin-based solder in hydrogen peroxide filters had resulted in the breakdown of the H2O2 and the resulting explosion. Versions The major versions of the rocket were: y Luna 8K72 - used to launch the early Luna spacecraft y Vostok-L 8K72 - Variant of the Luna, used to launch prototype Vostok spacecraft y Vostok-K 8K72K - a refined version of the above. This was the version actually used for human spaceflight y Vostok-2 8A92 - used for launching Zenit reconnaissance satellites throughout the 1960s y Vostok-2M 8A92M - modified version for launching Meteor weather satellites into higher orbits. y Soyuz/Vostok 11A110 - hybrid of Soyuz and Vostok rockets used as an interim for two launches Vostok 8K72K y Stage Number: 1 - Strap-on Boosters; 4 x Vostok 8K72K-0 o Gross Mass: 43,300 kg o Empty Mass: 3,710 kg o Thrust (vac): 4 x 99,000 kgf (971 kN) = 3.88 MN o Isp: 313 s (3.07 kNs/kg) o Burn time: 118 s o Isp(sl): 256 s (2.51 kNs/kg) o Diameter: 2.68 m o Span: 8.35 m o Length: 19.00 m o Propellants: Lox/Kerosene o Engines: 1 x RD-107-8D74-1959 per booster = 4 y Stage Number: 2 - Core stage; 1 x Vostok 8K72K-1 o Gross Mass: 100,400 kg o Empty Mass: 6,800 kg o Thrust (vac): 912 kN o Isp: 315 s (3.09 kNs/kg) o Burn time: 301 s o Isp(sl): 248 s (2.43 kNs/kg) o Diameter: 2.99 m o Length: 28.00 m o Propellants: Lox/Kerosene o Engine: 1 x RD-108-8D75-1959 y Stage Number: 3 - Final stage; 1 x Vostok 8K72K-2

o o o o o o o o o o

Gross Mass: 7,775 kg Empty Mass: 1,440 kg Thrust (vac): 54.5 kN Isp: 326 s (3.20 kNs/kg) Burn time: 365 s Diameter: 2.56 m Span: 2.56 m Length: 2.84 m Propellants: Lox/Kerosene Engine: 1 x RD-0109

VOSTOK L VARIANT
The Vostok-L (Russian: meaning "East"), GRAU index 8K72 was a rocket used by the Soviet Union to conduct several early tests of the Vostok spacecraft. It was derived from the Luna rocket, with a slightly enlarged second stage to accommodate the larger payload,[1] and was a member of the R-7 family of rockets. Four launches were conducted between 15 May and 1 December 1960, three of which successfully reached orbit. The first flight, on 15 May 1960, carried the Korabl'-Sputnik 1 spacecraft. The second launched on 28 July, however one of the booster engines burned through at launch, causing the booster to separate prematurely, 17 seconds after launch. The rocket exploded 28.5 seconds after liftoff, killing the two dogs that were aboard the spacecraft.[1] The third flight successfully placed Korabl'-Sputnik 2 into orbit on 19 August, whilst the fourth and final flight orbited Korabl'-Sputnik 3 on 1 December. The Vostok-L was replaced by an uprated version, the Vostok-K, which offered a greater payload capacity.

VOSTOK M VARIANT
The Vostok-K (Russian: meaning "East"), GRAU index 8K72K was an expendable carrier rocket used by the Soviet Union for thirteen launches between 1960 and 1964, six of which were manned. It was derived from the earlier Vostok-L, however it featured uprated engines to improve performance, and enlarge its payload capacity.[1] It was a member of the R-7 family of rockets. The Vostok-K made its maiden flight on 22 December 1960, three weeks after the retirement of the Vostok-L. The third stage engine failed 425 seconds after launch, and the payload, a Korabl'-Sputnik spacecraft, failed to reach orbit. The spacecraft was recovered after landing, and the two dogs aboard the spacecraft survived the flight. On 12 April 1961, a VostokK rocket was used to launch Vostok 1, the first manned spaceflight, which made Yuri Gagarin the first man to fly in space. All six manned missions of the Vostok programme were launched using Vostok-K rockets. In addition to manned and unmanned launches of Vostok spacecraft, the Vostok-K was also used to launch four Elektron satellites, and the first two Zenit-2 reconnaissance satellites. The last launch was conducted on 10 July 1964, with a pair of Elektron satellites.[2] It was retired in favour of the more powerful Vostok-2 and Voskhod rockets.

VOSTOK 2 VARIANT
The Vostok-2 (Russian: meaning "East"), GRAU index 8A92 was an expendable carrier rocket used by the Soviet Union between 1962 and 1967. Forty five were launched, of which five failed.[1] It was derived from the earlier Vostok-K, with uprated engines. It was a member of the R-7 family of rockets. The Vostok-2 made its maiden flight on 1 June 1962, from Site 1/5 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. One of the booster engines failed 1.8 seconds after launch, and the rocket came down 300 metres (980 ft) away from the pad. The resulting explosion damaged the launch complex, and necessitated delays to several other launches that had been scheduled from that complex, including Vostok 3 and Vostok 4.[1] Thirteen months later, on 10 July 1963, an almost identical failure occurred. The other three failures were caused by a second stage malfunction, a second stage guidance problem, and a problem with the first stage. The Vostok-2 was used exclusively to launch Zenit-2 reconnaissance satellites. Launches occurred from sites 1/5 and 31/6 at Baikonur, and Site 41/1 at Plesetsk. In 1967, it was retired in favour of the Voskhod.

VOSTOK 2M VARIANT
The Vostok-2M (Russian: meaning "East"), GRAU index 8A92M was an expendable carrier rocket used by the Soviet Union between 1964 and 1991. Ninety three were launched, of which one failed. Another was destroyed before launch.[1] It was originally built as a specialised version of the earlier Vostok-2, for injecting lighter payloads into higher sunsynchronous orbits. It was a member of the R-7 family of rockets, and the last Vostok. The Vostok-2M made its maiden flight on 28 August 1964, from Site 31/6 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, successfully placing Kosmos 44, a Meteor weather satellite into orbit. Its only launch failure occurred on 1 February 1969, when the launch of a Meteor failed due to an upper stage problem. At 16:01 GMT on 18 March 1980, a Vostok-2M exploded during fuelling Plesetsk Site 43/4, ahead of the launch of a Tselina-D satellite, killing 48 people who were working on the rocket at the time. The cause of the explosion was later established to have been a design fault in the rocket's hydrogen peroxide filter system. Vostok-2M launches occurred from Site 31/6 at Baikonur, and Sites 41/1 and 43 at Plesetsk. It is unclear if any were launched from Site 1/5 at Baikonur. The Vostok-2M was retired in 1991, in favour of standardisation on the Soyuz-U and U2 rockets. The final flight was conducted on 29 August, and carried the IRS-1B satellite for the Indian Space Research Organisation.

TSYKLON ROCKET FAMILY

The Tsyklon ( , "Cyclone", also known as Tsiklon), GRAU index 11K67, was a Soviet/Ukrainian-designed expendable launch system, primarily used to put Cosmos satellites into low Earth orbit. It is based on the R-36 intercontinental ballistic missile designed by Mikhail Yangel and made eight launches, with seven successes, and one failure. All of its launches were conducted from LC-90 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. It is sometimes designated Tsyklon-2A, not to be confused with the later Tsyklon-2 rocket. It was introduced in 1967 and was derived from the R-36 ICBM (NATO designation of SS-9, Scarp). It was retired in 1969.

It made its maiden flight on 27 October 1967. Tsyklon was designed by the Yuzhnoe Design Bureau and manufactured by Yuzhmash (both in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine). Control system was designed at NPO "Electropribor"[1] (Kharkiv, Ukraine). The last flown derivative, the Tsyklon-3 was retired in January 2009,[2] however another derivative, the Tsyklon-4, is still under development. Derivatives Two rockets were derived from the Tsyklon: the Tsyklon-2 and Tsyklon-3, known respectively as the SL-11 and SL-14 by the US DoD.[3] The two stage Tsyklon-2 was first launched August 6, 1969, from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, while the Tsyklon-3, which featured a restartable third stage, first launched on June 24, 1977 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. On December 27, 2000, A Tsyklon-3 failed in its attempt to carry six Russian satellites into orbit, plummeting to the earth. An electrical failure in the rocket's third stage was the suspected cause. The Tsyklon-2 was 39.7 metres (130 ft) long with a fueled mass of 182 tonnes. The Tsyklon-3 is 39.27 metres (128.8 ft) long with a fueled mass of 186 to 190 tonnes. The Tsyklon-2 made its final flight in 2006, while the Tsyklon-3 was retired after launching the Koronas-Foton satellite on 30 January 2009.

TSYKLON 2 VARIANT
The Tsyklon-2, also known as Tsiklon-2 and Tsyklon-M, GRAU index 11K69, was a Soviet, and subsequently Ukrainian orbital carrier rocket. A derivative of the R-36 ICBM, and a member of the Tsyklon family, it made its maiden flight on 6 August 1969, and after 106 launches, made its final flight on 24 June 2006. At the time of retirement, it was the most reliable active carrier rocket in the world, having failed only once. It is the second most reliable carrier rocket overall, behind the Atlas II. It was retired in favour of future modern and all-Russian carrier rockets, such as the Angara. Due to the covert nature of its missions, it is hard to be certain that it has been retired, however it has been reported that only one Tsyklon launch remains[1], and that is a Tsyklon-3.

TSYKLON 3 VARIANT
The Tsyklon-3, also known as Tsiklon-3, GRAU index 11K68, was a Soviet, and subsequently Ukrainian orbital carrier rocket. A derivative of the R-36 ICBM, and a member of the Tsyklon family, it made its maiden flight on 24 June 1977, and was retired on 30 January 2009[1]. The Ukrainian-built Tsyklon rockets were retired in favour of future all-Russian carrier rockets, such as the Angara, and because they were fuelled by toxic hypergolic propellants.[2] Ukraine is developing a commercial derivative of the Tsyklon-3, the Tsyklon-4.

DNEPR 1 ROCKET LAUNCH SYSTEM

The Dnepr rocket (Ukrainian: , Dnipr; Russian: , Dnepr) is a space launch vehicle named after the Dnieper River. It is a converted ICBM used for launching artificial satellites into orbit, operated by launch service provider ISC Kosmotras. The first launch, on April 21, 1999, successfully placed UoSAT-12, a 350 kg demonstration mini-satellite, into a 650 km circular Low Earth orbit.

Converted missile The Dnepr is based on the R-36MUTTH ICBM called the SS-18 Satan by NATO designed by the Yuzhnoe Design Bureau in Dnipropetrovsk, Ukraine. Its control system developed and produced by the JSC "Khartron", Kharkiv. The Dnepr is three-stage rocket using storable hypergolic liquid propellants. The launch vehicles used for satellite launches are withdrawn from service with the Russian Strategic Rocket Forces and stored for commercial use. A group of 150 ICBMs can be converted for use and are available until 2020. The Dnepr can be launched from Baikonur in Kazakhstan and a newly created Cosmodrome at the Dombarovsky launch base, near Yasny, in the Orenburg region of Russia. Performance The Dnepr launch vehicle has only a small number of modifications compared to the R-36M ICBM in service. The main difference is the payload adapter located in the space head module and modified flight-control unit. This baseline version can lift 3,600 kg into a 300 km low earth orbit at an inclination of 50.6, or 2,300 kg to a 300 km sun-synchronous orbit at an inclination of 98.0. On a typical mission the Dnepr deploys a larger main payload and a secondary payload of Miniaturized satellites and CubeSats. A number of Space Tugs are under development which will be placed inside the space head module, thereby sacrificing volume and payload but enabling orbits requiring more energy, including planetary escape orbits. Launch history Before the Dnepr entered commercial service it was in service with the Strategic Rocket Forces which launched the ICBM version over 160 times with a reliability of 97%. The rocket has been used fourteen times for commercial purposes with a single failure. Flight Date Payload Orbit Site 1 April 21, UoSAT-12 650 km circular Baikonur 1999 LEO at 65 inclination 2 September MegSat-1 (Italy)/UniSat (Italy)/TiungSat-1 650 km circular Baikonur 26, 2000 (Malaysia)/ SaudiSat-1A & SaudiSat 1B (Saudi LEO at 65 Arabia) inclination 3 December LatinSat 1 & LatinSat 2 (Argentina)/SaudiSat-1S 650 km circular Baikonur 20, 2002 (Saudi Arabia)/UniSat 2 (Italy)/Rubin 2 LEO at 65 (Germany)/TrailBlazer Test (USA) inclination 4 June 29, Demeter (France)/ Saudicomsat-1, Saudicomsat 700 km 850 km Baikonur 2004 2 & Saudisat 2 (Saudi Arabia)/ LatinSat C & Sun-synchronic LatinSat D (Argentina)/ Unisat-3 (Italy)/ Amsat orbit at 98 Echo (USA) inclination 5 August 24, OICETS & INDEX (Japan) 600 km 50 km Baikonur 2005 Sun-synchronic orbit at 98 inclination 6 July 12, Genesis I (USA) 560 km circular Yasny 2006 LEO at 65 inclination 7 July 26, BelKA (Belarus)/ UniSat-4 & PiCPoT (Italy)/ failed to reach Baikonur 2006 Baumanets ( Russia)/ AeroCube-1, CP1, CP2, orbit

ICEcube-1, ICEcube-2, ION, KUTESat, Merope, Rincon 1, Mea Huaka`i (Voyager) & SACRED (USA)/HAUSAT-1 (South Korea)/Ncube-1 (Norway)/SEEDS (Japan) 8 17 April EgyptSat 1/SaudiSat 3/SaudiComSat 3-7 /AKS 692 km 665 km Baikonur 2007 1/AKS 2/Cal Poly Picosatellite Project 3 &4/CAPE Sun synchronous 1/Libertad 1/AeroCube 2/CubeSat TestBed orbit at 98 [3] 1/MAST inclination 9 15 June TerraSAR-X 514 km circular Baikonur 2007 LEO at 97 [4] inclination 10 28 June Genesis II 560 km circular Yasny 2007 LEO at 65 inclination [5] 11 29 August RapidEye 1/2/3/4/5 Baikonur 2008 12 1 October THEOS SSO Yasny 2008 13 July 29, DubaiSat-1/Deimos-1/UK-DMC 2/Nanosat SSO Baikonur 2009 1B/AprizeSat-3/AprizeSat-4 14 8 April 2010 Cryosat-2 Polar Baikonur 15 15 June Prisma, Picard, BPA-1 SSO Yasny 2010 21 June 16 TanDEM-X LEO Baikonur 2010 Planned launches Launch failure The committee investigating the failed launch on July 26, 2006 concluded that the failure was caused by a malfunctioning of the pumping hydraulic drive of combustion chamber #4. The control malfunctioning brought about the disturbances, which led to the roll instability, excessive dispersions of the yaw and pitch angles. Thrust termination occurred at 74 seconds after lift off. The crash site was located 150 km from the launch pad in an unpopulated area of Kazakhstan. Toxic propellants did pollute the crash site, forcing Russia to pay US$1.1m in compensation.[6] The rocket used for this launch was more than twenty years old. Procedures for launch have been changed to prevent future malfunctions of this kind.

KOSMOS 3M ROCKET
The Kosmos-3M (Russian: -3 meaning "Cosmos", GRAU index 11K65M) is a Russian space launch vehicle. It is a liquid-fueled two-stage rocket, first launched in 1967 and with over 410 successful launches to its name. The Cosmos 3M uses nitrogen tetroxide as an oxidizer to lift roughly 1400 kg of payload into orbit. It differed from the earlier Cosmos 3 in its finer control of the second-stage burn, allowing operators to tune the thrust and even channel it through nozzles that helped orient the rocket for the launching of multiple satellites at one

time. PO Polyot has manufactured these launch vehicles in the Russian town of Omsk for decades. It was originally scheduled to be retired from service in 2011,[1] however in April 2010 the Commander of the Russian Space Forces confirmed that it would be retired by the end of 2010.[2] One rocket remains to be launched. Launches First launched in 1967, with over 420 successful launches to date (2009). Satellite Date Carrier Site Aryabhata 19 April 1975 Kosmos-3M Kapustin Yar Science and Technology Satellite STSAT-1 27 Sept 2003 Kosmos-3M [3] SAR-Lupe-2 2 July 2007 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk Kosmos-2429 11 September 2007 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk SAR-Lupe 4 27 March 2008 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk [4] Orbcomm On 19 June 2008 Kosmos-3M Kapustin Yar SAR-Lupe 5 22 July 2008 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk Kosmos 2454 (Parus) 21 July 2009 Kosmos-3M Plesetsk Site 132/1 Sterkh-1 Accidents On June 26, 1973, the explosion of a Kosmos 3M at Plesetsk Cosmodrome killed 9 people.[5] In 1976, the explosion of a Kosmos 3M on its launchpad killed nine engineers.[citation needed] More recently, on November 21, 2000, a Kosmos 3M launcher failed to place the QuickBird 1 satellite into orbit due to a failure of its second stage. The rocket and satellite reentered the atmosphere over Uruguay, and an inquest into the accident was inconclusive.

R 29 VYSOTA LAUNCH VEHICLE

R-29 Vysota is a family of Russian submarine-launched ballistic missiles, designed by State Rocket Center Makayev. Development of the R-29 SLBMs started in the 1963 and was first launched in 1969. It uses the storable Liquid rocket propellants N2O4/UDMH. Over time different versions have developed listed below. The R-29 is in use with Russian Navy on Delta I, Delta II, Delta III and Delta IV class submarine. The R-29 can be equipped with nuclear warheads, but is also used for launching artificial satellites. The R-29R variant is sold for commercial satellite launches as the Volna, while the R-29RM is being sold as the Shtil' launch vehicle R-29 y Deployment Date: 1974 y Manufacturer designation: 4K75 y DoD designation: SS-N-8 Mod 1 y ASCC designation: "Sawfly" y SALT designation: RSM-40 y Submarine: Delta I y Total Mass: 32,800 kg y Core Diameter: 1.80 m y Total Length: 13.20 m y Span: 1.80 m

y y y y

Payload: 1100 kg Maximum range: 7700 km Number Standard Warheads: 1 Number of stages: 2 Deployment Date: 1978 Manufacturer designation: 4K75D DoD designation: SS-N-8 Mod 2 ASCC designation: "Sawfly" SALT designation: RSM-40 Submarine: Delta II Total Mass: 33,300 kg Core Diameter: 1.80 m Total Length: 13.00 m Span: 1.80 m Payload: 1100 kg Maximum range: 9100 km Number Standard Warheads: 1 Number of stages: 2 Deployment Date: 1979 Manufacturer designation: 4K75R DoD designation: SS-N-18 Mod 1 ASCC designation: "Stingray" SALT designation: RSM-50 Submarine: Delta III Total Mass: 35,300 kg Core Diameter: 1.80 m Total Length: 14.40 m Span: 1.80 m Payload: 1650 kg Maximum range: 6,500 km Number Standard Warheads: 3 (0,2 Number of stages: 2 Manufacturer designation: 4K75RK DoD designation: SS-N-18 Mod 2 ASCC designation: "Stingray" SALT designation: RSM-50 Submarine: Delta III Total Mass: 34,388 kg Core Diameter: 1.80 m Total Length: 14.40 m Span: 1.80 m Maximum range: 6,500 km Number Standard Warheads: 7 (0,1 Number of stages: 2

R-29D
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

R-29R
y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

R-29RK
y y y y y y y y y y y y

R-29RL Manufacturer designation: 4K75RL DoD designation: SS-N-18 Mod 3 ASCC designation: "Stingray" SALT designation: RSM-50 Submarine: Delta III Total Mass: 35,300 kg Core Diameter: 1.80 m Total Length: 14.09 m Span: 1.80 m Maximum range: 9,000 km Number Standard Warheads: 1 (0,45 ) [2] Number of stages: 2 R-29RM y Deployment Date: 1986 y Manufacturer designation: 4K75RM y DoD designation: SS-N-23 y ASCC designation: "Skif" y SALT designation: RSM-54 y Submarine: Delta IV y Total Mass: 40,300 kg y Core Diameter: 1.90 m y Total Length: 14.80 m y Span: 1.90 m y Payload: 2800 kg y Maximum range: 8300 km y Number Standard Warheads: 4 (tested with 10) y Number of stages: 3
y y y y y y y y y y y y

SHTIL VARIANT
Space launch vehicle Shtil (Russian: ( - calm (weather)), is a converted SLBM used for launching artificial satellites into orbit. It is based on the R-29RM designed by State Rocket Center Makeyev and related to the Volna Launch Vehicle. The Shtil' is a 3 stage launch vehicle that uses liquid propellant. It is the first launch vehicle to successfully launch a payload into orbit from a submarine, although launch from land based structures is possible as well. Versions Shtil' This is the baseline version of the launch vehicle. The payload is placed in a special capsule in the space head next to the third stage engine nozzle. The missiles used are withdrawn from active service with the Russian Navy and converted to civilian launch vehicles by removing the warheads and antennas. To inject the payload into the right orbit the flight software is adjusted and additional measuring equipment is installed. Launches can be performed from Delta IV submarines while submerged. Shtil'-2.1

A proposed version under development of the Shtil' launch vehicle features the payload in a special section on top of the space head. This increases the possible volume and weight of the payload inserted into orbit. Shtil'-2R A further developed version of the launch vehicle features a larger payload section on top of the space head. The additional space is used for larger and heavier payloads and an additional boost engine to propel the payload in higher orbits. The increase in length of the launch vehicle means that it can only be launched from a ground based launching complex. Shtil'-3 The final proposed version of the Shtil' launch vehicle features a redesigned third stage with enlarged propellant tanks. The space head used on previous version is omitted and replaced by a newly designed section for instruments and the payload adapter. The payload section can, when necessary for the mission, include an additional booster engine. Performance Because of its mobile launch platform the Shtil' launch vehicle can reach a large number of different inclinations and both sun-synchronous orbit and low Earth orbit. The possible payload is determined by the desired mission. On a typical mission to a 200 km circular orbit at an inclination of 79 degrees the Shtil' has a payload of 160 kg. Proposed version have a higher payload capacity of up to 430 kg for the Shtil-3. Launch History y On 7 July 1998, the Shtil' launch vehicle placed two payloads in Low Earth Orbit. The German TubSat-N and TubSat-N1 were launched from the Delta IV submarine K-407 "Novomoskovsk" of the Russian Northern Fleet 3rd Flotilla. The launch was made from a firing range in the Barents Sea. The payloads weighing 8 kg and 3 kg respectively were placed in a 400 x 776 km orbit at an inclination of 78.9 degrees. This was the first time satellites were launched from a submarine. y On 26 May 2006, the Shtil' launch vehicle inserted the Kompass 2 satellite into Low Earth Orbit. The launch was performed from the Barents Sea by the Delta IV Submarine K-84 "Ekaterinburg". The Kompass 2 satellite has a weight of 77 kg and was put in a 500 km high orbit at an inclination of 79.8 degrees. Cancelled launch y The South African satellite SumbandilaSat, an 80-kg microsatellite with a multispectral imager as primary payload, was scheduled for launch from the Sthil' launch vehicle in early 2007. SumbandilaSat was eventually launched into a 500-km low-earth orbit on 17 September 2009 on a Soyuz-2.1b rocket.

VOLNA VARIANT
Space launch vehicle Volna ("wave" in Russian), is a converted SLBM used for launching artificial satellites into orbit. It is based on the R-29R designed by State Rocket Center Makayev and related to the Shtil' Launch Vehicle . The Volna is a 3 stage launch vehicle that uses liquid propellant. The warhead section is used for the payloads that can be either put into orbit with the help of an additional boost engine or travel along a sub-orbital trajectory to be recovered at the landing site. Volna can be launched from Delta III class submarine or from land based facilities. Performance

Because of its mobile launch platform the Volna launch vehicle can reach a large number of different inclinations and could increase its performance to low Earth orbit by launching from equatorial sites. All flights to date have taken place from the Barents Sea. From this site the Volna can lift 100kg into a 400km high orbit with an inclination of 79 degrees. The warhead section can accommodate a payload of up to 1.3 m3. For sub-orbital missions the payload can be either a recoverable vehicle of up to 720kg or research equipment placed in a descent vehicle of up to 400kg. Launch history y The first launch of the Volna took place at June 6, 1995 on a suborbital trajectory. The payload of this flight was a thermal-convectional Earth model developed by Bremen University (Germany). y On 20 July 2001 the second flight took place with a test vehicle of the Cosmos 1 solar sail of the Planetary Society and an inflatable re-entry heat shield. The Volna was launched from Delta III Submarine Borisoglebsk in the Barents Sea. Although the launch vehicle reached the intended orbit the spacecraft failed to separate. The separation command was not issued by the flight software because of the presence of non-nominal variations. Failure of the Cosmos-1 to separate also resulted in the loss of the secondary payload, a new inflatable re-entry vehicle. y On 12 July 2002 the Volna was used for a sub-orbital flight for a second attempt to test a new re-entry vehicle, IRDT-2. The launch took place from Delta III class submarine K-44 Ryazan. Due to a failure in the launcher/payload interface the vehicle was lost and did not land on the expected area on the Kamchatka peninsula. It s unclear whether the spacecraft separated from the third stage of the Volna and did not inflate correctly or that it remained attached to the payload module. Remains of the vehicle have not been found. y The fourth flight took place at 21 June 2005 with onboard the Cosmos 1 Solar sail. The launch took place from Delta III Submarine Borisoglebsk in the Barents Sea. The spacecraft failed to reach orbit after stage one shut down prematurely at 82.86 seconds instead of the expected 100 seconds. The failure was attributed to critical degradation in operational capability of the engine turbo-pump . The second and third stage did not separate and the payload did not reach orbit. y On 6 October 2005 the Volna carried IRDT-2R on a sub-orbital trajectory, launched from Delta III Class Submarine Borisoglebsk in the Barents Sea. The launch vehicle performed nominally and placed the payload on a trajectory towards the Kamchatka peninsula. Trajectory data shows that the vehicle most likely overshot the landing site and could not be recovered.

SOYUZ FG LAUNCH VEHICLE

The Soyuz-FG launch vehicle is an improved version of the Soyuz-U, from the R-7 family of rockets, designed and constructed by TsSKB-Progress in Samara. It made its maiden flight on May 20, 2001, carrying a Progress M1-6 cargo spacecraft to the International Space Station (ISS). Since October 30, 2002 the Soyuz-FG has been the only vehicle used by the Russian Federal Space Agency to launch Soyuz-TMA manned spacecraft to the ISS. As of October 2010, Soyuz-FG has performed 23 flights, bringing to the ISS 3 Progress-M1, 20 Soyuz-TMA spacecraft, and one Soyuz-TMA-M spacecraft, with its most recent launch on December 15, 2010. All

launches have been successful thus far. Another version of the Soyuz-FG is the Soyuz-FG/Fregat with Fregat as its 3rd stage, developed and produced by Lavochkin Association in Khimki. A European-Russian company Starsem owns all rights to launches using this version. As of April 2008 there have been 9 launches of Soyuz-FG/Fregat with commercial payloads. Its maiden flight occurred on June 2, 2003. The analog control system of this spacecraft significantly limits its capabilities, however, and it will eventually be replaced by the Soyuz-2 launch vehicle. The Soyuz-FG is launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan, Launch site LC-1 for Soyuz-FG and LC-31, for Soyuz-FG/Fregat. Launch history Date and Serial Launch Configuration Result Payload Remarks Time (GMT) Number Site May 20, 2001 Soyuz-FG 22:32 November 26, 2001 Soyuz-FG 18:24 September 25, 2002 Soyuz-FG 16:58 October 30, 2002 Soyuz-FG 16:58 April 2003 03:53 26, Soyuz-FG F15000001 F15000002 E15000003 E15000004 15000006 LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur Success Progress-M1 ISS Logistics 6

Progress-M1 ISS Logistics Success 7 Kolibri 2000 Success Progress M1-9 ISS Logistics

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 1 ISS escape craft Manned flight with 2 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 2 ISS Expedition 7 Mars Express[1] Mars orbiter Mars lander Launched successfully but later failed

June 2, 2003 Soyuz18:24 FG/Fregat

E15000005/ ST-11

LC-31, Baikonur

Success Beagle 2

October 18, 2003 Soyuz-FG 05:38 December Soyuz27, 2003 FG/Fregat 21:30 April 2004 05:19 19, Soyuz-FG

D15000007 D15000008/ ST-12 D15000009

LC-1, Baikonur LC-31, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 3 ISS Expedition 8 Success AMOS-2 Communications satellite

Success

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 4 ISS Expedition 9 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 5 ISS Expedition 10

October 14, 2004 Soyuz-FG 03:06

Zh15000- LC-1, 012 Baikonur

Success

April 2005 00:46 August 2005 23:28 October 2005 03:54

15, Soyuz-FG 13, SoyuzFG/Fregat Soyuz-FG

Zh15000- LC-1, 014 Baikonur Zh15000LC-31, 011/ Baikonur ST-13 Zh15000- LC-1, 017 Baikonur Zh15000LC-31, 010/ Baikonur ST-14 Zh15000LC-31, 016/ Baikonur ST-15 P15000018 ?15000023 LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 6 ISS Expedition 11 Success Galaxy 14 Communications satellite

1,

Success

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 7 ISS Expedition 12 Venus Express Venus orbiter

November 9, Soyuz2005 FG/Fregat 03:33 December Soyuz28, 2005 FG/Fregat 05:19 March 2006 02:30 30, Soyuz-FG

Success

Success GIOVE-A

Navigation satellite

Success

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 8 ISS Expedition 13 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 9 ISS Expedition 14

September 18, 2006 Soyuz-FG 04:08 April 7, 2007 Soyuz-FG 17:31

Success

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 10 ISS Expedition 15 Globalstar Comsat Comsat Comsat Comsat Globalstar Globalstar Globalstar

May 29, 2007 Soyuz20:31 FG/Fregat October 10, 2007 Soyuz-FG 13:22 [1] October 20, Soyuz2007 FG/Fregat 20:12 December Soyuz14, 2007 FG/Fregat 13:17 April 8, 2008 Soyuz-FG 11:16

LC-31, Baikonur

Success

LC-1, Baikonur

Success

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMACosmonauts 11 ISS Expedition 16 Globalstar Comsat Comsat Comsat Comsat Globalstar Globalstar Globalstar

LC-31, Baikonur

Success

LC-31, Baikonur LC-1, Baikonur

Success

RADARSATEarth observation 2

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMA- Cosmonauts Success 12 ISS Expedition 17 First South Korean in

space. April 2008 22:16 26, SoyuzFG/Fregat LC-31, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur LC-1/5, Baikonur Success GIOVE-B Navigation satellite

October 12, 2008 Soyuz-FG 07:01 March 2009 11:49 26, Soyuz-FG

Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 13 ISS Expedition 18 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 14 ISS Expedition 19 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 15 ISS Expedition 20 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 16 ISS Expedition 21 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess Cosmonauts 17 ISS Expedition 22 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess cosmonauts 18 ISS Expedition 23 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess cosmonauts 19 ISS Expedition 24 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess cosmonauts 01M ISS Expedition 25 Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMASuccess cosmonauts 20 ISS Expedition 26 Success Manned flight with 3 Soyuz TMAcosmonauts 21 ISS Expedition 27

May 27, 2009 Soyuz-FG 10:34 September 30, 2009 Soyuz-FG 07:14 December 20, 2009 Soyuz-FG 21:52 April 2, 2010 Soyuz-FG 04:04 June 2010 21:35 October 2010 23:10 15, Soyuz-FG 7, Soyuz-FG

December 15, 2010 Soyuz-FG 19:09 April 4, 2011 Soyuz-FG 22:18

SOYUZ 2 VARIANT
Soyuz-2, GRAU index 14A14, is the collective designation for the new version of the Russian Soyuz rocket. In its basic form, it is a three-stage carrier rocket for placing payloads into low Earth orbit. The first stage boosters and two core stages feature uprated engines with improved injection systems, compared to the previous versions of the Soyuz. Digital flight control and telemetry systems allow the rocket to be launched from a fixed launch platform, whereas the launch platforms for earlier Soyuz rockets had to be rotated as the rocket could not perform a

roll to change its heading in flight. Soyuz-2 is often flown with an upper stage, which allows it to lift payloads into higher orbits, such as Molniya and Geosynchronous orbits. The upper stage is equipped with independent flight control and telemetry systems from those used in the rest of the rocket. The NPO Lavochkin manufactured Fregat is the most commonly used upper stage. Soyuz-2 rockets are currently launched from LC-31 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and LC-43 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, launch facilities shared with earlier R-7 derived rockets, including the Soyuz-U and Molniya. Commercial Soyuz-2 flights are contracted by Starsem, and are currently launched from LC-31 at Baikonur. These will move to a new site, ELS (l'Ensemble de Lancement Soyouz), which is currently being built at the Guiana Space Centre on the northern coast of South America. The Soyuz-2 is expected to be able to deliver 2.8-3.5 tonnes to GTO from this site. The first launch is expected in 2011. The Soyuz-2 is expected to replace the Molniya-M, Soyuz-U and Soyuz-FG rockets which are currently in service alongside it, at some point in the near future.

Variants Soyuz-2 family includes 2.1a, 2.1b and 2.1v. The first two variants are modifications to the Soyuz-U launcher. The latter is a "light" version without side boosters. When launched from ELS site, the Soyuz-2 will always be mated with ST-type fairing. This version will be called Soyuz-ST or Soyuz-STK, where additional "K" indicates special measures taken for preparing and launching the rocket in hot and humid conditions. Soyuz 2.1a : The 2.1a version includes conversion from analog to digital flight control system and uprated engines on the booster and the first stage with improved injection systems. The new digital flight control and telemetry systems allow to launch the rocket from a fixed launch platform and adjust its heading in flight. A digital control system also enables to launch larger commercial satellites with wider and longer fairings such as ST-type fairing. These fairings introduce too much aerodynamic instability for the old analog system to handle. This stage continues to use the RD-0110 engine. The 2.1a/ST version is sometimes called Soyuz-STA. Soyuz 2.1b : The 2.1b version adds an upgraded engine (RD-0124) with improved performance to the second stage. The 2.1b/ST version is sometimes called Soyuz-STB. Soyuz 2.1v : First draft of the 2.1v version was finished in 2009. It will be a "light" version of the Soyuz-2 without the side boosters (blocks B, V, G and D). Block A engine will be replaced by a more powerful one NK-33-1. The new launcher will be able to deliver up to 2.8 tonnes in low Earth orbit. Suborbital test flight On 8 November 2004, at 18:30 GMT (21:30 Moscow Time), the first Soyuz-2 carrier rocket, in the Soyuz2.1a configuration, was launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Russia. The rocket followed a suborbital trajectory, with the third stage and boilerplate payload re-entering over the Pacific Ocean.

Commercial launches MetOp-A The first attempt at launching a Soyuz-2 to orbit, with the MetOp-A satellite, occurred on 17 July 2006. It was scrubbed two hours before the launch by an automatic sequence, after the onboard computer failed to check the launch azimuth. Fuelling of the rocket was underway at the time, and all launch complex equipment and on-board preliminary checks had proceeded without incident. The rocket was left fuelled on the launch pad, for the next attempt on 18 July. Launch was eventually conducted on 19 October. Launch history Time Date Configuration Launch Site Result Payload Remarks (GMT) 8 LCZenit-8 Plesetsk Success Suborbital test November 18:30 Soyuz 2.1a 43 (boilerplate) 2004 19 October Soyuz 2.1a/ST LC17:28 Baikonur Success MetOp Weather satellite 2006 Fregat 31/6 24 Soyuz 2.1a/S LCCommunications Plesetsk Success Meridian 1 December 08:34 Fregat 43 satellite 2006 27 14:28 Soyuz 2.1b/SL LC- Baikonur Success COROT Astronomy December Fregat 31 satellite 2006 26 July 18:31 Soyuz 2.1b LC- Plesetsk Success[2] Kosmos 2441 Imaging 2008 43 (Persona?) reconnaissance satellite(?) [3] 21 May 21:53 Soyuz 2.1a/ LC- Plesetsk Failure Meridian 2 Communications 2009 Fregat 43 satellite 17 15:55 Soyuz 2.1b/ LC- Baikonur Success Meteor M-1 Weather satellite September Fregat 31/6 Universitetsky- and small 2009 2 piggyback science Sterkh-2 satellites IRIS UGATUSAT SumbandilaSat BLITS 16 October 17:11 Soyuz 2.1a/ LC- Baikonur Success Globalstar-2 F1 Communications 2010 Fregat 31/6 (6 satellites) satellites 2 00:59 Soyuz 2.1a/ LC- Plesetsk Success Meridian 3 Communications November Fregat 43/4 satellite 2010 26 03:07 Soyuz 2.1b/ LC- Plesetsk Success GLONASS-K Navigation February Fregat 43/4 satellite 2011

START 1 LAUNCH VEHICLE

Start-1 is a Russian satellite launch vehicle based on the RT-2PM Topol, a Soviet intercontinental ballistic missile developed by Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology. History The Start-1 launch vehicle derives its name from the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I) between the United States and the Soviet Union. The START I treaty called for both sides to limit their nuclear arsenals to 6,000 nuclear warheads atop a total of 1,600 ICBMs, SLBMs, and bombers. This led to a lot of surplus ICBMs on both sides, including the Soviet Topol. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia took over responsibility for executing the treaty. The Russian government decided to dispose of some of their ICBMs by using them as launch vehicles, which was an allowed method of disposal under the treaty.[1] Modification of the ICBMs into launch vehicles was carried out by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology, which also designed the Topol missile.[2] On March 25, 1993 (13:15 GMT), the first Start-1 rocket was launched from Plesetsk Cosmodrome with a non-commercial payload. The first commercial launch was conducted almost four years later on March 4, 1997 from Svobodny Cosmodrome with a Russian payload. Since that time all flights of the Start-1 have been conducted from Svobodny. Currently, the Russian company ZAO Puskovie Uslugi manages the Start-1 program. The most notable flight of the Start-1 was conducted on April 25, 2006 with the launch of the Israeli EROS B Earth observation satellite. The launch received more coverage than usual because of the tensions between Israel and Iran at the time. While the Eros B satellite is commercial, its primary customer is the Israeli government, which could use it to spy on Iranian military and nuclear facilities Description Launches Past launches y March 25, 1993 - Russia, experimental y March 4, 1997 - Russia, Zeya y December 24, 1997 - USA, Early Bird 1 for EarthWatch, Inc. y December 5, 2000 - Israel, EROS A y February 20, 2001 - Sweden, Odin y April 25, 2006 - Israel, EROS B

Projected launch schedule y 2009 - Israel, EROS C The Start-1 launch vehicle is derived from the RT-2PM Topol ICBM. The first three stages of the Topol missile are used as the first three stages of the Start-1 rocket and are essentially unmodified for their new purpose. A fourth stage, specially developed by the Moscow Institute of Thermal Technology, and the payload shroud take the place of the nuclear warhead and are the main differences between the Topol ICBM and the Start-1 rocket. Additionally, a Post-Boost Propulsion System (PBPS) may be added between the fourth stage and the payload to circularize the orbit of the payload if necessary. The PBPS provides propulsion using a solidpropellant nitrogen gas generator. The gas goes through three pairs of nozzles that can swivel to maneuver the payload. The Start-1 rocket is unique amongst launch vehicles in that its launch platform is mobile, allowing for the Start-1 to potentially launch from anywhere. The Start-1 launches from an unmodified Topol Transporter-Erector-Launcher (TEL). The TEL is a massive fourteen-wheeled vehicle, six of which pivot for steering. The launch vehicle is transported and launched inside a mobile Transport and Launch Carrier (TLC) carried by the TEL. The TLC consists of an air-tight composite cylinder that protects the launch vehicle and payload from variations in temperature and humidity. The TLC lays in the middle of the TEL lengthwise and bisects the driver's cab in two. Before launch, the TEL is moved to the launch pad where it deploys four stabilizing jacks which lift the whole vehicle off the ground. Approximately 90 seconds before the launch, the TLC ejects the protective front nose cone, exposing the rocket so that it can launch. The TLC then is raised to a vertical position. During the launch sequence, the TEL uses compressed gas to force the rocket out of the TLC. Once the rocket reaches a height of approximately 30 meters (the height of the top of the TLC in the vertical position), the first stage ignites. The time from firststage ignition to spacecraft separation is approximately 15 minutes. Variants A version of the Start-1 rocket, simply called Start, was developed in parallel with the Start-1 program. Start differed from Start-1 by using the second stage of the Start-1 twice, giving it a total of five stages. With the extra stage, payload to LEO was increased to 850 kg. The first (and, so far, only) launch of the Start rocket occurred on 28 March 1995 from LC158 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. The Start rocket carried Gurwin, an Israeli technology satellite; EKA, a Russian dummy test satellite; and Oscar 29, an amateur radio satellite built by the Autonomous University of Mexico. The rocket, however, failed not too long after liftoff, dumping debris and its payload into the Sea of Okhotsk. Little information has come forth from the Russian government as to what caused the rocket to fail, or even whether or not the Start program has been canceled. So far, however, this has been the only flight of a Start rocket. Launches Past launches y March 25, 1993 - Russia, experimental y March 4, 1997 - Russia, Zeya y December 24, 1997 - USA, Early Bird 1 for EarthWatch, Inc. y December 5, 2000 - Israel, EROS A y February 20, 2001 - Sweden, Odin y April 25, 2006 - Israel, EROS B Projected launch schedule y 2009 - Israel, EROS C

UR SERIES LAUNCH VEHICLE

The Universal Rocket or UR family of missiles and carrier rockets is a Russian, previously Soviet rocket family. Intended to allow the same technology to be used in all Soviet rockets, the UR is produced by the Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Centre. Several variants were originally planned, of which only three flew, and only two of which entered service. In addition, the cancelled UR-500 ICBM formed the basis for the Proton carrier rocket.

UR-500 VARIANT PROTON SERIES

Proton ( ) (formal designation: UR-500) is an expendable launch system used for both commercial and Russian government space launches. The first Proton rocket was launched in 1965 and the launch system is still in use as of 2011, which makes it one of the most successful heavy boosters in the history of spaceflight. All Protons are built at the Khrunichev plant in Moscow, and then transported for launch to the Baikonur Cosmodrome, where they are brought to the launch pad horizontally and then raised into vertical position for launch.[2][3] Like many Soviet boosters, the names of recurring payloads became associated with their launchers. Thusly, the moniker "Proton" originates from a series of large scientific Proton satellites, which were among the rocket's first payloads. It is also known as the D-1/D-1e or SL12/SL-13. Launch capacity to low Earth orbit is about 22 tonnes (49,000 lb). Geostationary transfer capacity is about 5 6 tonnes (11,000 13,000 lb). Commercial launches are marketed by International Launch Services (ILS). In a typical launch of a commercial communications satellite destined for geostationary orbit, a Proton M/Breeze M can place a spacecraft with mass at separation of 9,127 pounds (4,140 kg) into an orbit with an apogee of 35,786 kilometres (22,236 mi), a perigee of 6,257 kilometres (3,888 mi) and an inclination of 19.7. History Proton initially started life as a "super ICBM." It was designed to throw a 100-megaton (or larger) nuclear warhead over a distance of 13,000 km. It was hugely oversized for an ICBM, and was never deployed in such a capacity. It was eventually utilized as a space launch vehicle. It was the brainchild of Vladimir Chelomei's design bureau as a foil to Sergei Korolev's N1 booster with the specific intent of sending a two-man Zond craft around the Moon. With the termination of the Saturn V program, Proton became the largest expendable launch system in service until the Energia rocket first flew in 1987 and the U.S. Titan IV in 1989. Between the 1965 first flight and 1970, the Proton experienced dozens of failures. However, once perfected it became one of the most reliable heavy launch vehicles. With a total of about 335 launches, it has an 88% success rate. Proton launched the unmanned Soviet circumlunar flights, and was intended to have launched the first Soviet circumlunar spaceflights, before the United States flew the Apollo 8 mission. Proton launched the Salyut space stations, the Mir core segment and expansion modules, and both the Zarya and Zvezda modules of the ISS. It also launched many probes to the Moon, Mars, Venus, and even Halley's Comet (using the 4-stage D-1e version). Proton also launches commercial satellites, most of them being managed by International Launch Services. The first ILS Proton launch was on 9 April 1996 with the launch of the SES Astra 1F communications satellite.[6]

Since 1994, Proton has earned $4.3 billion for the Russian space industry, and by 2011 this figure is expected to rise to $6 billion.

PROTON K VARIANT
The Proton-K, also designated Proton 8K82K after its GRAU index, 8K82K, is a Russian, previously Soviet, carrier rocket derived from the earlier Proton. It was built by Khrunichev, and is launched from sites 81 and 200 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. As of 2009, it is out of production, with approximately three launches remaining prior to its retirement in favour of the modernised Proton-M. Vehicle description The baseline Proton-K is a three-stage rocket. Thirty have been launched in this configuration, with payloads including all of the Soviet Union's Salyut space stations, all Mir modules with the exception of the Docking Module, which was launched on the US Space Shuttle, and the Zarya and Zvezda modules of the International Space Station. It was intended to launch the manned TKS spacecraft, prior to the cancellation of that programme. It is fuelled by Unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide. These are hypergolic fuels which burn on contact, avoiding the need for an ignition system, and can be stored at ambient temperatures. This avoids the need for low-temperature tolerant components, and allows the rocket to sit on the pad fully fuelled for long periods of time. In contrast, cryogenic fuels need periodic topping-up of propellants as they boil off. The fuels used on the Proton, are, however, corrosive and toxic and requiring special handling. The Russian Government pays for the cleanup of residual propellent in spent stages that impact downrange. Proton components were built in facilities near Moscow, then transported by rail to the final assembly point near the pad. The first stage of the Proton-K consists of a central oxidiser tank, and six outrigger fuel tanks. This separates as one piece from the second stage, which is attached by means of a lattice structure interstage. The second stage ignites prior to first stage separation, and the top of the first stage is insulated to ensure that it retains its structural integrity until separation. The first stage uses six RD-253 engines, designed by Valentin Glushko. The RD-253 is a singlechamber engine and uses a staged combustion cycle. The first-stage guidance system is openloop, which requires significant amounts of propellant to be held in reserve. The third stage is powered by an RD-0210 engine and four vernier nozzles, with common systems. The verniers provide steering, eliminating the need for gimballing of the main engine. They also aid stage separation, and act as ullage motors. Ducts are built into the structure to channel vernier exhaust before stage separation. The third stage guidance system is also used to control the first and second stages flight. Many launches have used an upper stage to boost the payload into a higher orbit. Block D upper stages were used on forty flights, the majority of which were for the Luna and Zond programmes. Ten flights used the Block D-1, mostly to launch spacecraft towards Venus. Block D-2 upper stages were used three times, with the Fobos 1, Fobos 2 and Mars 96 spacecraft. The Block DM upper stage was used on 66 launches. The most commonly used upper stage is the Block DM-2, which has been used on 107 flights, mostly with GLONASS and Raduga satellites. Fifteen launches have used the modernised Block DM-2M stage, mostly carrying Ekspress satellites, however other satellites, including Eutelsat's SESAT 1, have also used this configuration. Two Araks satellites were launched using Block DM-5 upper stages. The Block

DM1, a commercial version of the DM-2, was used to launch Inmarsat-3 F2. The Block DM2 upper stage was used to launch three groups of seven Iridium satellites, including Iridium 33. This configuration was also used to launch Integral for the European Space Agency. Block DM3 stages were used on twenty five launches, almost exclusively carrying commercial satellites. Telstar 5 was launched with a Block DM4. The Briz-M upper stage was used for four launches; three carrying payloads for the Russian Government, and one commercial launch with GE-9 for GE Americom. One launch was reported to have used a Block DM-3 upper stage, however this may have been a reporting error, and it is unclear whether this launch actually used a DM-3, DM3, or DM-2.

PROTON M VARIANT
The Proton-M, GRAU index 8K82M or 8K82KM, is a Russian carrier rocket derived from the Soviet-developed Proton. It is built by Khrunichev, and launched from sites 81 and 200 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Commercial launches are marketed by International Launch Services (ILS), and generally use Site 200/39. The first Proton-M launch occurred on 7 April 2001. Vehicle description The Proton-M features modifications to the lower stages to reduce structural mass, increase thrust, and fully utilise propellants. A closed-loop guidance system is used on the first stage, which allows more complete consumption of propellant. This increases the rocket's performance slightly compared to previous variants, and reduces the amount of toxic chemicals remaining in the stage when it lands downrange. It can place up to 21 tonnes (46,000 lb) into low Earth orbit. With an upper stage, it can place a 3 tonne payload into geosynchronous orbit, or a 5.5 tonne payload into geosynchronous transfer orbit. Efforts were also made to reduce dependency on foreign component suppliers. Most Proton-M launches have used a Briz-M upper stage to propel the spacecraft into a higher orbit. Launches have also been made with Block-DM upper stages, namely the Block DM-2 when launching GLONASS spacecraft, and a scheduled launch with two Yamal satellites, using a Block DM-3. As of 2009, no Proton-M launches have been made without an upper stage, however this configuration is manifested to launch the Multipurpose Laboratory Module and European Robotic Arm of the International Space Station, currently scheduled to be launched together in 2011.

Proton-M Enhanced
On 7 July 2007, International Launch Services launched the first Proton-M Enhanced rocket, which carried the DirecTV-10 satellite into orbit. This was the 326th launch of a Proton, the 16th Proton-M/Briz-M launch, and the 41st Proton launch to be conducted by ILS. It features

more efficient first stage engines, updated avionics, lighter fuel tanks and more powerful vernier engines on the Briz-M upper stage, and mass reduction throughout the rocket, including thinner fuel tank walls on the first stage, and use of composite materials on all other stages. The second launch of this variant occurred on 18 August 2008, and was used to place Inmarsat 4 F3 into orbit. The baseline Proton-M was retired in November 2007, in favour of the Enhanced variant. Frank McKenna, CEO of ILS, has indicated that in 2010 the Phase III Proton design would become the standard ILS configuration, with the ability to lift 6.15 metric tons to GTO Future developments Significant upgrades were temporarily put on hold following announcement of the new Angara launch vehicle. The single largest upgrade was the KVRB stage. This cryogenic stage would have greatly increased capacity. The engine was developed successfully, and the stage as a whole had progressed to hardware. However, as KVRB is noticeably larger than Blok D, the vehicle's aerodynamics, flight control, software, and possibly electronics would have to be reevaluated. In addition, the launch pad can supply existing Protons with common hypergol fuels from single sources. The upper stages, in particular, are fed by common loading pipes running along the rocket. Switching to a stage with different fuels requires the addition of extra support articles; switching to cryogens requires that such support articles top off the stage periodically. Heavy variants of Angara will be simpler and cheaper than Proton (and like the new Atlas V rocket, will not use hypergolics; instead, it will use the same RP-1 fuel as that used on the Soyuz rocket). They will also be designed from the start to accept a KVRB stage, and will already have a LOX supply at the pad; only a hydrogen supply will be called upon. However, delays in Angara development mean that Protons will continue to fly for some time. Frank McKenna, CEO of ILS, has indicated that in 2010 the Phase III Proton design would become the standard ILS configuration, with the ability to lift 6.15 metric tons to GTO.

ROKOT VARIANT
The Rokot (Russian: meaning Roar), also transliterated as a the pun Rockot, is a Russian space launch vehicle that can launch a payload of 1,950 kilograms into a 200 kilometre high Earth orbit with 63 inclination. It is a derivative of the UR-100N (SS-19 Stiletto) intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM), supplied and operated by Eurockot Launch Services. The first launches started in the 1990s from Baikonur Cosmodrome out of a silo. Later commercial launches commenced from Plesetsk Cosmodrome using a launch ramp specially rebuilt from one for the Kosmos-3M rocket. The cost of a commercial launch is about $14 million. Specifications Rokot's total mass is 107 tonnes, its length 29 metres and its maximum diameter 2.5 metres. The liquid-fueled rocket comprises three stages. The lower two are based on the Soviet UR100N ICBM; the first stage uses an RD-244 engine, while the second stage uses an RD-235. The third stage is a Briz-KM (Russian: meaning Breeze-KM), which has a mass of about 6 tonnes when fuelled, and is capable of flying for 7 hours and reigniting its engine six times during flight, allowing different satellites to be placed into different orbits. All stages use UDMH (unsymmetrical Dimethylhydrazine) as fuel and dinitrogen tetroxide as oxidiser. The Strela is a similar rocket, also based on the SS-19. History

The first suborbital test launch succeeded on 20 November 1990 in Baikonur Cosmodrome. On 26 December 1994 Rokot brought its first satellite into Earth orbit. In 1995, Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center formed a company with German DaimlerBenz Aerospace to market Rokot launches for commercial use. Later, the company was renamed to Eurockot Launch Services. Eurockot bought 45 Rokots from the Russian strategic missile forces to build its inventory. In 2000, Eurokot was partly bought by the German company Astrium GmbH, a shareholder of Arianespace. Astrium now holds 51% of Eurockot's shares, while Khrunichev holds 49%. Although there are several silos in Baikonour capable of launching Rokots, it was decided to build an open, non-siloed launch pad at Plesetsk Cosmodrome instead. This is because of concerns that the amount of noise generated during a silo-based launch would damage satellites. In the new pad, Rokot is wheeled up to the structure in a vertical position, and then embraced by its launch tower. The payload is lifted by a crane and placed on top of the bottom two stages. The procedure is in contrast to other Russian launchers, which had traditionally been assembled horizontally and then transferred to the launch site via railways. The first launch from Plesetsk took place on 16 May 2000. After 6 entirely successful launches, a launch failure occurred on 8 October 2005, leading to the loss of the European Space Agency's Cryosat spacecraft. The launch vehicle 2nd stage main engine was not shut down properly, resulting in a catastrophic failure and automatic termination of the launch mission by the on-board computer. The payload was lost. After the failed CryoSat launch, all Rokot launches were suspended until the failure was identified. The root cause was unambiguously identified; it was a failure in programming of the Briz-KM (which was contracted to the company JSC "Khartron"). The failure of this high-profile mission led to major reforms in Khrunichev: the director of the company Alexander Medvedev was dismissed, new launch procedures were introduced, the lines of management were straightened out to catch errors and the new Khrunichev chief, Viktor Nesterov, was required to report directly to the head of the Russian Space Agency, Anatoli Perminov.[1] Corrective measures for Rokot's return-to-flight were implemented for the South Korean Kompsat-2 earth observation satellite launch which took place successfully on 28 July 2006. The Korean side reportedly praised the level of service they received, encouraging the Rokot team to rebuild its order book. Another launch failure occurred in February 2011, when a Briz-KM malfunction resulted in the Geo-IK-2 No.11 satellite being placed into a lower orbit than planned.

STRELA VARIANT
Strela (Russian: , arrow) is a Russian orbital carrier rocket, derived from the Soviet/Russian UR-100NU missile. It conducted its maiden launch on 5 December 2003. It was originally planned to be launched from the Svobodny Cosmodrome, with test launches being conducted from existing UR-100 silos at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Svobodny was closed in 2007, without seeing any Strela launches. It is unclear whether a Strela launch complex will be incorporated into the Vostochny Cosmodrome, which is being built on the site of Svobodny. Strela differs from the Rockot, which is also derived from the UR-100, in that it has undergone fewer modifications, such as the absence of an additional upper stage, as used on the Rockot. It is also launched from silos, whereas the Rockot is launched from flat pads.

ZENIT ROCKET FAMILY

Zenit (Ukrainian: , Russian: ; meaning Zenith) is a family of space launch vehicles designed by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau of Ukraine. Zenit was built in the 1980s for two purposes: as a liquid rocket booster for the Energia rocket and, equipped with a second stage, as a stand-alone rocket. Moreover Zenit was planned to take over manned spaceship launches from Soyuz, but these plans were abandoned after the fall of the Soviet Union. Zenit-3SL is launched by the Sea Launch consortium's floating launch platform in the Pacific Ocean and Zenit-2 is launched from Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. The engines of the Zenit's first and second stages as well as the upper stage of the Zenit-3SL rocket are supplied by Russia. There are plans to use an improved Zenit-3SLB rocket for commercial launches from Baikonur Cosmodrome beginning in April 2008. This service is marketed as "Land Launch." Zenit-3SL has launched 29 times with 26 successes, one partial success, and two failures. The first failure, the launch of a Hughes-built communications satellite owned by ICO Global Communications, occurred during the second commercial launch on March 12, 2000 and was blamed on a software error that failed to close a valve in the second stage of the rocket. The second failure occurred on January 30, 2007 when the rocket exploded on the Ocean Odyssey launch platform, seconds after engine ignition. The NSS-8 communication satellite on board was destroyed. In a study of 16 launchers, the Zenit-2 was, as of March 18, 2001, the lowest cost vehicle for achieving LEO in terms of payload weight per launch ($1,167-1,667 per pound or 2,567-3,667 per kg), and one of the lowest in terms of total costs per launch ($35 $50 million). Overview Zenit-2 Zenit-3SL Stages 2 3 Total length 57 m 59.6 m Total empty mass 37,600 kg 40,320 kg Total gross mass 444,900 kg 462,200 kg Payload 13.74 tonne to LEO 6 tonne to GTO Launch site Baikonur Cosmodrome Sea Launch ocean platform 29 (2 failed, 1 partial success) Launches 21 (6 failed) as of 10 June 2004 as of 30 January 2009 Success ratio 71.4% 93.1% Price per launch ~$45 million ~$90 million Payload capacities Two stage version (Zenit-2) Payload to LEO 13,740 kg Payload to PEO 5,000 kg Payload to GEO Not designed for GEO Three stage version (Zenit-3SL) Payload to LEO 6,100 kg, 3rd stage structural limitation Payload to MEO 3,965 kg (10,000 km, 45)

Payload to GEO 1,840 kg Payload to GTO 5,250 kg (upgraded to 6,000+ kg)

ZENIT 2 VARIANT
The Zenit-2 is a Ukrainian, previously Soviet, expendable carrier rocket. First flown in 1985, it has been launched 37 times, with six failures. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, and was designed by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau. A modified version, the Zenit-2S, is used as the first two stages of the Sea Launch Zenit-3SL rocket. Launches of Zenit-2 rockets are conducted from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 45/1. A second pad, 45/2, was also constructed, but was only used for two launches before being destroyed in an explosion. A third pad, Site 35 at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome was never completed, and work was abandoned after the dissolution of the Soviet Union.The Zenit-2 is currently being replaced by the Zenit-2M, which incorporates enhancements made during the development of the Zenit-3SL, and it is unclear whether any remain to be launched. The Zenit-2 has a fairly low flight rate as the Russian government usually avoids flying national security payloads on Ukrainian rockets. During the late 1990s, the Zenit-2 was marketed for commercial launches. Only one such launch was conducted, with a group of Globalstar satellites, which ended in failure after a computer error resulted in the premature cutoff of the second stage.

ZENIT 3SL VARIANT

The Zenit-3SL is an expendable carrier rocket operated by Sea Launch. First flown in 1999,[3] it has been launched 30 times, with two failures and one partial failure. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, and is built by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau. RKK Energia produces the Block DM-SL upper stage, whilst the payload fairing is produced by Boeing.[4] Launches are conducted from the Ocean Odyssey platform anchored on the equator in the Pacific Ocean, at a point with 154W longitude, about 370 kilometres East of Kiritimati. The Zenit-3SL design began in the late 1980s as the Zenit-3, a proposed replacement for the Proton-K, which would have used a Zenit-2 rocket with a Block D upper stage. This proposal was shelved after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, as Russia inherited the space programme, however the Zenit was manufactured in Ukraine. Boeing became involved in the programme in 1994. The design was subsequently modified, with a modified version of the Block DM replacing the Block D. Sea Launch integrates the rockets in California, and transfers them to Odyssey via the Sea Launch Commander for transportation to the launch site. Once at the launch site, the rocket is erected on the platform, and a three-day countdown is initiated. The countdown is fully automated, and personnel are evacuated from the launch platform to Commander prior to launch. Zenit3SL launches predominantly carry communications satellites into geosynchronous transfer orbits. As of 2009, the only payload to be launched by a Zenit-3SL that was not a communications satellite was a DemoSat, on the maiden flight. The only launch to be conducted to an orbit other than GTO was that of ICO F-1, which was intended to be placed into medium Earth orbit, however the rocket failed to reach orbit. Reliability

Of thirty rockets launched, two have failed, with a third placing its payload into an incorrect, but recoverable orbit. The first failure occurred during the third flight, on 12 March 2000, when a software error resulted in the premature cutoff of the second stage, leaving the ICO F-1 satellite unable to reach orbit. On 29 June 2004, during the launch of Apstar 5, the upper stage shut down 54 seconds early due to a wiring fault, leaving the satellite in a lower than planned orbit. The spacecraft raised itself to the correct orbit by means of its onboard manoeuvring engines, at the expense of fuel intended for stationkeeping once in the correct orbit. On 30 January 2007, a Zenit-3SL exploded on the launch pad after an engine failure caused by debris in the turbopump. The payload on that flight was the NSS-8 communications satellite for SES New Skies. This caused a considerable amount of downtime whilst damage to the launch platform was repaired.

ZENIT 2M & 2SLB

The Zenit-2M, Zenit-2SB or Zenit-2SLB is an Ukrainian expendable carrier rocket derived from the Zenit-3SL. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, which were designed by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau. It is a modernised version of the Zenit-2, incorporating modifications and upgrades made to the design for the Sea Launch programme. Launches of Zenit-2M rockets are conducted from Baikonur Cosmodrome Site 45/1. Commercial launches are conducted by Land Launch, and use the designation 2SLB, whilst launches conducted by Roskosmos or the Russian Space Forces use the designation 2M. The designation 2SB can also be applied to the rocket when it is being used as part of a larger vehicle, such as the Zenit-3SLB. The first launch of a Zenit-2M occurred on 29 June 2007, carrying a Tselina-2 ELINT satellite for the Russian Space Forces. As of 2009, there are no commercial launches planned, and details of military launches are classified.

ZENIT 3SLBF
The Zenit-3F, Zenit-3SLBF or Zenit-2SB/Fregat is an Ukrainian expendable carrier rocket. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, which were designed by the Yuzhnoye Design Bureau. Launches of Zenit-3SLBF rockets will be conducted from Site 45/1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. The rocket consists of a Zenit-2SB (Zenit-2M) core vehicle, with a Russian Fregat-SB upper stage, developed by NPO Lavochkin, in place of the Block-DM used on the Zenit-3SL and 3SLB. The first launch of a Zenit-2SB/Fregat took place on 20 January 2011. The payload was a Elektro-L new generation weather satellite.[1] A Zenit-2SB will also be used to launch the SpektrR satellite.

ZENIT 3SLB
The Zenit-3SLB or Zenit-3M is a Ukrainian expendable carrier rocket derived from the Zenit2SLB. It is a member of the Zenit family of rockets, which were designed by the Yuzhnoye

Design Bureau. It is a modified version of the Zenit-3SL, designed to be launched from a conventional launch pad rather than the Sea Launch Ocean Odyssey platform. Launches of Zenit-3SLB rockets are conducted from Site 45/1 at the Baikonur Cosmodrome. Commercial launches are conducted by Land Launch, and use the designation 3SLB, whilst launches conducted by Roskosmos or the Russian Space Forces will use the designation 3M. It consists of a Zenit-2SB (Zenit-2M) core vehicle, with a Block DM-SLB upper stage. The first launch of a Zenit-3SLB occurred on 28 April 2008, carrying the Israeli AMOS-3 satellite. This was also the first commercial Zenit launch from Baikonur since a failed Globalstar launch in 1998, and the first launch to be conducted by the Land Launch consortium.

ANGARA ROCKET SERIES

The Angara rocket family is a family of space-launch vehicles currently under development by the Moscow-based Khrunichev State Research and Production Space Center. The rockets, which are to provide lifting capabilities between 2,000 and 40,500 kg into low earth orbit, are intended to become the mainstay of the Russian unmanned launcher fleet in the future and replace several existing systems. Purpose The main purpose of the Angara rocket family is to secure Russia's independent access to space. Angara will reduce Russia's dependency on the Baikonur Cosmodrome, located in the independent republic of Kazakhstan, and will allow Russia to phase out foreign - mostly Ukrainian - rocket technology. Environmental issues have also played an important part in the development. Rockets belonging to the family are intended to replace several existing launch vehicles. The light Angara 1.1 and 1.2 versions will replace the Kosmos-3M, Tsyklon and Rockot launchers;[1] Angara 3 will replace the Ukrainian Zenit and Angara 5 will replace the heavy-lift Proton.[2] The Angara 5 version is expected to be most in demand, since this is the main version required by the Russian Ministry of Defence. Khrunichev has also been developing a superheavy-lift version (Angara 7), which is capable of orbiting payload of between 45 and 75 tons, and for which there is no equivalent in Russia's current rocket fleet. However, currently the development of Angara 7 is not receiving government funding. In addition, Khrunichev has offered to build a version capable of launching manned spacecraft: Angara 5P. Design The Angara rockets have a modular design similar to the Evolved Expendable Launch Vehicle, based on a common Universal Rocket Module (URM). Depending on configuration, the first stage can consist of 1, 3, 5 or 7 such modules.[citation needed] Unlike EELV launchers, Angara will not employ solid rocket boosters (SRB). The URM is a unitary structure that includes an oxidizer tank, a fuel tank (both tanks being coupled by a spacer) and a propulsion bay. Each URM will have one single-chamber RD-191 engine, using liquid oxygen and RP-1 as fuel. The RD-191 design is based on the RD-170 four-chamber engine used by the Energia launcher, as well as on the RD-171, which is currently used by the Zenit rocket. The second stage will be either a BrizKM (Angara 1.1) or Block I (also called URM-2), which is powered by the RD-0124A engine developed by the KB Khimavtomatika.[4] Angara 5 will use either the Briz-M upper stage (currently used for the Proton-M rocket), or KVRB.[3] Most versions are intended for unmanned launches, but Angara A5P and Angara A7P are being designed to be capable of launching manned spacecraft. A single launch pad can be used for launching all Angara versions. Launch facilities

The rockets will be launched from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, and the currently under construction Vostochny Cosmodrome, both in Russia. Russia hopes to reduce its dependency on Kazakhstan for the use of the Baikonur Cosmodrome, the location from which many of the current generation of Russian rockets are launched.[3] Under the Baiterek program with Kazakhstan, commercial launches of Angara A5 may also take place from Baikonur Cosmodrome. In 2009, it was reported that a shortage of funds for construction of the Plesetsk launch pad was the main obstacle in Angara's development. Production and marketing The serial production of the Universal Rocket Modules and the Briz-M upper stages will take place at the Khrunichev subsidiary Production Corporation Polyot in Omsk. In 2009, Polyot invested over 771.4 RUB (about $25 million) in Angara production lines.[1] Design and testing of the RD-191 engine is done by NPO Energomash, while its mass production will take place at the company Proton-PM in Perm. All Angara versions will be marketed for commercial launches, with the price for an Angara 1.1 launch estimated to be about $20 million. The Angara 1.1 version is expected to be completed first; its first launch is scheduled to take place in 2013 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome. Derivative projects The South Korean launch vehicle Naro-1 uses Angara's URM (fitted with a lower-thrust version of the RD-191 engine called RD-151) as its first stage. The vehicle made its maiden flight on 25 August 2009. The flight was not successful since the payload fairing on the Korean-built second stage failed to separate; however, according to Khrunichev, the first stage performed flawlessly. Together with NPO Molniya, Khrunichev is also developing the reusable Baikal launch vehicle, based on Angara's URM. The vehicle consists of one URM fitted with a wing, an empennage, a landing gear, a return flight engine and attitude control thrusters, to enable the rocket to return to an airfield after completing its mission. Specifications Angara Angara Angara Angara Angara Angara Version Angara A3 Angara A5 1.1 1.2 A5P A5/KVRB A7P A7V 1xURM, 1xURM, 3xURM, 5xURM, 5xURM, 5xURM, 7xURM, 7xURM, First stage RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 RD-191 Block I, Second BreezeBlock I, Block I, Block I, ---RDstage KM RD-0124A RD-0124A RD-0124A 0124A Third stage BrizBrizKVTKKVTK(not used -[9] -[9] KVRB [9] M/KVSK M/KVTK A7 A7[9] for LEO) 1,372 1,372 196 Mgf 196 Mgf 980 Mgf Mgf Thrust (at 588 Mgf 980 Mgf 980 Mgf Mgf (1.92 (1.92 (9.61 (13.44 ground) (5.77 MN) (9.61 MN) (9.61 MN) (13.44 MN) MN) MN) MN) MN) Launch 149 t 171.5 t 478 t 713 t 759 t 776 t 1,125 t 1,184 t weight Height 34.9 m 41.5 m 45.8 m ? 55.4 m 64 m ? ? (maximal) Payload 2.0 t 3.7 t 14.6 t 18.0 t 24.5 t 28.5 t 36.0 t 40.5 t

(LEO 200 km) Payload --2.4/3.7 t -5.4/7.3 t ? ? -(GTO) Payload 1.0/2.0 t -2.9/4.5 t 5.7 t 7.5 t 9t (GEO) Development history On August 26, 1995 the government of Russia adopted a resolution to develop the Angara launcher system.On December 12, 2007 Krunichev announced that at NPO Energomash, engineers had successfully tested flight hydraulics and steering actuators for the first stage under near-flight conditions.In cooperation with Salyut Design Bureau, Khrunichev designed a reusable flyback Baikal booster rocket, to serve as a first stage in the Angara family.On April 14, 2008, Rian news agency reported that the Flight tests of a new-generation Russian space launch vehicle will start in 2010, the director of the Khrunichev State Research and Production Center said on Monday. On September 5, 2008, the creator of the RD-191 engine, NPO Energomash, reported that the engine has completed full cycle of development and burn tests and is ready for manufacturing and delivery. On January 10, 2009, the first completed URM was delivered to the proving grounds. Cold and burn tests were planned to be performed in the first half of 2009. On April 29, 2009 the first series of cold tests has been performed. The URM was filled with nearly 100 tonnes of liquefied oxygen to check functioning of hydraulic and pneumatic pumping systems. On June 18, 2009, both fuel components were used for tests. On July 30, 2009, the burn tests of the first URM equipped with RD-151 engine were performed. On August 25, 2009 South Korea launched its Naro-1 rocket, with URM/RD-151 making up the first stage. With height of 30 m and weight of 140 tonnes Naro-1 is similar to Angara 1.1 configuration. The launch marked the first flight test of the URM, which successfully propelled the rocket to altitude of 196 km, where the first stage separated. However, the fairing on the Korean-built second stage failed to separate, and the satellite did not reach the correct orbit. On December 5, 2009 Roscosmos announced the completion of engine trials, but that the first test flight of the Angara would be postponed from 2011 to 2012 due to lack of funding. The Khrunichev center has asked the government to allocate an additional 10 billion rubles (about $290 million) over the next three years to finish the development of the rocket. On January 13, 2010 Vladimir Nesterov, Director-General of Khrunichev, announced that his company had received the required funding, and the first flight test of Angara is now scheduled for 2013. All program tasks in 2010 were completed successfully.

RUS-M LAUNCH VEHICLE

Rus-M is a planned rocket which is intended to become Russia's main launch vehicle for manned spaceflight in the future. It will be the launcher for the Prospective Piloted Transport System, a new manned spacecraft which is to replace the Soyuz. Rus-M is currently under development by TsSKB-Progress. History In Spring of 2009, TsSKB-Progress won a government contract to develop a new launcher for Russia's manned space program. The project was featured in MAKS 2009 Airshow, and

preliminary design of the vehicle was expected to be submitted to the Russian space agency Roskosmos by August 2010. Requirements Safety requirements put forward by Roscosmos emphasize that the launcher must have maximal reliability; crew rescue should be possible at any launch stage, and removal of the rocket from the launch pad in case of an emergency during an early stage of the launch sequence must be guaranteed. The launcher must be able to provide a basis for a future heavy launcher, with a payload capacity of 50 60 tons, as well as for a super-heavy version with a capability of 130 150 tons, with minimal cost Description According to available data, Rus-M will use three Energomash RD-180 kerosene and liquid oxygen engines for its first stage and four RD-0146 hydrogen/oxygen engine developed by Chemical Automatics Design Bureau for its upper stage.[3][4] It will be able to lift an unmanned payload of 23.8 tons to the 200-km, 51.7-degree circular orbit; a manned payload of 18.8 tons to the 135 by 400-km orbit; 7.0 tons to geostationary transfer orbit and 4.0 tons to geostationary orbit. Development TsSKB Progress is responsible for overall project leadership, system integration, second stage development and production. First stage development will be led by Makeev KB Mash, while NPO Avtomatiki will provide the rocket's flight control system.

SOYUZ 1 SERIES
The Soyuz-1, also known as the Soyuz-2.1v is a proposed Russian expendable carrier rocket. It was derived from the Soyuz-2.1b, and is a member of the R-7 family of rockets. It will be built by TsSKB Progress, at Samara in the Russian Federation. Launches will be conducted from existing facilities at the Plesetsk Cosmodrome in Northwest Russia and the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan,[2] and new facilities at the Vostochny Cosmodrome in Eastern Russia. It consists of a Soyuz-2.1b, with the booster rockets removed, and the core stage reengined with the NK-33 engine, originally built for the N1 programme. The second stage is the same as the second stage of the Soyuz-2.1b. It is designed as a medium-class carrier rocket, and has a payload capacity of 2,850 kilograms (6,300 lb) to a 200 kilometre circular low Earth orbit with an inclination of 56.8 from Baikonur, and 2,800 kilograms (6,200 lb) to a 200 kilometre orbit at 62.8 from Plesetsk