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Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Safety and Health in the Fishing Industry Geneva, 13-17 December 1999 International Labour Office Geneva Copyright 2000 International Labour Organization (ILO)
Cover photographs: ILO/J. Maillard and Leif Magne Vik To purchase this document, click here
Employment(2)
The most comprehensive survey of the number of persons engaged in fishing has been carried out by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).(3) The FAO estimates that between 1970 and 1990, the number of people engaged in fishing and fish farming doubled from roughly 13 million to 28.5 million. Of the 28.5 million, roughly 15 million fishermen (or "fishers") are employed aboard decked or undecked fishing vessels operating in the
marine capture fisheries, of which more than 90 per cent are working on vessels less than 24 metres in length. This report focuses on these 15 million fishermen.
Future employment in the marine fishing sector may therefore be affected by the overall availability of fish, as well as how the availability of those fish is divided among the various groups of fishermen (e.g. artisanal and small-scale versus large trawlers; developing versus developed world).
In 1995, 46.1 per cent of the world fishing fleet(14) was over 20 years old. This age profile is increasing(15) -- Lloyd's Fleet Statistics for 1996 lists the average age of the fish catching vessels at 20 years old.(16) In 1995 and 1996 there was a sharp decrease in the number of new vessels. However, 1997 data showed an increase in construction. Fifteen per cent of vessels constructed between 1991 and 1995 were registered in "open registers" (Honduras, Liberia, Cyprus and Panama).(17) The FAO has estimated that 5 per cent of fishing vessels in the 100150 grt range are in open registers, increasing to 14 per cent of fishing vessels over 4,000 grt.(18)
International developments
The world's fisheries have come under increasing control. International Conventions, Agreements, Codes and activities have had, and are having, a major impact on where and how fishing takes place. The following are examples.
Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks
The Agreement, adopted at the sixth session of the United Nations Conference on Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks held in 1995, aims to ensure the long-term conservation and sustainable use of straddling fish stocks and highly migratory fish stocks through effective implementation of the relevant provisions of UNCLOS. It spells out the duties of flag States to ensure that fishing vessels flying their flags comply with its provisions. Under certain conditions and restrictions, a fishing vessel may be boarded and inspected on the high seas for compliance with conservation and management measures for straddling and highly migratory fish stocks. The Agreement also gives non-governmental organizations access to meetings of subregional and regional fisheries management organizations or arrangements.
conservation, management and development of all fisheries, and also covers the capture, processing and trade of fish and fishery products, fishing operations, aquaculture, fisheries research and the integration of fisheries into coastal area management. It reflects many of the provisions of UNCLOS and the Agreement for the implementation of the provisions of UNCLOS Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (see above). It also includes references to certain ILO standards (e.g. concerning repatriation of fishermen). The Code encourages port States to check fishing vessels for compliance with subregional, regional or global conservation and management measures or with internationally agreed minimum standards for the prevention of pollution and for safety, health and conditions of work on board fishing vessels. Further impetus was given to the Code when the FAO Ministerial Meeting on Fisheries (Rome, March 1999) adopted the Rome Declaration on the Implementation of the Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries.(20)
equipment and fishing gear, as well as sophisticated navigational aids. Changes in technology have not only affected fishermen on large vessels. Small-scale fishermen, especially in developed countries, have experienced technical improvements in boat design, the fitting of engines in boats, aids to navigation, fishing gear, fishing methods and preserving the catch.(23) Communications, including safety communications, have improved considerably. Advances in satellite communications have influenced not only fishing safety but also other communications and operations. Satellite systems are also being used to monitor some fishing operations. Precise navigation has been made much easier by satellite navigation using the Global Positioning System (GPS). With GPS, it is possible to establish a vessel's exact position, set tracks and locate fishing equipment with relatively inexpensive receivers. Sonar and echo sounder technology have enhanced fishermen's ability not only to find fish but to distinguish between species. On trawlers, headlines on fishing gear can also be fitted with sounders and temperature sensors which permit fishermen to aim the trawl and to ensure efficient entry of fish into the net. Sophisticated monitors on the bridge can provide a clear presentation of what is happening below. Assistance can be obtained by communicating with fishing analysts ashore who can provide information using satellites and other sources and predict where the species sought may be found. For most of history, fishermen have pulled their gear and fish aboard by hand (many still do), a task requiring strength and endurance. Steam, then electricity and now primarily hydraulics, have dramatically increased the power available on deck. The invention of the power block, for example, significantly eased the labour of many fishermen. At-sea processing has allowed for large catches, leading to massive fishing gear which in turn requires more powerful deck equipment. However, heavier and more powerful equipment may lead to more serious accidents. There is increased pressure to fish in a manner which avoids incidental by-catch or harm to certain forms of marine life. Special gear (e.g. turtle excluder devices) and restrictions on fishing operations (e.g. no fishing close to seal rookeries) are now familiar fishing concerns. Not long ago, unwanted species, whether simply those that could not be profitably processed, stored and marketed or those with little or no market value, were often discarded at sea, particularly in industrialized fishing. This is no longer an accepted practice. The development of factory trawlers, beginning in the 1950s, led to the catch being frozen on board and to the increased automation of fish processing. Initially, such ships required a substantial number of dedicated fish-processing workers; improvements in automation have since led to a reduction in manual labour associated with processing and stowing the catch. In some cases, however, work pressure has increased. Consumers are demanding a higher quality product, i.e. fish that are fresh (or which have been quickly frozen) and have suffered little or no damage during catching, processing and storage. Some countries require that seafood products can be traced along the chain of sales and transportation, all the way to the original harvesting area, and even to the fishermen responsible for the first handling. The necessity of providing a quality product has had a major impact on fishing operations. It has become increasingly important to ensure that gear is not left too long in
the water and that fish are not left too long before being cleaned and stored. This can affect the rhythm of work. Icing and freezing at a rapid pace can also influence working conditions and in particular safety (see Chapter 2).
from its sale, but the sharing is usually done before, rather than after, the deduction of operating costs. In some operations, fishermen receive both a regular salary and a share of the catch. The members of the crew receive a fixed salary which is stipulated in the charter party, in the contract of engagement or in the relevant legislation or collective agreement. They also receive a share of the catch calculated on the basis of the gross proceeds from its sale.
"We must invest in the facilities for the crew to make life easier for them and to keep them aboard." More light and space for the crew has been created by raising the mess area to provide bigger windows. In addition, all cabins have a shower, toilet, stereo system and are equipped for TV. A fridge and microwave are sited in the messroom, despite the close proximity to the galley, and crewmen can wash off their dining plates and put them in a dishwasher in the messroom. A private crew's telephone room is provided and the cabins are arranged with five on trawl deck level and seven below. The captain has his own shower room, bedroom and day room/office. Separate washing and drying machines are fitted to deal with personal and working clothes, while there are boot warmers and clothes hangers in a room which has direct access to both the processing deck and the trawl deck. * Description of accommodation facilities on a Spanish-built wet fish stern trawler built for Norwegian owners -- Fishing News International (London), July 1998. However,
poor conditions prevail on many fishing vessels (see box 1.2). Accommodation obviously also varies in accordance with the economic situation and the length of time the vessel is expected to remain at sea.
"The fishermen are packed in boats with the complicity of local agents, in inhuman conditions, despite
the regulatory measures provided by the state and the actions undertaken by our union during seminars designed to sensitize and prick consciences. The fishermen work in these conditions for 70 days without rest and from 6:00 to 19:00 with only 2 rest periods a day. The tents [on the deck of large fishing vessels] fixed up for them [to] sleep in (on boxes or wood as matresses are a luxury) encourage malformations as it is impossible to stand, sit properly, or sleep in the position of one's choice ..." * Description of conditions on certain European and Asian distant-water vessels off West Africa -Reported by the Collectif national des pcheurs artisanaux du Sngal.
helplessness. Many Filipino fishermen working on such vessels must sign a second contract with conditions velow approved Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) contract they ssigned before they left home - when joining the vessel. They may find that insurance is limited to strictly defined illness or injuries that occur during fishing operations, that large deductions are taken from their wages to cover expenses alleged to have been incurred aboard the fishing or processing vessel, and that the alien culture makes it difficult to organize into trade unions or to purchase other means of improving conditions. Some have tried to unionize only to suffer employment discrimination.(40) The Seamen's/Fishermen's Service Center of the Presbyterian Church in Taiwan, China, which has a long history of working with such fishermen, cites such problems as lack of documentation, language barriers, lack of medical care, safety problems (including lack of fishing vessel inspections) and lack of means to communicate with medical or legal aid ashore.(41)
Box 1.3 Asking for help
On 19 January 1999, a Filipino fisherman brought two other Filipino fishermen [names withheld] to our centre seeking help. The two fishermen are working in a fishing boat [name withheld]. The two fishermen began work on this ship on 16 November 1998. Their problems are: (a) they didn't get enough food on the boat; (b) they worked in the frozen storage and were never provided with any gloves or shoes to protect their hands and feet, resulting in serious injuries to their hands and legs; (c) because of language problems between them and the Captain, they were often beaten and could not tolerate it any longer. SFSC helped contact their agent in [name of port withheld] and requested him to solve their problem by changing their ship or meeting with the Captain to tell him to be fair to these fishermen in their life and work on the boat, to supply them with gloves while working in the storage, etc. Source: Jan. 1999 Newsletter of the Seamen's/Fishermen's Service Center, Kaohsiung, Taiwan, China.
Some Pacific Island fishermen have also experienced similar problems while working on board foreign flag vessels. They complain of excessively long hours, poor treatment of injuries -- even in the case of seriously injured workers, lack of proper working clothes, non-respect of contracts agreed in advance and even beatings. Some have taken their grievances to court or have formed local fishermen's associations to fight the situation. With limited opportunities at home, many islanders continue to seek this employment and to return to jobs at sea.(42) Fishermen have been abandoned in foreign ports following the bankruptcy of their employers, the seizure of vessels following illegal fishing (or alleged illegal fishing) or in connection with political or military disputes. Some fishermen who may have no control over where the vessel operates find themselves in jail for extended periods, receiving no support from owners.(43) Fishermen from former Eastern bloc countries have been abandoned (or remained unpaid for long periods) when their once government-owned fleets were privatized and lost access to distant fishing grounds. And in some areas there is piracy.
An International Seminar-Workshop on the conditions of fishworkers on distant-water vessels, held in Manila in 1991, made a number of recommendations to improve conditions, including improving recruitment practices; implementation by national governments of international laws, including ILO and IMO standards; organizing fishworkers; identifying social and legal assistance services; collecting basic information on fishworkers' problems and conditions; improving training; and improving the communication/education of fishworkers' groups. The participants also agreed that fishworkers who were organized in trade unions were generally better treated than their counterparts.(44) The Office has not obtained information on whether coastal States are seeking to control the living and working conditions of fishermen working on distant-water fishing vessels authorized to fish in the coastal State's exclusive economic zones.(45) Information on any links, or proposed links, between the authorization to fish in coastal waters and the required standards governing the conditions of the crew on fishing vessels granted such authorizations would be very useful, as this may reveal means of improving conditions of a sadly unprotected group of workers.
National owners' organizations have played an important role in safety and other matters in their respective countries. Europche has been the voice of fishing vessel owners on labour and other issues before the European Commission (see Chapter 4). The International Coalition of Fisheries Associations has represented fishing vessel owners at the United Nations, FAO and other forums. The Tripartite Meeting will provide an opportunity to discuss whether and how the ILO could play a more active role in encouraging the establishment or strengthening of national organizations of fishing vessel owners and thus enhance social dialogue in the fishing sector. 1. The term "fisherman" is gender neutral, and is the term used in ILO instruments. 2. This information is taken primarily from the FAO Fisheries Department Internet site from a document entitled "Number of fishers doubled since 1970" at http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/highligh/fisher/ c929.htm. The FAO warns potential users of data shortcomings which may have resulted from gaps or estimates by national statistical offices and from the incomparability of data due to the utilization of different concepts and methods in the assessment of the number of persons engaged in fishing and aquaculture. However, this still represents the best available information on global employment in the fishing sector. 3. The ILO publishes a number of relevant series on workers in its Yearbook of Labour Statistics. These relate to total employment (paid employment plus self-employment) and persons in paid employment. All these series are classified according to economic activity, using either the International Standard Industrial Classification of all Economic Activities (ISIC) Revision 2 or ISIC Revision 3. Where ISIC Rev.3 is used, separate data may be available for fishing; otherwise, fishing is incorporated in Major Division 1 of ISIC Rev.2 along with agriculture, hunting and forestry. The data on total employment are also classified by occupation, according to International Standard Classification of Occupations (ISCO) -- either the 1968 revision (ISCO-68) or the 1988 revision (ISCO-88), at the major group level. Consequently, fishermen are not identified separately. 4. FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998 (Rome, 1999). 5. Alain le Sann: A livelihood from fishing: Globalization and sustainable fisheries policies (London, Intermediate Technology Publications, 1998). 6. FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998, op. cit. 7. See http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/fcp/fcp.htm. 8. FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1996 (Rome, 1997). 9. That is, excluding aquaculture.
10. FAO: The state of world fisheries and aquaculture 1998, op. cit. 11. ibid. 12. http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/highligh/2010.htm. 13. FAO: Bulletin of Fishery Statistics, No. 35 (Rome, 1998). 14. Of vessels 24 metres and over and 100 grt and over. 15. J. Fitzpatrick and C. Newton: Assessment of the world's fishing fleet 1991-1997, at http://www.greenpeace.org/~oceans/reports/flotta.html. 16. Lloyd's Register of Shipping World Fleet Statistics, 1996 (London, 1997). 17. Fitzpatrick and Newton, op. cit. 18. FAO: Open registers, doc. MSC 71/10/1, submitted by the FAO to the 71st Session of the IMO's Maritime Safety Committee (Mar. 1999). 19. M. Wigan: The last of the hunter gatherers (Shrewsbury, United Kingdom, 1998). 20. For the text of the Declaration, see http://www.fao.org/waicent/faoinfo/fishery/agreem/declar/ dece.htm. 21. For further information on how to obtain these reports, see http://www.oecd.org/agr/policy/ag-fish/index.htm. 22. Based on World Fishing: Fisherman's manual (Kent, Nexus Media Ltd., 1997). 23. ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life (Geneva, doc. CFI/4/1988/1). 24. Based, with updates, on ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life, op. cit. 25. See also discussion of ILO Convention No. 155 in Ch. 6. 26. Based, with updates, on ILO: Fishermen's conditions of work and life, op. cit. 27. K. Nitiruangjaras et al.: A research on child labour in the fishery industry and other continued industries in Pattani (Thailand, 1998). 28. V. Rialp: Children and hazardous work in the Philippines (Geneva, ILO, 1993). 29. S.R. Pardoen: Children in hazardous work in the informal sector in Indonesia (Jakarta, ILO/Atma Jaya Research Centre, 1996).
30. Reported in the CRS daily summary, 25 Sep. 1998 at http://www.altgreen.com.au/fisheries/crs_ summaries_lfv.html. 31. Communication from the ILO Office in Jakarta. 32. The ILO's Minimum Age Convention, 1973 (No. 138), and Minimum Age (Fishermen) Convention, 1959 (No. 112), are discussed in Chs. 5 and 6. 33. Based on M. Ben-Yami: Risks and dangers in small-scale fisheries: An overview, an unpublished paper prepared for the Office in view of this report. The Office may publish the report at a later date as a sectoral working paper. 34. In this report small-scale fisheries are defined in two ways: (1) by socio-economic criteria, and (2) by technical ones. According to socio-economic criteria, small-scale fishermen are people of both genders who usually operate their own fishing craft and equipment, go to sea either alone or accompanied by a few crew members who are preferably their own friends or relatives. Technical criteria used in this report define small-scale fisheries as a sector in which fishermen fish and collect aquatic organisms from beaches and from under ice, either by swimming, diving or wading, or using small-scale fishing craft. Small-scale fishing craft are defined, for industrial countries, as boats of less than 10-12 m length overall, and less than 12-15 MT displacement, powered by engines not exceeding 200-300 hp (150-225 kW). For developed countries, this definition also covers canoes, pirogues and open-deck dhows up to 16 m length overall, powered by engines not exceeding 200 hp (150 kW). Ben-Yami, op. cit. 35. Although there are notable examples of fisheries, particularly inland fishing in many African countries, where women constitute the majority of fishermen or "fishers". 36. For a discussion of gender and fishing, see E. Munk-Madsen: "Psychosocial characteristics of the workforce at sea", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Geneva, 4th edition, 1998), Vol. 3, Ch. 66: "Fishing". 37. See the discussion of the Commercial Fishing Industry Vessel Advisory Committee (CFIVAC) under "United States" in Annex 1. 38. The Gloucester Fishermen's Wives Association, in Massachussets, United States, for example, participates not only in local forums but is also represented on the national advisory committee concerned with fishing safety. 39. This workshop, organized with the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers (ICSF), was reported in "Different voices, similar concerns", in Samudra Report (Madras, ICSF), No. 15, Aug. 1996. 40. For a more detailed discussion of these issues see J. Vacher: "Floating sweatshops: Migrant workers on distant-water fishing vessels", in FAO: Responsible fisheries, Development Education Exchange Papers (DEEP) (Rome), Oct. 1995.
41. Personal correspondence forwarded by Jacques Harel, General Secretary, International Christian Maritime Assocation, Mar. 1999. 42. "The fishermen's story", in Asia Now, investigative report (four-part series, 1998-99). 43. This situation has been described in considerable detail in H. Mahadevan et al.: Fishworkers as prisoners of war (New Delhi, South Asian Labour Forum, May 1998). 44. Report on the International Collective in Support of Fishworkers' Seminar-Workshop on the conditions of fishworkers on distant-water vessels (ICSF, Belgium, 1991). 45. It is, however, aware that the Falkland Islands Legislative Council, inter alia, "unanimously endorsed a motion on 25 March to take action to deny fishing licences to vessels, companies and masters shown to be involved in human rights abuses", as reported in Fishing News International (London), June 1998. 46. ILO: Trade unions and organizations of fisherfolks (1992). 47. Letter to the ILO from the United Federation of Labour, 23 July 1998.
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Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Safety and Health in the Fishing Industry Geneva, 13-17 December 1999 International Labour Office Geneva Copyright 2000 International Labour Organization (ILO)
Cover photographs: ILO/J. Maillard and Leif Magne Vik To purchase this document, click here
extreme and unpredictable. On deck, fishermen are exposed to the weather and the sea, fishing gear and other equipment and usually to the catch itself. On or below deck they may face dangers associated with processing and, even when not working, they are still subject to vessel motion. There is always the possibility of fire, sinking and other traditional maritime dangers. Fog carries the risk of collision or grounding. Marine fishing operations can take place anywhere from very close to shore in protected bays to far out at sea. Though great strides have been made in many countries to provide search and rescue and medical evacuation services to fishing vessels (such as medical evacuation by helicopter), it may take quite a while for aid to reach vessels or persons in distress. A sick or injured fisherman must depend on receiving immediate medical care from other members of the crew; if fishing alone, the only help available must come from himself or from nearby fishing vessels, if at all. Fishermen on artisanal craft may not have a radio to call for help. As touched upon in Chapter 1, certain fishermen also face risks of physical abuse on board. Some face physical risks due to military or resource-related conflicts or piracy. Fishermen depend on their vessels for their survival. If the vessel suffers a casualty, the fishermen have a good chance of losing their lives (in some areas families live on board and thus share the risks). The design, construction, maintenance and operation of the vessel all directly affect safety and health. Living and working space on board fishing vessels can be quite limited. Vessels usually carry a substantial amount of equipment necessary to store and (frequently) process fish. This does not leave much living and working space, and fishermen must therefore usually work very close to powerful and potentially dangerous machinery. If fishing gear breaks free, there may be nowhere to get away from it. Cramped crew accommodation can result in fishermen living very close to each other, and this may increase stress as well as facilitate the passage of contagious diseases. Risks vary with each type of fishing operation, area of operation, vessel size, equipment carried and the job of each fisherman. On larger vessels, the risk of being killed or injured through crushing by heavy equipment may be relatively high. On small and artisanal vessels, the risk of capsizing from a snagged trawl, sinking while pulling in a large catch and even being attacked by dangerous marine life can be considerable. In places where fishing vessels are unable to operate from ports or shelters, crossing surf may be very dangerous. Bad weather, loss of power and unsuitable vessels are additional risks, perhaps greater for small vessels than larger ones. Smaller craft may more easily be damaged by or lost in powerful storms(1) or run down by merchant ships.(2) The safety problems associated with crabbing in the Bering Sea off Alaska are quite different from those encountered in shrimp trawlers in the Bay of Bengal. Over-simplification of the industry, which may lead to inappropriate regulation and thus resentment and loss of the cooperation of the fishermen concerned, can itself be a danger.
they may be attributed directly to one cause (e.g. drowning) or indirectly to other causes (capsizing of vessel, falling over the side). Accidents may be attributed to a primary event or an underlying or primary cause; they may be associated with certain types of fishing (trawling, longlining) or to certain types of equipment (winches, fishing gear). The external environment may be seen as the cause (bad weather) or an accident may be attributed to the human element (inattention, fatigue, lack of training). Causes may be described in very general terms used for all professions (falling from height, slipping) or be specific to fishing (caught in trawl winch). They can be categorized under various headings, including by vessel size.(3)
Fatalities
A comparison between fatality statistics in the fishing industry and general occupational fatality rates of other occupational categories shows that fishing is one of the most dangerous professions. In Australia, between 1982 and 1984, the fatality rate for fishermen was 143/100,000 person-years compared to 8.1/100,000 generally; in Denmark, from 1989 to 1996, the rate was 25-30 times higher than the rate for those employed on land; in the United States in 1996, the death rate was estimated at eight times that of persons operating motor vehicles for a living, 16 times higher than such occupations as fire-fighting and police work and over 40 times the national average; in China, over 400 fishermen are reported killed in accidents each year; in Tunisia in 1994, the rate was double the national average.(4) Table 2.1 presents statistics on occupational fatalities and injuries in the fishing industry in selected countries. The ILO's Occupational Safety and Health Branch estimates that fishing has a worldwide fatality rate of 80 per 100,000 workers or approximately 24,000 deaths per year, and estimates that there are 24 million non-fatal accidents in the sector annually. Table 2.1. Occupational fatalities and injuries in the fishing industry in selected countries, 1997
Country
Persons injured
Persons Persons Fatality rate (per 1,000) injured with lost worktime fatally injured All occupations Fishing*
642 76 140
9 0 3
0.2514
Rep. of Korea Estonia Finland Greece Iceland Italy Lithuania Poland Portugal Spain Sweden New Zealand
121 14 45
13 4 0
0.33 0.077
0 4('96) 1 8 ('96) 14 41 15 ('96) 0 0.1017 0.023 0.01 0.6496 1 194.5('96) 0.075 0.049 0.454 0.211 0.588 0.057 4.489 17('96)
* Data for fishing industry may include shoreworkers. Source: ILO: Yearbook of Labour Statistics (Geneva, 1998).
1995
1996
1997
Total
<12
12<<24
>24
<12
12<<24
>24
<12
12<<24
>24
65 23 23 11 4 14 6 5 151
28 10 21 9
16 3 4 8
33 11 27 9
50 7 21 13 1
12
41 9 21 11
36 10 19 7
11 3 1 3
292 76 137 71 5
22 2 1 93
3 1 2 37
16 2
23 1 1
11 2 2 12 97
17 3
109 17 11
98
117
92
21
281
227
210
718
Source: IMO: Collection and analysis of casualty statistics of fishing vessels and fishermen, Note by the Secretariat (London, doc. FSI 7/6/2, 29 Jan. 1999).
This table indicates that the greatest number of fatalities are related to foundering, fires or explosions, and to the wrecking or stranding of fishing vessels. In the United States (which is not reflected in the table and which uses a different set of vessel casualty categories), of the 57 per cent of deaths directly related to vessel casualties, most are due to sinking, flooding and capsizing.(6) This, however, is only a sampling of the world fleet, and it is likely that in some of these countries the fatalities are under-reported. In some fishing communities there may be no
death certificates or coroner's report. There may also be no requirement for deaths to be reported to the local, district or national authorities. Thus, fatality statistics may only be partially representative of reality (see also the discussion of statistics in Chapter 5). There are many reasons why casualties occur. Foundering may be caused by the fishing vessel experiencing conditions which exceed its design or by hull failure due to poor maintenance; capsizing may result from poor design, inappropriate modification, improper loading or ballasting of the vessel, or from taking heavy beam seas following loss of power; a stranding may be the result of poor navigation or uncharted shoals; collisions may result from poor watchkeeping by either the fishing vessel or a passing merchant ship.
1995
1996
1997
Total
Falling overboard/ going missing Handling of fishing gear/ mechanical lifting Involving machinery Falls on board
21
12
14
14
16
100
2 1 1
1 1
17 2 3
1 1 3 1 18 23 6 2 6 4 4 2 30 1 1 18 38 3 9 19 10 19
1 8 19 46
61
59
76
196
Bearing in mind that the information presented above only covers a small group of countries, it is very evident that falling overboard (or going missing) remains a major cause of death. Among these losses are drownings or deaths from hypothermia. A study of fatal accidents in the Danish industrial fishing fleet during the period 1989-96 reported 70 such accidents,(7) just over half resulting from vessels sinking. Most fatalities on small vessels (less than 20 grt) occurred during the winter months in bad weather. Circumstances such as overloading, improper alterations to structure, and, for small vessels, use of vessels beyond their capacity, were indicated. Fatalities involving vessels over 20 grt resulted from lack of, or inadequate, safety procedures. Several fishermen were killed owing to being pulled over the side by gear or otherwise falling overboard and drowning -- 12 fishermen died due to some sort of accident involving machinery (winches, trawl doors, ice conveyor belts, etc.), nine accidents occurred in connection with boarding or leaving the vessel (alcohol often cited as a contributing factor) and many accidents had not been witnessed leaving the causes unknown.
Most fishing vessels are too small to be fitted with accommodation ladders. In harbours with a rise and fall of the tide, access to vessels is normally by ladders indented into the pier with steel rungs. These rungs are sometimes twisted or, even worse, missing. Due to the common method of mooring the vessels in parallel, the fisherman then has to cross several vessels to reach his own. Such a traverse is risky even in daylight under normal circumstances. When a fisherman returns to his boat at night (in some cases under the influence of alcohol), in the darkness with no one else around, such an obstacle course can be fatal.(9)
Non-fatal accidents
Non-fatal accidents are common in the fishing industry.(10) The body regions most frequently injured include the hands, lower limbs, head and neck and upper limbs, followed by the chest, spine and abdomen. The most common types of traumas are open wounds, fractures, strains, sprains and contusions. Many non-fatal injuries may involve amputation of fingers, hands, arms and legs as well as injuries to the head and neck. Infections, lacerations and minor traumas of the hands and finger are quite frequent. Information on the Russian fleet reveals that hands were injured in 41 per cent of accidents, legs -- 29 per cent, wrists -- 18 per cent, head and neck -- 10 per cent.(11) A 1995 Swedish study concluded that hands and wrists were the most exposed body parts followed by shanks or knees and lower arms or elbows.(12) Others categorize accidents according to the nature of the injury sustained. For example, a study of lost-time accidents covering 10,475 Polish deep-sea fishermen from 1977 to 1986 recorded that the most frequent types of injuries were: contusions and crushing -- 25.2 per cent, fractures -- 24.4 per cent and wounds -- 17.7 per cent.(13)
Box 2.1
Results of an ILO survey on health and safety issues in the fishing sector
In 1999 the ILO collected and analysed views and information, primarily from the international maritime medical community, concerning health and safety issues in the fishing sector. This was done by surveying medical practitioners in maritime countries and institutions which provided health services for fishermen. Respondents were asked to complete the questionnaire and to provide any available statistics on work-related morbidity and accidents among fishermen, as well as other relevant information. Forty-one completed questionnaires were sent back to the ILO in sufficient time to be reflected in this report. These included responses from: Australia, Belgium, Bulgaria, Canada, Chile, China, Cte d'Ivoire, Croatia, Denmark, Estonia, France, Germany, India, Indonesia, Iceland, Jamaica, Lithuania, Norway, Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Russian Federation, South Africa, Spain, Thailand, United Kingdom, United States and Vanuatu. Copies of reports, scientific papers, statistics and other information were also provided. The questionnaire concerned: medical examinations for fitness for work on fishing vessels; frequency of work-related diseases and injuries among fishermen; types of accidents; causes of accidents; actions aimed at accident prevention; injuries and diseases among fishermen working on small fishing vessels; medical care on board fishing vessels; and first aid and medical care on small fishing vessels. Where possible, the Office used classifications in line with the ILO code of practice Recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases (see Chapter 5), with some additions and modifications reflecting fishing. The results indicated that the most frequent work-related injuries in fishermen were: superficial injuries, effects of weather and exposure, injuries to the musculoskeletal system, contusions and crushing injuries, and near drowning. Drowning was a leading cause of death among fishermen. The leading types of accidents were: stepping on, striking against or being struck by an object, falling, overexertion. The leading causes of accidents were: rough weather, fatigue, poor technical condition of the vessel, inadequate or inappropriate tools, equipment, personal protective equipment and inattention. The most frequent diseases among fishermen were: skin and respiratory diseases, and the effects of
noise and vibration on board the vessel. In morbidity statistics and publications hypertension, coronary heart diseases and cancer of the lungs, bronchus and stomach were also mentioned as frequently diagnosed diseases. Some diseases are specific to fishermen, such as salt-water boils, allergic reactions to cuttlefish and weeds, fish erysipeloid, acute tenosynovitis of the wrist, conjunctivitis and poisonous fish stings of certain fish in the warm waters of the tropics and subtropics. In the majority of countries, medical and health care for fishermen has been organized. They are required to be medically examined prior to taking up their occupation, and later on at regular intervals, as required by law and regulations. Medical staff (doctors and/or nurses) are employed in some countries to accompany the crews of large trawlers, factory ships or auxiliary ships (bases) to oversee their health. Otherwise, masters or officers are trained in medical matters and provide first aid and basic health care during the vessel's voyage. Medical equipment and supplies are carried on fishing vessels, and use is made of the International Medical Guide for Ships or an equivalent national publication. Ships are in contact with medical radio stations on shore and, if necessary, casualties can be transported to shore for hospital treatment, if the distance from shore allows it. Health and medical services for fishermen are available on shore. Port health officers, port Summary and analysis based on a paper by S. Tomaszunas, consultant to the ILO on the survey.
Musculoskeletal disorders (i.e. diseases of the muscles, tendons and/or joints) are common. These problems are largely the result of heavy lifting, awkward work postures, repetitive work tasks, stress and poor work organization. In a Swedish study,(16) it was determined that 74 per cent of fishermen had experienced symptoms of musculoskeletal disorder over a 12-month period and the fishermen themselves felt that the motion of the vessel was a major contributor. Fish processing workers, whether at sea or ashore, also had a high prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders. This may be related to the highly repetitive tasks performed in a short time cycle and the lack of rotation among different tasks. As many fish processing jobs are performed by women (usually on large factory trawlers at sea or in processing plants ashore), this can be a particular characteristic of women's employment in the fishing industry. A study of artisanal fishermen in Morocco showed that one-third suffered from musculoskeletal disorders, and these were generally related to the methods used, and conditions involved, in the unloading of the catch ashore.(17) Tendonitis, related to long hours or repetitious work, is a particularly serious problem for crewmen and processing workers in the cold weather conditions of Alaska.(18)
Safety and health risks vary by fishing method. For example, longlining may be characterized by long working hours, stationary work and relatively less heavy lifting. Dangerous aspects of autoliners, conventional liners or hauling craft may include being caught in the line and pulled over the side during line setting and becoming caught in the line-roller and line when hauling. With trawling, the risk is highest during hauling as the crew usually works close to the wires and other gear (e.g. otter boards) under considerable strain. In heavy weather, the wire or gear may sweep across the deck, causing major injuries or loss of life. Common accidents involve falling or being struck or crushed.(20)
Task
Setting and hauling trawl, purse seine and other fishing gear Connecting trawl doors Bleeding and gutting
Entanglement in the fishing gear or wire cables; crushing injuries; falling overboard Crushing injuries; falling overboard Cuts from knives or machines; musculoskeletal disorders
Wounds from hooks; entanglement in the lines Musculoskeletal disorders Cuts; amputations using knives or machines; musculoskeletal disorders
Trimming fillets Working in confined spaces; loading and landing Source: Rafnsson, op. cit.
In a study of the Russian fishing industry, which has a relatively high proportion of large trawlers, accidents were distributed as shown in table 2.5. Table 2.5. Accident distribution in the Russian fishing fleet, by task
Task
Maintenance of machinery, equipment and tools Handling of fishing gear Cargo operations Repair work, including emergency repairs Travelling to and from fishing grounds Mooring operations
25 15 13 10 16 9
The Workers' Compensation Board of British Columbia, Canada, reported that between 1993 and 1995, of 714 work accidents at sea, the activities most associated with accidents were: handling fishing gear -- 23 per cent, handling fish -- 21 per cent, and emergency response -- 9 per cent. A 1996 Danish study revealed that nearly half of all injuries occurred while shooting or hauling fishing gear.(22) A study of accidents on Dutch beam trawlers categorized accident sources as being a combination of equipment and type of work. Categories included: warping drum for cod end rope/gilson wire; snapping of cable; jammed by cable; hit by cable slam; swinging of load; jammed by net; dragged by net/rope; gutting of fish; use of tools; falling; doors, hatches; fish crates.(23) Fishermen in small-scale and artisanal fishing operations can suffer particular types of accidents and injuries. For example, fishing operations that require partial or full submersion(24) expose fisherfolk to injuries by fish and other animals. These can include: posining; injury caused when bringing the catch on board, including some from by-catch; sting from poisonous fish (common in some areas); falling overboard; capsizing (Often due to crossing surf or hauling gear); and fouling gear in the propeller.(25)
Causes of accidents
What is behind these events? Again, there are different approaches to examining the causes of accidents, but all have the same general objective -- to understand what factors, or series of factors, led to a casualty or accident, in order to prevent them in the future or mitigate their effects. The IMO has collected information from member States on the primary causes of casualties which led to the death of fishermen (see table 2.6). The table divides primary causes into a number of categories covering both vessel and human factors. Human error, fishing gear incidents and adverse weather appear as important primary causes in the accidents reported to the IMO. As will be seen later in this report, new investigation techniques are helping investigators obtain a better understanding of what causes accidents. Table 2.6. Primary causes of fatalities of fishermen
1995
1996
1997
Total
Human error Steering gear failure Fishing gear incident Other failure of vessel, its machinery or equipment Adverse weather Icing Other Unknown Subtotal
13
12
59
25
1 11
1 6
2 2 9 1 3 1 7
2 6
1 1
7 46 1
4 50 80
2 11 28
1 14 26
9 23 57
1 12 16
9 5 26
3 29 49
4 13 39 15 22
33 172
134
99
110
343
The role of the human factor or human error has been a recurrent theme in recent discussions on how to improve safety (see box 2.2). While always recognizing that human and equipment causes can often not be clearly separated, these discussions have helped remind us, in an age when technology-based solutions can be oversold, of how action or lack of action by people is essential to safety.
Box 2.2
Most fishing vessel casualties are the result of human error. Moreover, even when casualties have been the result of equipment failure or bad weather, the human factor has often played a part. Maintenance and repair may have been inadequate, for example, or there may have been poor judgement exercised as to when and where to go fishing. Faced with economic and competitive pressures, fishermen are prone to take calculated risks. In view of the liabilities that confront the vessel operator today, however, careful risk management is crucial for business success, not to mention survival. Says one veteran skipper, an emergency at sea is like a snowball: it grows. At first, one or two things go wrong and you can probably cope with those. Suddenly, however, you've got four or five things to deal with at once, and unless the crew is well prepared and trained, disaster strikes. Source: North Pacific Fishing Vessel Owners' Association: Vessel Safety Manual (Seattle, 4th (revised) edition, 1997).
In one study,(26) among other things, vessel-related factors and behavioural factors were observed. Vessel-related factors included: non-availability or lack of adherence to structural guidelines, classification society rules and similar standards during vessel design and construction or conversion; general non-availability of stability data for each vessel; inadequate material condition of vessels and equipment, especially machinery, alarm systems and survival equipment; unavailable or inadequate operating equipment, including bilge alarms and smoke detectors, bilge pumps and fire-fighting systems; use of machinery and fishing gear with inadequate occupational safety and health features; inadequate personal occupational safety equipment; and inadequate or insufficient survival equipment. Behavioural factors included: fatigue/stress; improper or inadequate procedures (including inadequate or unsafe loading/stability practices) and inadequate watchkeeping; improper maintenance; inattention (including carelessness); inadequate human engineering in design; inadequate physical condition; incapacitation through use of alcohol and drugs; inexperience (including inadequate knowledge and skills and insufficient familiarity with the vessel or fishing activity); judgemental errors (including faulty decision-making and risk- taking); navigational/operator error (including inexperience and errors in judgement); neglect (including wilful negligence); personnel relationships; and working conditions.
requirements for small vessels may be very limited, and in some cases non-existent. In many countries small vessels are not subject to inspection or, even if they can be inspected, they are not due to lack of resources. As indicated in Chapter 1, it appears that many distant-water fishing vessels are being registered in countries which do not exercise effective control of safety and health issues (i.e. very few regulations, insufficient inspectors or administrative machinery, etc.). While it may be evident that fishermen would wish to at least carry such items as fire extinguishers, life preservers and simple first-aid kits, many do not. Fishermen are very practical, and many object to carrying, and paying for, items they believe are unnecessary. Many barely break even financially, and items such as an immersion suit or life-raft may seem excessive and expensive. When money does become available, the fisherman may decide that it is better spent on new, updated fishing gear or fish-finding equipment which will result in a larger catch, less time on the water and perhaps less time at risk. If a fisherman believes that a piece of equipment is not really necessary, he may resent, and strongly fight, requirements to carry it. An owner working alone on his own vessel may be willing to take risks; an owner carrying other fishermen on board obviously has greater responsibilities. In developing countries, or even in small-scale and artisanal fisheries in other countries, many vessels are built without following modern rules of construction which aim to ensure good stability and seaworthiness under specific operating conditions. With the almost universal absence of mandatory criteria and inspection, many boat builders have produced unsafe boats, mostly due to lack of experience, financial constraints and lack of appropriate materials or lax building practices. Even when technical cooperation projects have improved vessel standards, the results have not always, however, led to increased safety as enthusiastic fishermen have, in some cases, used the vessels in conditions for which they were not designed (see box 2.3).(27) Other builders may find it difficult to leave behind traditional vessel designs and building practices.
In Samoa, a small catamaran called the "alia" was designed and introduced under an FAO programme. The alia was designed to enable fishermen to reach safely outlying reefs and beyond to fish with hooks and lines. An economic success resulted, the number of alias went into the hundreds and even serious losses due to two severe cyclones could not reduce their numbers for long. But with alia fishermen venturing further offshore, beyond the range for which the alias had been designed, accidents became more frequent and the number of casualties increased. Source: Ben-Yami, op. cit.
Generally speaking, the larger the vessel the higher the requirements for the training and certification of fishermen. Chapters 3 to 6 discuss some national, regional and international measures to ensure that fishermen, particularly captains and senior officers, are properly trained. Skippers of small fishing vessels are often not required to be certified and/or undergo mandatory marine training and pass examinations. This contributes to many stability-associated accidents, especially in industrial countries, where small-scale vessels may have a considerable cargo capacity and some relatively heavy machinery on the deck. Most decked small fishing vessels can be made unstable by skippers who have not been taught the difference between a "stiff" but stable boat, and one that is rolling gently and slowly but is either inherently unstable or its stability has been impaired by overloading. Insufficient training is also a reason for some skippers' and crews' ignorance of means and ways of dealing with such emergencies as fire on board or taking water. The skipper of a small fishing vessel not trained to handle her in heavy seas and strong currents, and especially in narrow passages, represents a risk on board.(28) Training takes time. At sea, training (e.g. safety drills) may be seen as interfering with fishing operations or rest periods; ashore, time spent training may be viewed as unpaid work which is also keeping fishermen from precious time with family and friends. Training can also be costly, and government funding may be difficult to obtain. Despite these difficulties, however, many owners have established thorough training programmes. Training must be credible. Fishermen quickly get a sense of whether or not the person speaking on safety issues understands them and their problems. If they believe that what is presented is impracticable, costly or simply not well thought out, they may not only reject the instructor but also the idea of attending another training course or programme. Consideration might therefore be given to using experienced and respected fishermen to conduct training, such as fishermen who have left the sea due to fishing restrictions, injuries or age. Basic education is a problem in some countries. Fishermen run the full range from highly educated individuals, formally or informally taught, to those with little or no formal schooling; in poor areas, many fishermen cannot read. Training materials should be aimed at the education level of the target group. They should be clear and well illustrated, so they can be clearly understood by most fishermen.
Box 2.4
Our impression, gained through the experience of investigating several hundred fishing vessel accidents annually, is that the sector is failing to keep up with the rest of the maritime industry in developing a safety culture. Source: R.D. Coton: Fishing vessel safety -- The insurer's perspective (London, Shipowners' P&I Club, 1999), unpublished.
Fishing is a profession associated with risk-taking. Elements of risk of various sorts and degrees are inherent in almost every decision made by a skipper or individual fisherman -- decisions on when and where to go fishing, whether to head for shelter, what method/gear to use, whether or not to change a fishing spot, which direction to set their gear, when and where to land their catch, etc. Such decisions take into account weather changes, the condition of the fishing vessel and equipment, the condition and dexterity of the crew, and so on. They depend on the skipper's culture, individual attitude, experience and skill. Fishing is highly competitive. Highly successful fishermen or "highliners" enjoy tremendous prestige among fisherfolk and their communities (see box 2.5). Prestige considerations may motivate skippers to take unnecessary risks.(29) This being said, it may also be true that, over the long term, success may also relate to the ability to avoid risks. Accidents may happen to those who aspire to be "highliners" yet lack the required ability to calculate the risk they are taking. (30)
This is what it takes to be a highliner. You have to be the first boat on the grounds in the morning and the last one to leave at night. You have to keep your lines clean at all times: you can't catch fish if you have jellyfish or junk fish hanging on your hooks. You have to go to find the fish before the other guy finds them and when you do you have got to make them bite better than the other guy. When the bite is on, you have to work your gear faster than the other guy. And you don't stop to eat as often as the other guy; better yet, you don't eat at all. Most of the time this will give you the little edge you need to beat the hell out of most. Source: A. Morton and B. Proctor: "Heart of the raincoast: A life story", in The Fishermen, 18 Dec. 1998.
Many fishermen have a different perception of danger to shoreside workers. Social and cultural attitudes, beliefs and values play an important role in the perception of, and response to, danger. The denial of danger, independence, fatalism, the belief that safety is a problem that primarily
requires a technological solution, are common themes among many fishermen. Efforts to improve safety should begin with trying to understand the fishing culture and to involve the fishers in the development and enforcement of safety regulations.(31)
Influence of the share system and the lack of a minimum wage on safety and health
Chapter 1 discusses the various wage arrangements in the fishing industry, including the practice of paying fishermen partly or wholly on the basis of sharing the catch. The share system can be motivating, create a sense of team spirit and give everyone a stake in the result, but it can also cause fishermen to accept poor working conditions and long working hours. In order to increase their income, the skipper and crew will ensure that fishing gear is in use for as long as possible. This can lead to hasty manoeuvring and the adoption of unsafe practices. The working rhythm, which is controlled by the size of the catch, the length of the trip, the length of the haul and quality requirements, may be an important factor in accidents.(33) The lack of a minimum wage for fishermen and the vagueness associated with fishing income may also lead some fishermen to fish harder and take unnecessary risks.(34)
Article 13 of the ILO's Occupational Safety and Health Convention, 1981 (No. 155) (see also Chapter 6) provides that: "A worker who has removed himself from a work situation which he has reasonable justification to believe presents an imminent and serious danger to his life or health shall be protected from undue consequences in accordance with national conditions and practice." However, it is often difficult for fishermen to exercise this right. As the author of one study(35) noted: The right to refuse unsafe work on offshore vessels has been cited as a major breakthrough allowing offshore fishers the same rights as onshore workers. As of yet, no crew member has ever evoked this right. Why? It is not enough to say that physical risks are part of the job and that economic concerns dominate. Nor is it enough to argue that peer pressure makes this impossible; although it is a necessary part of the equation it is not significant. The fear of retribution by the captain or the company -- that is the fear of the loss of work -- is also relevant as is the fear of lost wages for the voyage itself. The myth of the co-adventurer also plays a part; that is, workers are seen as co-risktakers and as such must take both economic and physical risks. But the necessary condition is the lack of job security, economic instability, and the lack of alternative employment opportunities for these men. The ability of a fisherman to exercise the right to refuse unsafe work will also vary with the persons directly concerned (supervisor, skipper, owner), whether the fisherman is protected by a trade union (and the extent of that protection) and the legal and administrative system of the flag State of the fishing vessel.
Fatigue
Several studies of fishing safety, and many investigations of casualties and accidents involving fishing vessels, have cited fatigue as a contributing factor to casualties and accidents. There are a number of definitions of the term fatigue as it applies to people. Fatigue has been defined as "a reduction in physical and/or mental capability as the result of physical, mental or emotional exertion which may impair nearly all physical abilities including strength, speed, reaction time, coordination, decision-making or balance".(36) It has also been said that: "Fatigue is used as a catch-all term for a variety of different experiences, such as physical discomfort from overworking a group of muscles, difficulty concentrating, difficulty appreciating potentially important signals, and problems staying awake. In the context of an investigation, fatigue is important if it potentially reduces efficiency, erodes the safety margin or otherwise impairs cognitive or physical performance."(37) A Spanish study of working patterns on fishing vessels examined the time within a working shift when accidents occur. It was observed that after the first few hours of work there was a progressive reduction in the probability of accidents. The more serious accidents occurred more frequently when work continued beyond eight hours when the probability increased. However, there was no special relationship between the death rate and the hours worked, and it was suggested that this might be more related to the time of the day at which the accident occurred or other causes.(38). In another study (see box 2.6) accidents were seen to relate directly to hours of work.
The fundamental causes of accidents is the excessively long workday that prevails in the industry; the sad fact is that any type of fishing, people work work 15 to 20 hours a day without a break; the aptly named "indefinite workday" is a fact of life through the industry; this is a primary factor that applies regardless of the type of fleet Source: M.T. Garca Durn: Analysis of acopational accidents:Legal and administrative aspects Paper submitted to the second International Symposium on Safety and Working conditions aboard Fisshing Vessels,, Bamio, Spain, Sept. 1992.
The share system (see above) may also contribute to fatigue. It may create incentives for minimizing the number of crew members: the fewer fishermen sharing in the catch, the more pay for each. Time not spend fishing is considered wasted, unpaid time for every fishermen. When fishing is very good, there is a tendency to continue, despite excessive working hours and phyysical exhaustation. As one author put it:
How long a vessel spends at sea depends on several factors: the number of hauls, the technology involved, the availability and maintenance of both fish-finding and fish-catching equipment, the frequency of equipment breakdowns, the experience of the captain, and the availability of fish, to name a few. Since workers want to get home as fast as possible and to make as much money as possible on a trip, they will push themselves when the fishing is good. They will work beyond their regular six-hour work shift, and push their equipment to the limit in order to bring in large catches of fish. But fatigue leads to higher accidents rates(39).
New technology can often alleviate fatigue by reducing the physical exertion of the crew. However, this is not always the case. In one study it was observed that the introduction of new containers for storing catch (as an alternative to loading fish loosely in the hold) on deep-sea wet trawlers increased the hours of work for the same tonnage of fish.(40) Fishing management systems may also contribute to fatigue. An example are "olympic" or "derby" fisheries, where fishermen are under great pressure to catch as much as possible before the Total Allowable Catch limit is reached. In the most intense fisheries, this has led to continuous fishing for days on end, with little or no rest. Fatigue may also be related to the quality of the rest and relaxation time. This may itself be linked to overall vessel design and to the quality of accommodation. As one insurance representative put it: Fatigue can be caused by many factors, the type of the vessel and manning level are important but much may also depend on the design of the vessel. For example, on many vessels crew quarters still seem to be a low priority, coming second to the needs of the fishing and processing equipment. They can be sited near noisy machinery or in a part of the vessel where the motion is great and often the outfitting of the accommodation is quite spartan. On many vessels the best seating consists of a padded bench with a vertical padded backrest along the bulkhead -- not very
comfortable. When the most comfortable chair on a ship is in a nice quiet wheelhouse is it so surprising that we are seeing an increase in instances of watchkeepers falling asleep? Rather than putting the emphasis on watch alarms to wake up fatigued watchkeepers, would it not be better to provide comfortable accommodation where the off-duty crew can get proper rest so that they come on duty as fresh as possible?(41) Fatigue may be cumulative, especially when fishermen have very little time ashore. One study in Canada included a survey of the view of fishers.(42) One described his situation as follows: The company sets the work schedule. The company that I've been working for, we have five days in port. But the bigger companies, they're sending their men out two and three days after they come in. They are tired. This could create more accidents than what is normal if you could have your rest ... They're just tiring the men out more ... The author said such comments were persistent and that, though unions had been able to increase fishers' earnings, this was at the cost of non-monetary benefits. She said some fishers blamed the unions, and others blamed the companies, but all agreed that lengthier trips and short periods at home resulted in exhausted men. These examples indicate that the linkages between safety and health risks, and fatigue, pay systems and long working hours are crucial. Employment contracts of some fishermen do not attempt to hide the extraordinary working hours which lie ahead (see box 2.7).
I understand fully that there is no overtime required for a crew member in the fishing vessel, so there is NO overtime pay. There are also NO definite working hours. Usually a crew is required to work for a minimum of 18 hours to 22 hours straight. Source: Provision from the employment contract of a Filipino fishing vessel crew member on a distantwater fishing vessel.
though this method of management does seem to be waning. Individual transferable quotas (ITQs) and similar systems might reduce risk-taking as staying in port in bad weather hardly affects the practically guaranteed total catch of each fishing unit involved in such a fishery. However, when the weather is bad some fishermen may still fish in order to take advantage of the higher price paid due to the lower number of fish being landed. A "rush for fish" may also occur under the individual quota system if fishermen suspect that the stock size has been overestimated and deteriorated catches may not pay for their running expenses if they do not catch their share sufficiently early. There is fear that quota systems may lead eventually to the concentration of ownership in fewer hands which may bring non-owner skippers, who may be less experienced than owner-skippers, into the fishery, thus reducing safety. Some fishermen believe that hired skippers may overload their vessels because of pressure or bonuses from the owners and fear of losing their jobs if they land less catch than their colleagues. Where quotas are costly, fishermen may take risks so as to avoid facing bankruptcy. Efforts to control fishing by limiting the length of vessels have in some cases resulted in rather odd, wide designs or very, very cramped accommodation.(44)
The following is a hypothetical example, drawn up by the Office, of how Reason's model might be used to describe an accident on a trawler leading to the loss of a fisherman's arm: (1) the regulations in a given country do not require new entrants to fishing to receive any safety training (decision); (2) the owner does not require this either (decision), neither does he require the skipper to conduct any training on board (decision or line management); (3) at sea, an experienced crew member becomes ill and the newcomer is asked to fill in, having spent very little time on deck and having received little or no guidance (line management); (4) the vessel is operating in fairly rough conditions (precondition); (5) everyone is fatigued (precondition) and the newcomer ventures too close to the deck gear (unsafe act) and loses his balance due to an unanticipated motion of the vessel; (6) he falls into a winch not fitted with proper guards (a possible defence) and his arm is severed before there is time to stop the winch. The fisherman has lost an arm not only due to deck gear or inattentiveness but also to a series of mistakes by himself, the skipper, the owner and the regulator -- all the holes in the model were aligned. The above example illustrates that measures to prevent accidents as well as to preserve the health of fishermen must be implemented at many levels. An additional consideration is how to reduce the severity of the consequences of an accident. For example, in the scenario described above,
there are latent conditions and immediate actions which can mitigate the severity of the accident. The fisherman whose arm is lost faces permanent disability or even death from bleeding, shock or other causes. The latent condition "lack of training in first aid" could result in a death; conversely, immediate action by a crewmate with proper first-aid training may save a life. Achieving the appropriate balance of responsibility and action among governments, fishing vessel owners, fishermen and others is one of the major challenges involved in improving the safety record. All those concerned must consider how they can reduce the number and size of the holes.
Insurance(46)
Insurance, and the laws under which it operates, can influence safety and health. Those systems which most directly reward fishermen for safe operations, while remaining financially viable, may be most effective. Ideally, safe operators should pay low rates; unsafe operators will pay higher rates and may eventually be forced out of business. A serious problem in the fishing industry is that many fishermen have no insurance or, if they do have insurance, it covers the vessels but not the crew. This is generally a problem for fishermen on small vessels, particularly in developing countries, but is not unknown in developed countries. Insurance covering accidents and injuries to the crew may take a number of different forms, including stock insurance companies, Lloyd's associations and mutuals. In the first two forms, insurance is a profit-making venture. The purpose of mutuals is not to make a profit but to provide insurance at a low cost. Policyholders participate in the operations of the company, having voting rights and the power and responsibility to share in the company's financial success and failure. If premiums paid exceed what is needed for losses and expenditures, part of the surplus can be returned to the policyholders.(47) Members of the mutual are very selective and tend to bar fishermen who do not meet strict criteria.
Protection and indemnity (P&I) clubs are a form of mutual. P&I insurance covers the owner for any legal liabilities which may be incurred towards third parties arising out of the operation of the vessel. This may include paying compensation to crew members injured at work and providing medical care in a foreign port.(48) Protection and indemnity insurance can be one of the highest fixed costs faced by fishing vessel owners. Premiums are as much as twice (per tonne) of those of other commercial vessel operators and may vary between countries. For example, in 1987 in the United Kingdom the cost of P&I insurance was approximately 5 to 10 per cent of a vessel's premium expenditure while in the United States it was closer to 50 per cent, perhaps due to the legal system and, at that time, to the very limited safety regulations governing fishing vessels.(49) Workers' compensation systems may benefit employers by relieving them of the primary responsibility for work-related illnesses and injuries and the burden of potentially large awards granted by judges or juries in liability trials.(50) This may reduce the under-reporting of accidents or injuries, may help to encourage fishermen to seek medical assistance and may lead to better data on the nature and extent of injuries and illnesses. Such systems may also remove the threat of large jury awards following severe accidents. Conversely, such awards may serve as a powerful incentive to provide a safe workplace. Insurers could play a greater role in improving safety and health in the future. New technology may allow the insurance industry to publish more information about incidents on board fishing vessels worldwide so that owners, operators and designers can learn of the problems that others have encountered and the solutions they have found.(51)
Box 2.8 The cost of lost lives and vessels in the United States fishing industry
Total loss of vessel and deaths are just the tip of the iceberg when identifying the property, injury and other costs of all fishing vessel accidents. According to the study "The economic impacts of accidents on the marine industry", the figures are quite staggering. Taking into account both the direct costs and indirect costs such as drops in stock prices, insurance premiums, deductibles, co-payments, and P&I club payments, interruptions in operations or loss of contracts among many others, accidents cost the
fishing industry over $240 million annually. This is more than three times the annual cost identified in that study for the tanker industry, and four times greater than the passenger vessel industry. Not included in these statistics are losses of productivity, other indirect costs, and the cost of Coast Guard search and rescue (SAR) for fishing vessels. Available data for 1992 and 1993 show the Coast Guard conducted over 8,000 SAR cases for fishing vessels, expending over 38,000 resource hours at a cost of approximately $45.7 million. Source: J.D. Spitzer: Fishing Vessel Casualty Task Force Report (United States Coast Guard, Mar. 1999).
For the fishing vessel owner, the cost may be experienced in a number of ways. These include the working time lost by an injured fisherman; time lost by other fishermen and crew members who stop work (e.g. to assist an injured fisherman, out of curiosity, out of sympathy, etc.); time lost by officers, skippers and shore management (e.g. assisting the injured fisherman, investigating the cause of the accident, arranging for the fisherman's job to be taken over by another fisherman, preparing mandatory accident reports and attending hearings before state officials); damage to equipment or other property or the spoilage of material and fish; interference with fishing and processing activities (failure to fulfil orders on time, loss of bonuses, payment of forfeits and other similar causes); costs associated with employee welfare and benefit systems; cost of continuing wages of the injured fisherman after his return (although he or she may not be fully productive); loss of profit on the injured fisherman's productivity and on idle equipment; consequences of excitement or weakened morale of the crew due to the accident; and overhead costs per injured employee, the expense of running the vessel which continues while the injured employee is a non-producer.(53) During 1994-95, WorkSafe Western Australia determined that the average cost per lost time injury claim was Aus$6,197, with an average of 29.3 working days lost per injury.(54) Chapters 3 to 5 will look at actions as examples of national, regional and international measures and activities which have aimed to improve safety and health in the fishing industry.
1. In the last few decades alone, thousands of Asia and Pacific region fishermen -- and their family members -- have been lost to storms and coastal flooding. 2. M. Ben-Yami: Risks and dangers in small-scale fisheries: An overview, an unpublished paper prepared for the Office in view of this report. 3. In an effort to develop the basic requirements for the collection, recording and notification of reliable data on occupational accidents, diseases and related statistics, the ILO has published a code of practice entitled Recording and notification of occupational accidents and diseases (Geneva, 1996). This is described in Ch. 5.
4. Other estimated comparative rates for 1997 (with x indicating the occupational fatality rate for the general population) include Republic of Korea (15x), Estonia (11x), Italy (21x), Lithuania (11x), Poland (9x), Romania (2x), Spain (6x) and Canada (3.5x). 5. Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Cuba, Denmark, France, Germany, Iceland, Morocco, Netherlands, Norway, Poland, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom, Vanuatu and Hong Kong, China. 6. J.D. Spitzer: Fishing Vessel Casualty Task Force Report (United States Coast Guard, Mar. 1999). 7. H.L. Hansen, Consultant, Danish Maritime Occupational Health Services and Danish Maritime Authorities. 8. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 9. Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal communication (1999). 10. V. Rafnsson: "Health problems and disease patterns", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Geneva, 4th edition, 1998), Vol. 3, Ch. 66: "Fishing". 11. V.M. Minko: On safety and health in the Russian fishing industry (Kaliningrad State Technical University), a paper prepared for the ILO. 12. M. Trner et al.: "Analysis of serious occupational accidents in Swedish fishery", in Safety Science (Amsterdam, Elsevier Science B.V., 1995), No. 21. 13. S. Tomaszunas: "Work-related lost-time accidents in deep-sea fishermen", in Bulletin of the Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine (Gdynia, Poland), V. 43, No. 1/4, 1992. 14. Rafnsson, op. cit. 15. Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal correspondence (1999). 16. H. lafsdttir: "Musculoskeletal disorders among fishermen and workers in the fish processing industry", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, op. cit. 17. A. Teimmi: Les troubles musculo-squelettiques (TMS) chez les marins pcheurs, study presented to the 6th Occupational Medicine Congress (Casablanca, 1997). 18. R. Steiner and A. Embick: "Tendonitis and related afflictions in fishermen and processing workers", in Alaska Sea-Grams (University of Alaska), No. 27, Jan. 1987. 19. For a brief description of fishing methods, see H. Brdarson: "Major sectors and processes", in ILO: Encyclopaedia of Occupational Health and Safety, op. cit.
20. E. Kjerstad and J. Grinde: "Working environment and health aspects in fishing vessels", Proceedings of the World Symposium on Fishing Gear and Fishing Vessel Design (The Newfoundland and Labrador Institute of Fisheries and Marine Technology, 1989). 21. J.A. Stoop: Safety and working conditions aboard fishing vessels, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 22. O. Jensen: "Mortality in Danish fishermen", in Bulletin of the Institute of Maritime and Tropical Medicine (Gdynia, Poland), Vol. 47, No. 1/4, 1996. 23. H.P. Prpper: An analysis and evaluation of occupational accidents and possible solutions for technical safety improvements on Dutch beam trawlers, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 24. Such as beach seining, extracting fish from shallow-water set nets, tidal stopnets, fishing and collecting "seed" fry for aquaculture while wading in mangrove channels, estuaries, backwaters, tidal flats and other shallows, diving and collecting sea cucumbers and molluscs, harvesting seaweed, diving for lobsters, pearl shells and trochus, commercial spear gun fishing, as well as undertaking such illicit practices as fish poisoning and fishing with explosives. 25. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 26. National Research Council et al.: Fishing vessel safety: Blueprint for a national program (Washington, DC, 1991). 27. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 28. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 29. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 30. Dr. A. Smith, FAO, personal correspondence (1999). 31. J. Poggie, R. Pollnac and S. Jones: "Perceptions of vessel safety regulations: A southern New England fishery, in Marine Policy (Oxford, Elsevier Science Ltd.), Vol. 19, No. 5, 1995. 32. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 33. J.M. Barrey: Payment method and safety, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 34. J.P. Bloch: Links between the catch-share payment system of seamen in the artisanal fishing sector and their safety and working conditions: Some examples in Normandy, Paper submitted to
the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 35. M. Binkley: "Modern fisheries risk -- Physical, economic and social considerations ", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Rimouski, Canada, Aug. 1989. 36. Maritime Safety Committee Circular MSC/Cir.813/MEPC/Circ.330. 37. Annex I, Fatigue, of IMO: Report of the joint session of the Joint MSC/MEPC Working Groups on the Human Element and on Formal Safety Assessment, 70th Session of the Maritime Safety Committee (London, doc. MSC 70/13, 9 June 1998). 38. B. Marugn Pintos: Industrial accidents in the fishing sector, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 39. M. Binkley: Risks, dangers, and rewards in the Nova Scotia offshore fishery (Montreal & Kingston, McGill-Queen's University Press, 1995). 40. M. Andro and Y. Le Roy: Problems in introducing new technology to fishery, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 41. R.D. Coton: Fishing vessel safety -- The insurer's perspective (London, Shipowners' P&I Club, 1999), unpublished. 42. Binkley, Risks, dangers, and rewards ..., op. cit. 43. Ben-Yami, op. cit. 44. This problem may also be related to certification requirements for skippers and other fishermen, i.e. when the vessel is designed so that when measured by length or volume (gt/grt) it is just below the size requiring a certified captain, engineer, etc. 45. This description of Reason's model draws considerably from M. Ayeko: Causes & contributing factors -- Analysis of accidents involving fishing vessels in Canada (Transportation Safety Board of Canada, 1999), unpublished paper. 46. Coton, op. cit. 47. D. Nixon, R. Moran and C. Philbrick (eds.): "Self-insurance programmes in the commercial fishing industry", Workshop summary report, National Workshop on Fishing Vessel Insurance and Safety, in Marine Advisory Bulletin, No. 31, July 1987, at http://www.nationalfisherman.com/mlibrary/busman/selfinsu.html.
48. ibid. 49. B. Gristwood: "Views from the UK insurance market", in Nixon et al., op. cit. 50. Binkley, op. cit. 51. Coton, op. cit. 52. J. Cervera Hernndez: Renting as a vector to explain safety levels, Paper submitted to the Second International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Bamio, Spain, Sep. 1992. 53. Based on ILO: Accident Prevention, a Worker's Education Manual (Geneva, 1983) as reported by D. Appave, in "The role of the ILO in the improvement of safety and working conditions aboard fishing vessels", Proceedings of the International Symposium on Safety and Working Conditions aboard Fishing Vessels, Rimouski, Canada, Aug. 1989. 54. WorkSafe Western Australia, WorkSafe Statistics, Bulletin No. 83/97 at http://sage.wt.com.au/ safetyline/sowe/ws_stats/ws_8397.html
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