1. (a) What is the difference between a qualitative and quantitative variable?

ans - The word qualitative refers to descriptions or distinctions based on some quality or characteristic rather than on some quantity or measured value. It can be a form of analysis that yields the identity of a compound. It may also refer to: * Qualitative research, featuring a high degree of subjectivity * Qualitative data, data that is not quantified Research in most areas of psychology is conducted in accord with the standards of the scientific method. Psychological researchers seek the emergence of theoretically interesting categories and hypotheses from data, using qualitative or quantitative methods (or both). Qualitative psychological research methods include interviews, firsthand observation, and participant observation. Qualitative researchers sometimes aim to enrich interpretations or critiques of symbols, subjective experiences, or social structures. Similar hermeneutic and critical aims have also been served by "quantitative methods," as in Erich Fromm's study of Nazi voting[citation needed] or Stanley Milgram's studies of obedience to authority. Quantitative The term quantitative refers to a type of information based in quantities or else quantifiable data (objective properties) as opposed to qualitative information which deals with apparent qualities (subjective properties). It may also refer to: * Quantitative property, a measurable property such as distance, mass, or time or productivity * Quantitative research, scientific investigation of quantitative properties * Quantitative verse, a metrical system in poetry * Statistics, also known as quantitative analysis * Numerical data, also known as quantitative data

Quantitative psychological research lends itself to the statistical testing of hypotheses. Quantitatively oriented research designs include the experiment, quasi-experiment, cross-sectional study, case-control study, and longitudinal study. The measurement and operationalization of important constructs is an essential part of these research designs. Statistical methods include the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient, the analysis of variance, multiple linear regression, logistic regression, structural equation modeling, and hierarchical linear modeling. (b) A town has 15 neighbourhoods. If you interviewed everyone living in one particular neighbourhood, would you be interviewing a population or a sample from the town? Would this be a random sample? If you had a list of everyone living in the town, called a frame, and you randomly selected 100 people from all neighbourhoods, would this a random sample? ans - A random sample is one chosen by a method involving an unpredictable component. Random sampling can also refer to taking a number of independent observations from the same probability distribution, without involving any real population. The sample usually is not a representative of the population from which it was drawn this random variation in the results is termed as sampling error. In the case of random samples, mathematical theory is available to assess the sampling error. Thus, estimates obtained from random samples can be accompanied by measures of the uncertainty associated with the estimate. This can take the form of a standard error, or if the sample is large enough for the central limit theorem to take effect, confidence intervals may be calculated. * A simple random sample is selected so that all samples of the same size have an equal chance of being selected from the population. * A self-weighting sample, also known as an EPSEM (Equal Probability of Selection Method) sample, is one in which every individual, or object, in the population of interest has an equal opportunity of being selected for the sample. Simple random samples are self-weighting. * Stratified sampling involves selecting independent samples from a number of subpopulations, group or strata within the population. Great gains in efficiency are sometimes possible from judicious

stratification. * Cluster sampling involves selecting the sample units in groups. For example, a sample of telephone calls may be collected by first taking a collection of telephone lines and collecting all the calls on the sampled lines. The analysis of cluster samples must take into account the intra-cluster correlation which reflects the fact that units in the same cluster are likely to be more similar than two units picked at random.

2. a) Explain the steps involved in planning of a statistical survey?

ans - Statistical survey is a method used to collect in a systematic way, information from a sample of individuals. Although most people are familiar with public opinion surveys that are reported in the press, most surveys are not public opinion polls (such as political polling), but are used for scientific purposes. Surveys provide important information for all kinds of research fields, e.g., marketing research, psychology, health professionals and sociology.[1] A survey may focus on different topics such as preferences (e.g., for a presidential candidate) , behavior (smoking and drinking behavior), or factual information(e.g., income), depending on its purpose. Since survey research is always based on a sample of the population, the success of the research is dependent on the representativeness of the population of concern Advantages * As in sample study few units are to be examined detailed study of the survey can be done. * As few units are to be examined the survey work requires less time. Thus in this way sample survey saves time. * As few units are to be examined the survey work requires less money. Thus in this way sample survey saves lots of money. * In sample survey few persons are required for the survey work so experts can be appointed for the survey. This will increase the reliability of the survey results. * When the test is of destructive nature, sampling is only the way out. In such cases the population survey is not possible. * A large area can be covered under survey in the available time

and money. * If proper method is employed under the survey the results obtained will represent the population adequately. Surveys are relatively inexpensive (especially self-administered surveys). * Surveys are useful in describing the characteristics of a large population. No other method of observation can provide this general capability. * They can be administered from remote locations using mail, email or telephone. * Consequently, very large samples are feasible, making the results statistically significant even when analyzing multiple variables. * Many questions can be asked about a given topic giving considerable flexibility to the analysis. * Sample survey make measurement more precise by enforcing uniform definitions upon the participants. * Sample survey that similar data can be collected from groups then interpreted comparatively (between-group study). Disadvantages * They depend on subjects motivation, honesty, memory, and ability to respond. Subjects may not be aware of their reasons for any given action. They may have forgotten their reasons. They may not be motivated to give accurate answers; in fact, they may be motivated to give answers that present themselves in a favorable light. * Structured surveys, particularly those with closed ended questions, may have low validity when researching affective variables. * Although the individuals chosen to participate in surveys are often randomly sampled, errors due to nonresponse may exist (see also chapter 13 of Adr et al. (2008) for more information on how to deal with nonresponsonders and biased data) . That is, people who choose to respond on the survey may be different from those who do not respond, thus biasing the estimates. For example, polls or surveys that are conducted by calling a random sample of publicly available telephone numbers will not include the responses of people

with unlisted telephone numbers, mobile (cell) phone numbers, people who are unable to answer the phone (e.g., because they normally sleep during the time of day the survey is conducted, because they are at work, etc.), people who do not answer calls from unknown or unfamiliar telephone numbers. Likewise, such a survey will include a disproportionate number of respondents who have traditional, land-line telephone service with listed phone numbers, and people who stay home much of the day and are much more likely to be available to participate in the survey (e.g., people who are unemployed, disabled, elderly, etc.). * Survey question answer-choices could lead to vague data sets because at times they are relative only to a personal abstract notion concerning "strength of choice". For instance the choice "moderately agree" may mean different things to different subjects, and to anyone interpreting the data for correlation. Even yes or no answers are problematic because subjects may for instance put "no" if the choice "only once" is not available.

b) What are the merits & Demerits of Direct personal observation and Indirect Oral Interview? ans - Direct observation Although most psychological tests are "rating scale" or "free response" measures, psychological assessment may also involve the observation of people as they complete activities. This type of assessment is usually conducted with families in a laboratory, home or with children in a classroom. The purpose may be clinical, such as to establish a preintervention baseline of a child's hyperactive or aggressive classroom behaviors or to observe the nature of a parentchild interaction in order to understand a relational disorder. Direct observation procedures are also used in research, for example to study the relationship between intrapsychic variables and specific target behaviors, or to explore sequences of behavioral interaction. The Parent-Child Interaction Assessment-II (PCIA)[15] is an

example of a direct observation procedure that is used with school-age children and parents. The parents and children are video recorded playing at a make-believe zoo. The Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment (Clark, 1999)[16] is used to study parents and young children and involves a feeding and a puzzle task. The MacArthur Story Stem Battery (MSSB)[17] is used to elicit narratives from children. The Dyadic Parent-Child Interaction Coding System-II (Eyberg, 1981) tracks the extent to which children follow the commands of parents and vice versa and is well suited to the study of children with Oppositional Defiant Disorders and their parents. Observational study An example of an observational study is one that explores the correlation between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a case-control study, and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group. a) Draw Ogives from the following data and measure the median value. Verify it by actual calculations. [5 Marks] Centra 5 l size Freque 5 ncy
ans -

15 11

25 21

35 16

45 10

X 5 15 25 35 45 {n+1/2} = {63+1/2}

f 5 11 21 16 10

cumlative frequancy 5 16 37 53 63

= 32 value

Therefore ,the median, M is 25

b) Complete the following distribution, if its Median is 2,600 and compute the value of Arithmetic Mean. [5 Marks] Size 80- 100- 120- 140- 160- 160100 120 140 160 180 180 Freq 8 ? 26 14 10 80 uenc y
ans

Mid x 90 110 130 150 170

D=xa/CI -1 0 1 2 3

F 8 F 26 14 10

fd -8 0 26 28 30

58+f 76
X=A+ fi di / fi * C.I 129 = 110 + 76 / 58 + f* 20 19 = 76 / 58 + f * 20

19 f + 1102 = 1520 F=22 HENCE THE MISSING f is 22 .

4. a) What is the main difference between correlation analysis and regression analysis?
Ans - Two dimensional correlation analysis is a mathematical technique that is used to study changes in measured signals. As mostly spectroscopic signals are discussed, sometime also two dimensional correlation spectroscopy is used and refers to the same technique. In 2D correlation analysis, a sample is subjected to an external perturbation while all other parameters of the system are kept at the same value. This perturbation can be a systematic and controlled change in temperature, pressure, pH, chemical composition of the system, or even time after a catalyst was added to a chemical mixture. As a result of the controlled change (the perturbation), the system will undergo variations which are measured by a chemical or physical detection method. The measured signals or spectra will shown systematic variations that are processed with 2D correlation analysis for interpretation. When one considers spectra that consist of few bands, it is quite obvious to determine which bands are subject to a changing intensity. Such a changing intensity can be caused for example by chemical reactions. However, the interpretation of the measured signal becomes more tricky when spectra are complex and bands are heavily overlapping. Two dimensional correlation analysis allows one to determine at which positions in such a measured signal there is a systematic change in a peak, either continuous rising or drop in intensity. 2D correlation analysis results in two complementary signals, which referred to as the 2D synchronous and 2D asynchronous spectrum. These signals allow amongst others[1][2][3] 1. to determine the events that are occurring at the same time (in phase) and those events that are occurring at different times (out of phase) 2. to determine the sequence of spectral changes 3. to identify various inter- and intramolecular interactions 4. band assignments of reacting groups

5. to detect correlations between spectra of different techniques, for

example near infrared spectroscopy (NIR) and Raman spectroscopy .

Regression analysis
In statistics, regression analysis includes any techniques for modeling and analyzing several variables, when the focus is on the relationship between a dependent variable and one or more independent variables. More specifically, regression analysis helps one understand how the typical value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent variables is varied, while the other independent variables are held fixed. Most commonly, regression analysis estimates the conditional expectation of the dependent variable given the independent variables that is, the average value of the dependent variable when the independent variables are held fixed. Less commonly, the focus is on a quantile, or other location parameter of the conditional distribution of the dependent variable given the independent variables. In all cases, the estimation target is a function of the independent variables called the regression function. In regression analysis, it is also of interest to characterize the variation of the dependent variable around the regression function, which can be described by a probability distribution. Regression analysis is widely used for prediction and forecasting, where its use has substantial overlap with the field of machine learning. Regression analysis is also used to understand which among the independent variables are related to the dependent variable, and to explore the forms of these relationships. In restricted circumstances, regression analysis can be used to infer causal relationships between the independent and dependent variables. A large body of techniques for carrying out regression analysis has been developed. Familiar methods such as linear regression and ordinary least squares regression are parametric, in that the regression function is defined in terms of a finite number of unknown parameters that are estimated from the data. Nonparametric regression refers to techniques that allow the regression function to lie in a specified set of functions, which may be infinite-dimensional. A regression model relates Y to a function of X and .

The approximation is usually formalized as E(Y | X) = f(X, ). To carry out regression analysis, the form of the function f must be specified. Sometimes the form of this function is based on knowledge about the relationship between Y and X that does not rely on the data. If no such knowledge is available, a flexible or convenient form for f is chosen. Assume now that the vector of unknown parameters is of length k. In order to perform a regression analysis the user must provide information about the dependent variable Y:

b) In a multiple regression model with 12 independent variables, what are the degrees of freedom for error? Explain? Ans - Regression models
Regression models involve the following variables:

The unknown parameters denoted as ; this may be a scalar or a vector. The independent variables, X. The dependent variable, Y.

In various fields of application, different terminologies are used in place of dependent and independent variables. A regression model relates Y to a function of X and . The approximation is usually formalized as E(Y | X) = f(X, ). To carry out regression analysis, the form of the function f must be specified. Sometimes the form of this function is based on knowledge about the relationship between Y and X that does not rely on the data. If no such knowledge is available, a flexible or convenient form for f is chosen. Assume now that the vector of unknown parameters is of length k. In order to perform a regression analysis the user must provide information about the dependent variable Y:

If N data points of the form (Y,X) are observed, where N < k, most

classical approaches to regression analysis cannot be performed: since the system of equations defining the regression model is underdetermined, there is not enough data to recover .

If exactly N = k data points are observed, and the function f is linear, the equations Y = f(X, ) can be solved exactly rather than approximately. This reduces to solving a set of N equations with N unknowns (the elements of ), which has a unique solution as long as the X are linearly independent. If f is nonlinear, a solution may not exist, or many solutions may exist. The most common situation is where N > k data points are observed. In this case, there is enough information in the data to estimate a unique value for that best fits the data in some sense, and the regression model when applied to the data can be viewed as an overdetermined system in .

In the last case, the regression analysis provides the tools for:
1. Finding a solution for unknown parameters that will, for example,

minimize the distance between the measured and predicted values of the dependent variable Y (also known as method of least squares). 2. Under certain statistical assumptions, the regression analysis uses the surplus of information to provide statistical information about the unknown parameters and predicted values of the dependent variable Y. Necessary number of independent measurements Consider a regression model which has three unknown parameters, 0, 1, and 2. Suppose an experimenter performs 10 measurements all at exactly the same value of independent variable vector X (which contains the independent variables X1, X2, and X3). In this case, regression analysis fails to give a unique set of estimated values for the three unknown parameters; the experimenter did not provide enough information. The best one can do is to estimate the average value and the standard deviation of the dependent variable Y. Similarly, measuring at two different values of X would give enough data for a regression with two unknowns, but not for three or more unknowns. If the experimenter had performed measurements at three different values of

the independent variable vector X, then regression analysis would provide a unique set of estimates for the three unknown parameters in . In the case of general linear regression, the above statement is equivalent to the requirement that matrix XTX is invertible. Statistical assumptions When the number of measurements, N, is larger than the number of unknown parameters, k, and the measurement errors i are normally distributed then the excess of information contained in (N - k) measurements is used to make statistical predictions about the unknown parameters. This excess of information is referred to as the degrees of freedom of the regression. Underlying assumptions Classical assumptions for regression analysis include:

The sample is representative of the population for the inference prediction. The error is a random variable with a mean of zero conditional on the explanatory variables. The independent variables are measured with no error. (Note: If this is not so, modeling may be done instead using errors-in-variables model techniques). The predictors are linearly independent, i.e. it is not possible to express any predictor as a linear combination of the others. See Multicollinearity. The errors are uncorrelated, that is, the variance-covariance matrix of the errors is diagonal and each non-zero element is the variance of the error. The variance of the error is constant across observations (homoscedasticity). (Note: If not, weighted least squares or other methods might instead be used).

These are sufficient conditions for the least-squares estimator to possess desirable properties, in particular, these assumptions imply that the parameter estimates will be unbiased, consistent, and efficient in the class of

linear unbiased estimators. It is important to note that actual data rarely satisfies the assumptions. That is, the method is used even though the assumptions are not true. Variation from the assumptions can sometimes be used as a measure of how far the model is from being useful. Many of these assumptions may be relaxed in more advanced treatments. Reports of statistical analyses usually include analyses of tests on the sample data and methodology for the fit and usefulness of the model. Assumptions include the geometrical support of the variables[clarification needed] (Cressie, 1996). Independent and dependent variables often refer to values measured at point locations. There may be spatial trends and spatial autocorrelation in the variables that violates statistical assumptions of regression. Geographic weighted regression is one technique to deal with such data (Fotheringham et al., 2002). Also, variables may include values aggregated by areas. With aggregated data the Modifiable Areal Unit Problem can cause extreme variation in regression parameters (Fotheringham and Wong, 1991). When analyzing data aggregated by political boundaries, postal codes or census areas results may be very different with a different choice of units.

1. a) Discuss what is meant by Quality control and quality improvement? Ans - Quality control
Quality control is a process by which entities review the quality of all factors involved in production. This approach places an emphasis on three aspects.
1. Elements such as controls, job management, defined and well

managed processes,[1][2] performance and integrity criteria, and identification of records 2. Competence, such as knowledge, skills, experience, and qualifications
3. Soft elements, such as personnel integrity, confidence, organizational

culture, motivation, team spirit, and quality relationships. The quality of the outputs is at risk if any of these three aspects is deficient in any way.

Quality control emphasizes testing of products to uncover defects, and reporting to management who make the decision to allow or deny the release, whereas quality assurance attempts to improve and stabilize production, and associated processes, to avoid, or at least minimize, issues that led to the defects in the first place. For contract work, particularly work awarded by government agencies, quality control issues are among the top reasons for not renewing a contract. In project management, quality control requires the project manager and the project team to inspect the accomplished work to ensure it's alignment with the project scope.[4] In practice, projects typically have a dedicated quality control team which focuses on this area.

Quality improvement
There are many methods for quality improvement. These cover product improvement, process improvement and people based improvement. In the following list are methods of quality management and techniques that incorporate and drive quality improvement: 1. :2008 guidelines for performance improvement. 2. : 2005 information technology process assessment Part 4: Guidance on use for process improvement and process capability determination. 3. QFD quality function deployment, also known as the house of quality approach. 4. Japanese for change for the better; the common English term is continuous improvement.
5. Zero Defect Program created by NEC Corporation of Japan, based

upon statistical process control and one of the inputs for the inventors of Six Sigma.
6. Six Sigma 6, Six Sigma combines established

methods such as statistical process control, design of experiments and failure mode and effects analysis (FMEA) in an overall framework.
7. PDCA plan, do, check, act cycle for quality control purposes. (Six

Sigma's DMAIC method (define, measure, analyze, improve, control)

may be viewed as a particular implementation of this.)

8. Quality circle a group (people oriented) approach to improvement. 9. Taguchi methods statistical oriented methods including quality

robustness, quality loss function, and target specifications.

10. The Toyota Production System reworked in the west into lean

manufacturing.
11. Kansei Engineering an approach that focuses on capturing

customer emotional feedback about products to drive improvement.

12. TQM total quality management is a management strategy aimed at

embedding awareness of quality in all organizational processes. First promoted in Japan with the Deming prize which was adopted and adapted in USA as the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award and in Europe as the European Foundation for Quality Management award (each with their own variations).
13. TRIZ meaning "theory of inventive problem solving" 14. BPR business process reengineering, a management approach

aiming at 'clean slate' improvements (That is, ignoring existing practices). 15.OQM Object-oriented Quality Management, a model for quality management.[ Proponents of each approach have sought to improve them as well as apply them for small, medium and large gains. Simple one is Process Approach, which forms the basis of ISO 9001:2008 Quality Management System standard, duly driven from the 'Eight principles of Quality managagement', process approach being one of them. Thareja[writes about the mechanism and benefits: "The process (proficiency) may be limited in words, but not in its applicability. While it fulfills the criteria of all-round gains: in terms of the competencies augmented by the participants; the organisation seeks newer directions to the business success, the individual brand image of both the people and the organisation, in turn, goes up. The competencies which were hitherto rated as being smaller, are better recognized and now acclaimed to be more potent and fruitful". The more complex Quality improvement tools are tailored for enterprise types not originally targeted. For example, Six Sigma was designed for manufacturing but has spread to

service enterprises. Each of these approaches and methods has met with success but also with failures. Some of the common differentiators between success and failure include commitment, knowledge and expertise to guide improvement, scope of change/improvement desired (Big Bang type changes tend to fail more often compared to smaller changes) and adaption to enterprise cultures. For example, quality circles do not work well in every enterprise (and are even discouraged by some managers), and relatively few TQM-participating enterprises have won the national quality awards.