LESSON 3 –SAMPLING

Objective:

After going through this chapter, you will be able to understand: various terms associated with
sampling; various methods of probability and non-probability sampling and how to determine
sample size.

In Lesson 1, a population was defined as all subjects (human or otherwise) under study. Since
some populations can be very large, researchers cannot use every single subject, so a sample
must be selected. A sample is a subgroup of the population. Any subgroup of the population,
technically speaking, can be called a sample. However, for researchers to make valid inferences
about population characteristics, the sample must be random.
For a sample to be a random sample, every member of the population must have an equal
chance of being selected. When a sample is chosen at random from a population, it is said to be
an unbiased sample. That is, the sample, for the most part, is representative of the population.
Conversely, if a sample is selected incorrectly, it may be a biased sample. Samples are said to be
biased samples when some type of systematic error has been made in the selection of the
subjects.

A sample is used to get information about a population for several reasons

1. It saves the researcher time and money.

2. It enables the researcher to get information that he or she might not be able to obtain
otherwise. For example, if a person’s blood is to be analyzed for cholesterol, a researcher
cannot analyze every single drop of blood without killing the person. Or if the breaking
strength of cables is to be determined, a researcher cannot test to destruction every cable
manufactured, since the company would not have any cables left to sell.

3. It enables the researcher to get more detailed information about a particular subject. If only
a few people are surveyed, the researcher can conduct in-depth interviews by spending
more time with each person, thus getting more information about the subject. This is not to
say that the smaller the sample, the better; in fact, the opposite is true. In general, larger
samples—if correct sampling techniques are used—give more reliable information about
the population.

It would be ideal if the sample were a perfect miniature of the population in all characteristics.
This ideal, however, is impossible to achieve, because there are so many human traits (height,
weight, IQ, etc.). The best that can be done is to select a sample that will be representative with
respect to some characteristics, preferably those pertaining to the study. For example, if one-
half of the population subjects are female, then approximately one half of the sample subjects
should be female. Likewise, other characteristics, such as age, socioeconomic status, and IQ,
should be represented proportionately
STEPS IN SAMPLE DESIGN

While developing a sampling design, the researcher must pay attention to the following points:

(i) Type of universe: The first step in developing any sample design is to clearly define the set of
objects, technically called the Universe, to be studied. The universe can be finite or infinite. In
finite universe the number of items is certain, but in case of an infinite universe the number of
items is infinite, i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The population
of a city, the number of workers in a factory and the like are examples of finite universes,
whereas the number of stars in the sky, listeners of a specific radio program, throwing of a dice
etc. are examples of infinite universes.
(ii) Sampling unit: A decision has to be taken concerning a sampling unit before selecting
sample. Sampling unit may be a geographical one such as state, district, village, etc., or a
construction unit such as house, flat, etc., or it may be a social unit such as family, club, school,
etc., or it may be an individual. The researcher will have to decide one or more of such units
that he has to select for his study.

(iii) Source list: It is also known as ‘sampling frame’ from which sample is to be drawn. It
contains the names of all items of a universe (in case of finite universe only). If source list is not
available, researcher has to prepare it. Such a list should be comprehensive, correct, reliable
and appropriate. It is extremely important for the source list to be as representative of the
population as possible.

(iv) Size of sample: This refers to the number of items to be selected from the universe to
constitute a sample. This a major problem before a researcher. The size of sample should
neither be excessively large, nor too small. It should be optimum. An optimum sample is one
which fulfills the requirements of efficiency, representativeness, reliability and flexibility.

While deciding the size of sample, researcher must determine the desired precision as also an
acceptable confidence level for the estimate. The size of population variance needs to be
considered as in case of larger variance usually a bigger sample is needed. The size of
population must be kept in view for this also limits the sample size. The parameters of interest
in a research study must be kept in view, while deciding the size of the sample.
Costs too dictate the size of sample that we can draw. As such, budgetary constraint must
invariably be taken into consideration when we decide the sample size.

(v) Parameters of interest: In determining the sample design, one must consider the question
of the specific population parameters which are of interest. For instance, we may be interested
in estimating the proportion of persons with some characteristic in the population, or we may
be interested in knowing some average or the other measure concerning the population. There
may also be important sub-groups in the population about whom we would like to make
estimates. All this has a strong impact upon the sample design we
would accept.

(vi) Budgetary constraint: Cost considerations, from practical point of view, have a major
impact upon decisions relating to not only the size of the sample but also to the type of sample.
This fact can even lead to the use of a non-probability sample.

(vii) Sampling procedure: Finally, the researcher must decide the type of sample he will use i.e.,
he must decide about the technique to be used in selecting the items for the sample. In fact,
this technique or procedure stands for the sample design itself. There are several sample
designs (explained in the pages that follow) out of which the researcher must choose one for
his study. Obviously, he must select that design which, for a given sample size and for a given
cost, has a smaller sampling error.

CRITERIA OF SELECTING A SAMPLING PROCEDURE

In this context one must remember that two costs are involved in a sampling analysis viz., the
cost of collecting the data and the cost of an incorrect inference resulting from the data.
Researcher must
keep in view the two causes of incorrect inferences viz., systematic bias and sampling error. A
systematic bias results from errors in the sampling procedures, and it cannot be reduced or
eliminated
by increasing the sample size. At best the causes responsible for these errors can be detected
and corrected. Usually a systematic bias is the result of one or more of the following factors:

1. Inappropriate sampling frame: If the sampling frame is inappropriate i.e., a biased

representation of the universe, it will result in a systematic bias.

2. Defective measuring device: If the measuring device is constantly in error, it will result in
systematic bias. In survey work, systematic bias can result if the questionnaire or the
interviewer is
biased. Similarly, if the physical measuring device is defective there will be systematic bias in
the data collected through such a measuring device.

3. Non-respondents: If we are unable to sample all the individuals initially included in the
sample, there may arise a systematic bias. The reason is that in such a situation the likelihood of
establishing
contact or receiving a response from an individual is often correlated with the measure of what
is to be estimated.

4. Indeterminacy principle: Sometimes we find that individuals act differently when kept under
observation than what they do when kept in non-observed situations. For instance, if workers
are
aware that somebody is observing them in course of a work study on the basis of which the
average length of time to complete a task will be determined and accordingly the quota will be
set for piece
work, they generally tend to work slowly in comparison to the speed with which they work if
kept unobserved. Thus, the indeterminacy principle may also be a cause of a systematic bias.

5. Natural bias in the reporting of data: Natural bias of respondents in the reporting of data is
often the cause of a systematic bias in many inquiries. There is usually a downward bias in the
income data collected by government taxation department, whereas we find an upward bias in
the income data collected by some social organization. People in general understate their
incomes if
asked about it for tax purposes, but they overstate the same if asked for social status or their
affluence. Generally, in psychological surveys, people tend to give what they think is the
‘correct’ answer rather than revealing their true feelings.

Sampling errors are the random variations in the sample estimates around the true population
parameters. Since they occur randomly and are equally likely to be in either direction, their
nature
happens to be of compensatory type and the expected value of such errors happens to be
equal to zero. Sampling error decreases with the increase in the size of the sample, and it
happens to be of a smaller magnitude in case of homogeneous population.

Sampling error can be measured for a given sample design and size. The measurement of
sampling error is usually called the ‘precision of the sampling plan’. If we increase the sample
size, the precision can be improved. But increasing the size of the sample has its own limitations
viz., a large sized sample increases the cost of collecting data and also enhances the systematic
bias. Thus
the effective way to increase precision is usually to select a better sampling design which has a
smaller sampling error for a given sample size at a given cost. In practice, however, people
prefer a
less precise design because it is easier to adopt the same and also because of the fact that
systematic bias can be controlled in a better way in such a design.

In brief, while selecting a sampling procedure, researcher must ensure that the procedure
causes a relatively small sampling error and helps to control the systematic bias in a better
way.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE DESIGN

From what has been stated above, we can list down the characteristics of a good sample design
as under:

(a) Sample design must result in a truly representative sample.

(b) Sample design must be such which results in a small sampling error.
(c) Sample design must be viable in the context of funds available for the research study.
(d) Sample design must be such so that systematic bias can be controlled in a better way.
(e) Sample should be such that the results of the sample study can be applied, in general, for
the universe with a reasonable level of confidence.

Sampling considerations
 Larger sample sizes are more accurate representations of the whole
 The sample size chosen is a balance between obtaining a statistically valid
representation, and the time, energy, money, labour, equipment and access available
 A sampling strategy made with the minimum of bias is the most statistically valid
 Most approaches assume that the parent population has a normal distribution where
most items or individuals clustered close to the mean, with few extremes
 sampling, no matter how good can only ever be claimed to be a very close estimate

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SAMPLE DESIGNS – PROBABILITY VS NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

There are different types of sample designs based on two factors viz., the representation basis
and the element selection technique. On the representation basis, the sample may be
probability sampling
or it may be non-probability sampling. Probability sampling is based on the concept of random
selection, whereas non-probability sampling is ‘non-random’ sampling. On element selection
basis, the sample may be either unrestricted or restricted. When each sample element is drawn
individually from the population at large, then the sample so drawn is known as ‘unrestricted
sample’, whereas all other forms of sampling are covered under the term ‘restricted sampling’.
The following chart exhibits the sample designs as explained above. Thus, sample designs are
basically of two types viz., non-probability sampling and probability sampling.

Probability sampling:
PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

Probability sampling is a sampling technique wherein the samples are gathered in a process
that gives all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

The advantage of using a probability sampling is the absence of both systematic and sampling
bias. If random selection was done properly, the sample is therefore representative of the
entire population.

The effect of this is a minimal or absent systematic bias which is the difference between the
results from the sample and the results from the population.
Sampling bias is also eliminated since the subjects are randomly chosen.

Probability sampling designs are used when the representativeness of the sample is of
importance in the interest of wider generalizability.
When time or other factors, rather than generalizability, become critical, non-probability
sampling is generally used.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHOD

 In non-probability sampling the probability of any particular element of the population

being chosen is unknown.
 The selection of units in non-probability sampling is quite arbitrary, as researchers rely
heavily on personal judgment.
 There are no appropriate statistical techniques for measuring random sampling error
from a non-probability sample. Thus projecting the data beyond the sample is
statistically inappropriate.
 Nevertheless, there are occasions when non-probability samples are best suited for the
researcher's purpose.

Main types of probability sampling techniques:

 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic
 Stratified random sampling
 Cluster sampling
Simple Random sampling
 In this technique, each member of the population has an equal chance of being selected
as subject.
 The entire process of sampling is done in a single step with each subject selected
independently of the other members of the population.

The simple random sampling technique is quite satisfactory for a small population. With a
large population, the process of identification of numbers to each elementary sampling unit
becomes very prohibitive with respect to both time and money. Moreover, the population
is often geographically spread out or composed of clearly identified strata possessing
unique
characteristics. Whenever any of the above situations arise, alternative sampling techniques
that are sophisticated combinations of simple random sampling provide significantly better
results
for the same expenditure and time. As a result, the simple random sampling method is not
very frequently used in practice. However, the simple random sampling technique is the
basis
of any other probabilistic sampling schemes.

How to select a random sample?

  There are many methods to proceed with simple random sampling. The most primitive
and mechanical would be the lottery method. Each member of the population is
assigned a unique number. Each number is placed in a bowl or a hat and mixed
thoroughly. The blind-folded researcher then picks numbered tags from the hat. All the
individuals bearing the numbers picked by the researcher are the subjects for the study.
Another way would be to let a computer do a random selection from your population.
For populations with a small number of members, it is advisable to use the first method
but if the population has many members, a computer-aided random selection is
preferred.
 Least biased of all sampling techniques, there is no subjectivity - each member of the
total population has an equal chance of being selected
 Can be obtained using random number tables/random number digits.
USING RANDOM NUMBER TABLES/DIGITS TO SELECT A RANDOM SAMPLE
STEPS:
Step 1 – decide on the sample size
Step 2 – number all the members of a population/sampling frame
Step 3 – Using the random numbers, find a starting point. To find a starting point, one
generally closes one’s eye and places a finger anywhere on the table. Move horizontally
across the row until you get to the end of the page and then start on the next row. In
this case the first number is ……
Step 4 – Using the given starting point, select the required number of elements –
discarding those that do not fall within the sample i.e those that are too small or too big
EXAMPLE 1 Television Show Interviews
Suppose a researcher wants to produce a television show featuring in-depth interviews with
state governors on the subject of capital punishment. Because of time constraints, the 60-
minute program will have room for only 10 governors. The researcher wishes to select the
governors at random. Select a random sample of 10 states from 50.

Solution
Step 1 Number each state from 1 to 50, as shown. In this case, they are numbered
alphabetically.
01. Alabama 14. Indiana 27. Nebraska 40. South Carolina
02. Alaska 1 5. Iowa 28. Nevada 41. South Dakota
03. Arizona 16. Kansas 29. New Hampshire 42. Tennessee
04. Arkansas 17. Kentucky 30. New Jersey 43. Texas
05. California 18. Louisiana 31. New Mexico 44. Utah
06. Colorado 19. Maine 32. New York 45. Vermont
07. Connecticut 20. Maryland 33. North Carolina 46. Virginia
08. Delaware 21. Massachusetts 34. North Dakota 47. Washington
09. Florida 22. Michigan 35. Ohio 48. West Virginia
10. Georgia 23. Minnesota 36. Oklahoma 49. Wisconsin
11. Hawaii 24. Mississippi 37. Oregon 50. Wyoming
12. Idaho 25. Missouri 38. Pennsylvania
13. Illinois 26. Montana 39. Rhode Island
Figure 14-1 Table of Random Numbers

79 41 71 93 60 35 04 67 96 04 79 10 86
26 52 53 13 43 50 92 09 87 21 83 75 17
18 13 41 30 56 20 37 74 49 56 45 46 83
19 82 02 69 34 27 77 34 24 93 16 77 00
14 57 44 30 93 76 32 13 55 29 49 30 77
29 12 18 50 06 33 15 79 50 28 50 45 45
01 27 92 67 93 31 97 55 29 21 64 27 29
55 75 65 68 65 73 07 95 66 43 43 92 16
84 95 95 96 62 30 91 64 74 83 47 89 71
62 62 21 37 82 62 19 44 08 64 34 50 11
66 57 28 69 13 99 74 31 58 19 47 66 89
48 13 69 97 29 01 75 58 05 40 40 18 29
94 31 73 19 75 76 33 18 05 53 04 51 41
00 06 53 98 01 55 08 38 49 42 10 44 38
46 16 44 27 80 15 28 01 64 27 89 03 27
77 49 85 95 62 93 25 39 63 74 54 82 85
81 96 43 27 39 53 85 61 12 90 67 96 02
40 46 15 73 23 75 96 68 13 99 49 64 11

Step 2 Using the random numbers shown in Figure 14–1 below, find a starting point. To find a
starting point, you generally close your eyes and place your finger anywhere on the table. In
this case, the first number selected was 27 in the fourth column. Going down the column and
continuing on to the next column, select the first 10 numbers. They are 27, 95, 27, 73, 60, 43,
56, 34, 93, and 06.
See Figure 14–2. (Note that 06 represents 6.)

Figure 14–2
Figure 14.2 - Selecting a Starting Point and 10 Numbers from the Random Number Table
79 41 71 93 60 ✔ 35 04 67 96 04 79 10 86
26 52 53 13 43 ✔ 50 92 09 87 21 83 75 17
18 13 41 30 56 ✔ 20 37 74 49 56 45 46 83
19 82 02 69 34 ✔ 27 77 34 24 93 16 77 00
14 57 44 30 93 ✔ 76 32 13 55 29 49 30 77
29 12 18 50 06 ✔ 33 15 79 50 28 50 45 45
01 27 92 67 93 31 97 55 29 21 64 27 29
55 75 65 68 65 73 07 95 66 43 43 92 16
84 95 95 96 62 30 91 64 74 83 47 89 71
62 62 21 37 82 62 19 44 08 64 34 50 11
66 57 28 69 13 99 74 31 58 19 47 66 89
48 13 69 97 29 01 75 58 05 40 40 18 29
94 31 73 19 75 76 33 18 05 53 04 51 41
00 06 53 *Start here 01 55 08 38 49 42 10 44 38
46 16 44 27 ✔ 80 15 28 01 64 27 89 03 27
77 49 85 95 ✔ 62 93 25 39 63 74 54 82 85
81 96 43 27 ✔ 39 53 85 61 12 90 67 96 02
40 46 15 73 ✔ 23 75 96 68 13 99 49 64 11

Now, refer to the list of states and identify the state corresponding to each number.
27 Nebraska 43 Texas
95 56
27 Nebraska 34 North Dakota
73 93
60 06 Colorado

Step 3 Since the numbers 95, 73, 60, 56, and 93 are too large, they are disregarded. And since
27 appears twice, it is also disregarded the second time. Now, you must select six more random
numbers between 1 and 50 and omit duplicates, since this sample will be selected without
replacement. Make this selection by continuing down the column and moving over to the next
column until a total
of 10 numbers is selected. The final 10 numbers are 27, 43, 34, 06, 13, 29, 01, 39, 23, and 35.
See Figure 14–3.
igur4–3
Figure 14.3 The Final 10 Numbers Selected

79 41 71 93 60 35 04 67 96 04 79 10 86
26 52 53 13 43 50 92 09 87 21 83 75 17
18 13 41 30 56 20 37 74 49 56 45 46 83
19 82 02 69 34 27 77 34 24 93 16 77 00
14 57 44 30 93 76 32 13 55 29 49 30 77
29 12 18 50 06 33 15 79 50 28 50 45 45
01 27 92 67 93 31 97 55 29 21 64 27 29
55 75 65 68 65 73 07 95 66 43 43 92 16
84 95 95 96 62 30 91 64 74 83 47 89 71
62 62 21 37 82 62 19 44 08 64 34 50 11
66 57 28 69 13 99 74 31 58 19 47 66 89
48 13 69 97 29 01 75 58 05 40 40 18 29
94 31 73 19 75 76 33 18 05 53 04 51 41
00 06 53 98 01 55 08 38 49 42 10 44 38
46 16 44 27 80 15 28 01 64 27 89 03 27
77 49 85 95 62 93 25 39 63 74 54 82 85
81 96 43 27 39 53 85 61 12 90 67 96 02
40 46 15 73 23 75 96 68 13 99 49 64 11

These numbers correspond to the following states:

27 Nebraska 29 New Hampshire
43 Texas 01 Alabama
34 North Dakota 39 Rhode Island
06 Colorado 23 Minnesota
13 Illinois 35 Ohio
Thus, the governors of these 10 states will constitute the sample.
Random sampling has one limitation. If the population is extremely large, it is time consuming
to number and select the sample elements. Also, notice that the random numbers
in the table are two-digit numbers. If three digits are needed, then the first digit from the next
column can be used, as shown in Figure 14–4. Table D in Appendix C gives five digit
random numbers.

Advantages of Simple Random Sampling

 One of the best things about simple random sampling is the ease of assembling the
sample.
 It is also considered as a fair way of selecting a sample from a given population since
every member is given equal opportunities of being selected.
 Another key feature of simple random sampling is its representativeness of the
population. Theoretically, the only thing that can compromise its representativeness is
luck.
 If the sample is not representative of the population, the random variation is called
sampling error.
 An unbiased random selection and a representative sample is important in drawing
conclusions from the results of a study. Remember that one of the goals of research is
to be able to make conclusions pertaining to the population from the results obtained
from a sample.
 Due to the representativeness of a sample obtained by simple random sampling, it is
reasonable to make generalizations from the results of the sample back to the
population.
 Can be used with large sample populations
 Avoids bias
 Estimates are easy to calculate
Disadvantages of Simple Random Sampling
  One of the most obvious limitations of simple random sampling method is its need of a
complete list of all the members of the population. Please keep in mind that the list of
the population must be complete and up-to-date. This list is usually not available for
large populations. In cases as such, it is wiser to use other sampling techniques.
 If the sampling frame is large, this method is not practical
 Minority sub-groups of interest in the population may not be present in sample in
sufficient numbers for study
 Can lead to poor representation of the overall parent population or area if large areas
are not hit by the random numbers generated. This is made worse if the study area is
very large
 There may be practical constraints in terms of time available and access to certain parts
of the study area
RANDOM SAMPLING FOR AREAL DISTRIBUTIONS
For spatial/aerial distributions you may then decide on a; point, line, area method.
A. Random point sampling
 A grid is drawn over a map of the study area
 Random number tables are used to obtain coordinates/grid references for the points
 Sampling takes place as feasibly close to these points as possible
B. Random line sampling
 Pairs of coordinates or grid references are obtained using random number tables, and
marked on a map of the study area
 These are joined to form lines to be sampled
C. Random area sampling
 Random number tables generate coordinates or grid references which are used to mark
the bottom left (south west) corner of quadrats or grid squares to be sampled

Figure one: A random number grid showing methods of generating random numbers, lines and
areas.

Stratified systematic sampling Technique

In simple random sampling, the population to be sampled is treated as homogeneous and the
individual elements are drawn at random from the whole universe. However, it is often possible
and desirable to classify the population into distinctive classes or strata and then obtain a
sample by drawing at random the specified number of sampling units from each of the classes
thus constructed. This may be desirable because of our interest in the distinct classes of the
universe as a whole. In stratified random sampling, the population is sub-divided into strata
before the sample is drawn. Strata are so designed that they should not overlap. A sample of
specified size is drawn at random from the sampling units that make up each stratum. If a given
stratum is of our interest, the corresponding sub-sample provides the basis for estimates
concerning the attributes of the population stratum, or sub-universe from which it is drawn.
The total of subsamples constitutes the aggregate sample on which estimates of attributes of
the entire population are based

Stratified sampling is a probability sampling technique wherein the researcher divides the
entire population into different subgroups or strata, then randomly selects the final subjects
proportionally from the different strata.
It is important to note that the strata must be non-overlapping. Having overlapping subgroups
will grant some individuals higher chances of being selected as subject. This completely negates
the concept of stratified sampling as a type of probability sampling.

Equally important is the fact that the researcher must use simple probability sampling within
the different strata.

The most common strata used in stratified random sampling are age, gender, socioeconomic
status, religion, nationality and educational attainment.

The population can be divided into known groups, and each group sampled using a systematic
approach. The number sampled in each group should be in proportion to its known size in the
parent population.
For example: the make-up of different social groups in the population of a town can be
obtained, and then the number of questionnaires carried out in different parts of the town can
be stratified in line with this information. A systematic approach can still be used by asking
every fifth person.
Stratified samples may be either proportional or non-proportional. In a proportional stratified
sampling, the number of elements to be drawn from each stratum is proportional to the size of
that stratum compared with the population. For example, if a sample size of 500 elementary
units have to be drawn from a population with 10,000 units divided in four strata in the
following way:
Population size Sample size
Stratum I = 2000 500 × 0.2 = 100
Stratum II = 3000 500 × 0.3 = 150
Stratum III = 4000 500 × 0.4 = 200
Stratum IV = 1000 500 × 0.1 = 50
Total 10000 500
Thus, the elements to be drawn from each stratum would be 100, 150, 200 and 50 respectively.
Proportional stratification yields a sample that represents the population with respect to the
proportion in each stratum in the population. Proportional stratified sampling yields
satisfactory results if the dispersion in the various strata is of proportionately the same
magnitude. If there is a
significant difference in dispersion from stratum to stratum, sample estimates will be much
more efficient if non-proportional stratified random sampling is used. Here, equal numbers of
elements
are selected from each stratum regardless of how the stratum is represented in the population.
Thus, in the earlier example, an equal number, i.e., 125, of elementary units will be drawn to
constitute the sample.

A sample drawn by stratified random sampling scheme ensures a representative sample as the
population is first divided into various strata and then a sample is drawn from each stratum.
Stratified random sampling also ensures greater accuracy and it is maximum if each stratum is
formed in such a way that it consists of uniform or homogeneous items. Compared with a
simple random sample, a stratified sample can be more concentrated geographically, i.e., the
elementary units from different strata may be selected in such a way that all of them are
located in one geographical area. This would also reduce both time and cost involved in data
collection. However, care should be exercised in dividing the population into various strata.
Each stratum must contain, as far as possible, homogeneous units, as otherwise the reliability
of the results would be lost.

In conclusion, stratification is an effective sampling device to the extent that it creates classes
that are more homogeneous than the total. When this can be done, the classes are
distinguished that differ among themselves in respect of a stated characteristic. Stratification
may be futile if classes do not differ among themselves. Thus, there should be homogeneity
within classes and heterogeneity between classes.
B. Areal Stratified random sampling
A wide range of data and fieldwork situations can lend themselves to this approach - wherever
there are two study areas being compared, for example two woodlands, river catchments, rock
types or a population with sub-sets of known size, for example woodland with distinctly
different habitats.
Random point, line or area techniques can be used as long as the number of measurements
taken is in proportion to the size of the whole.
For example: if an area of woodland was the study site, there would likely be different types of
habitat (sub-sets) within it. Random sampling may altogether ‘miss' one or more of these.
Stratified sampling would take into account the proportional area of each habitat type within
the woodland and then each could be sampled accordingly; if 20 samples were to be taken in
the woodland as a whole, and it was found that a shrubby clearing accounted for 10% of the
total area, two samples would need to be taken within the clearing. The sample points could
still be identified randomly (A) or systematically (B) within each separate area of woodland.

Figure three: A diagram highlighting the benefits of using stratified random sampling and
stratified systemic sampling within certain fieldwork sites.
USING RANDOM NUMBER TABLES/DIGITS TO SELECT A STRATIFIED SAMPLE
STEPS:
Step 1 – decide on the sample size
Step 2 – select a sample by stratification eg. Divide the population into two subgroups,
consisting of ……..using and select a sample of six students on the basis of……….) by
stratification.
Step 3 – Determine how many elements need to be selected from each sub-group or strata
to have a proportional representation of each sub-group in the sample
Step 2 – number the POPULATION UNITS in each strata
Step 3 – Using the random numbers, find a starting point. To find a starting point, one
generally closes one’s eye and places a finger anywhere on the table. Move horizontally
across the row until you get to the end of the page and then start on the next row. In this
case the first number is ……
Step 4 – Using the given starting point, select the first digit at random and then select the
required elements for each sub-group by using random numbers – discarding those that
do not fall within the sample i.e those that are too small or too big
Example 14–3 Using the population of 20 students shown in Figure 14–5, select a sample of
eight students on the basis of gender (male/female) and grade level (freshman/sophomore) by
stratification.
Solution
Figure 14–5
Figure 14.5 Population of Students for Example 14–3
1. Ald, Peter M Fr 11. Martin, Janice F
Fr
2. Brown, Danny M So 12. Meloski, Gary M
Fr
3. Bear, Theresa F Fr 13. Oeler, George M
So
4. Carson, Susan F Fr 14. Peters, Michele F
So
5. Collins, Carolyn F Fr 15. Peterson, John M
Fr
6. Davis, William M Fr 16. Smith, Nancy F
Fr
7. Hogan, Michael M Fr 17. Thomas, Jeff M
So
8. Jones, Lois F So 18. Toms, Debbie F
So
9. Lutz, Harry M So 19. Unger, Roberta F
So
10. Lyons, Larry M So 20. Zibert, Mary F
So
Figure 14–6
Solution
Step 1 Divide the population into two subgroups, consisting of males and females, as shown in
Figure 14–6.
Figure 14.6 Population Divided into Subgroups by Gender
Males Females
1. Ald, Peter M Fr 1. Bear, Theresa F
Fr
2. Brown, Danny M So 2. Carson, Susan F
Fr
3. Davis, William M Fr 3. Collins, Carolyn F
Fr
4. Hogan, Michael M Fr 4. Jones, Lois F
So
5. Lutz, Harry M So 5. Martin, Janice F
Fr
6. Lyons, Larry M So 6. Peters, Michele F
So
7. Meloski, Gary M Fr 7. Smith, Nancy F
Fr
8. Oeler, George M So 8. Toms, Debbie F
So
9. Peterson, John M Fr 9. Unger, Roberta F
So
10. Thomas, Jeff M So 10. Zibert, Mary F
So

Step 2 Divide each subgroup further into two groups of freshmen and sophomores, as shown in
Figure 14–7.
Figure 14–7
Figure 14.7 Each Subgroup Divided into Subgroups by Grade Level
Group 1 Group 2
1. Ald, Peter M Fr 1. Bear, Theresa F
Fr
2. Davis, William M Fr 2. Carson, Susan F
Fr
3. Hogan, Michael M Fr 3. Collins, Carolyn F
Fr
4. Meloski, Gary M Fr 4. Martin, Janice F
Fr
5. Peterson, John M Fr 5. Smith, Nancy F
Fr
Group 3 Group 4
1. Brown, Danny M So 1. Jones, Lois F
So
2. Lutz, Harry M So 2. Peters, Michele F
So
3. Lyons, Larry M So 3. Toms, Debbie F
So
4. Oeler, George M So 4. Unger, Roberta F
So
5. Thomas, Jeff M So 5. Zibert, Mary F
So

Step 3 Determine how many students need to be selected from each subgroup to have a
proportional representation of each subgroup in the sample. There are four groups, and since a
total of eight students is needed for the sample, two students must be selected from each
subgroup.

Step 4 Select two students from each group by using random numbers. In this case, the random
numbers are as follows:
Group 1 Students 5 and 4 Group 2 Students 5 and 2
Group 3 Students 1 and 3 Group 4 Students 3 and 4

The stratified sample then consists of the following people:

Peterson, John M Fr Smith, Nancy F Fr
 Meloski, Gary M Fr Carson, Susan F Fr
Brown, Danny M So T Toms, Debbie F So
Lyons, Larry M So Unger, Roberta F So

The major advantage of stratification is that it ensures representation of all population

subgroups that are important to the study. There are two major drawbacks to stratification,
however. First, if there are many variables of interest, dividing a large population into
representative subgroups requires a great deal of effort. Second, if the variables are somewhat
complex or ambiguous (such as beliefs, attitudes, or prejudices), it is difficult to separate
individuals into the subgroups according to these variables.

Uses of Stratified Random Sampling

 Stratified random sampling is used when the researcher wants to highlight a specific
subgroup within the population. This technique is useful in such researches because it
ensures the presence of the key subgroup within the sample.

 Researchers also employ stratified random sampling when they want to observe existing
relationships between two or more subgroups. With a simple random sampling technique,
the researcher is not sure whether the subgroups that he wants to observe are represented
equally or proportionately within the sample.
 With stratified sampling, the researcher can representatively sample even the smallest and
most inaccessible subgroups in the population. This allows the researcher to sample the rare
extremes of the given population.
 With this technique, you have a higher statistical precision compared to simple random
sampling. This is because the variability within the subgroups is lower compared to the
variations when dealing with the entire population.

Because this technique has high statistical precision, it also means that it requires a small
sample size which can save a lot of time, money and effort of the researchers.
Types of Stratified Sampling

Proportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The sample size of each stratum in this technique is proportionate to the population size of the
stratum when viewed against the entire population. This means that the each stratum has the
same sampling fraction.
For example, you have 3 strata with 100, 200 and 300 population sizes respectively. And the
researcher chose a sampling fraction of ½. Then, the researcher must randomly sample 50, 100
and 150 subjects from each stratum respectively.

Stratum A B C
Population Size 100 200 300
Sampling Fraction ½ ½ ½
Final Sample Size 50 100 150
The important thing to remember in this technique is to use the same sampling fraction for
each stratum regardless of the differences in population size of the strata. It is much like
assembling a smaller population that is specific to the relative proportions of the subgroups
within the population.

Disproportionate Stratified Random Sampling

The only difference between proportionate and disproportionate stratified random sampling is
their sampling fractions. With disproportionate sampling, the different strata have different
sampling fractions.

The precision of this design is highly dependent on the sampling fraction allocation of the
researcher. If the researcher commits mistakes in allotting sampling fractions, a stratum may
either be overrepresented or underrepresented which will result in skewed results.

Example:

If we were studying land use within a given region, it would be useful to stratify the sample
according to geological soil types. In this example, we have the following 3 soil types:

Soil type Name of Soil Area (Km²) occupied

by each soil Type

A Sephula 10

B Fusi 50
 C Maseru 30

Total 90

 Once the sample has been stratified, the second step would be deciding on the number
of sample points (sample size) to be taken. In this example we are going to take 4,500
sample points.
 The next step would then be to allocate the sample points or determine the number of
points to be taken for each soil type as follows.

SOIL TYPE A = 10/90 x 45OO = 500

SOIL TYPE B = 50/90 x 4500 = 2500

SOIL TYPE B = 30/90 x 4500 = 1500

** When you add up the number of points allocated, they should always add up to the total
number of sample points

Advantages and disadvantages of stratified sampling

Advantages:
 It can be used with random or systematic sampling, and with point, line or area
techniques
 If the proportions of the sub-sets are known, it can generate results which are more
representative of the whole population
 It is very flexible and applicable to many geographical enquiries
 Correlations and comparisons can be made between sub-sets
Disadvantages:
 Sampling frame of the entire population has to be prepared separately for each stratum.
 The method can become complex when examining multiple criteria thus reducing the
utility of the strata
 In some cases, stratified sampling can require a larger sample than would other
methods (eg those with a specified minimum sample soze per group)
 The proportions of the sub-sets must be known and accurate if it is to work properly
 It can be hard to stratify questionnaire data collection, accurate up to date population
data may not be available and it may be hard to identify people's age or social
background effectively

Systematic Sampling Technique

 This is a sampling technique which is frequently chosen by researchers for its simplicity and
its periodic quality.
Samples are chosen in a systematic, or regular way.
 They are evenly/regularly distributed in a spatial context, for example every two meters
along a transect line
 They can be at equal/regular intervals in a temporal context, for example every half
hour or at set times of the day
 They can be regularly numbers, for example every 10th house or person

In systematic random sampling, the researcher first randomly picks the first item or subject
from the population. Then, the researcher will select each n'th subject from the list.

The procedure involved in systematic random sampling is very easy and can be done manually.
The results are representative of the population unless certain characteristics of the population
are repeated for every n'th individual, which is highly unlikely.

The process of obtaining the systematic sample is much like an arithmetic progression.

1. Starting number:
The researcher selects an integer that must be less than the total number of individuals in the
population. This integer will correspond to the first subject.
2. Interval:
The researcher picks another integer which will serve as the constant difference between any
two consecutive numbers in the progression.
The integer is typically selected so that the researcher obtains the correct sample size

For example, the researcher has a population total of 100 individuals and need 12 subjects. He
first picks his starting number, 5.

Then the researcher picks his interval, 8. The members of his sample will be individuals 5, 13,
21, 29, 37, 45, 53, 61, 69, 77, 85, 93.

Other researchers use a modified systematic random sampling technique wherein they first
identify the needed sample size. Then, they divide the total number of the population with the
sample size to obtain the sampling fraction. The sampling fraction is then used as the constant
difference between subjects.
 Cluster Random Sampling
Cluster random sampling is done when simple random sampling is almost impossible because
of the size of the population. Just imagine doing a simple random sampling when the
population in question is the entire population of Asia.
1. In cluster sampling, the research first identifies boundaries, in case of our example; it can be
countries within Asia.
2. The researcher randomly selects a number of identified areas. It is important that all areas
(countries) within the population be given equal chances of being selected.
3. The researcher can either include all the individuals within the selected areas or he can
randomly select subjects from the identified areas.

Types of Cluster Sample

One-Stage Cluster Sample

Recall the example given above; one-stage cluster sample occurs when the researcher includes
all the high school students from all the randomly selected clusters as sample.

Two-Stage Cluster Sample

From the same example above, two-stage cluster sample is obtained when the researcher only
selects a number of students from each cluster by using simple or systematic random sampling.

Difference Between Cluster Sampling and Stratified Sampling

The main difference between cluster sampling and stratified sampling lies with the inclusion of
the cluster or strata.

In stratified random sampling, all the strata of the population is sampled while in cluster
sampling, the researcher only randomly selects a number of clusters from the collection of
clusters of the entire population. Therefore, only a number of clusters are sampled, all the
other clusters are left unrepresented.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Cluster Sampling
o This sampling technique is cheap, quick and easy. Instead of sampling an entire country when
using simple random sampling, the researcher can allocate his limited resources to the few
randomly selected clusters or areas when using cluster samples.
o Related to the first advantage, the researcher can also increase his sample size with this
technique. Considering that the researcher will only have to take the sample from a number
of areas or clusters, he can then select more subjects since they are more accessible.

o From all the different type of probability sampling, this technique is the least representative
of the population. The tendency of individuals within a cluster is to have similar
characteristics and with a cluster sample, there is a chance that the researcher can have an
overrepresented or underrepresented cluster which can skew the results of the study.
o This is also a probability sampling technique with a possibility of high sampling error. This is
brought by the limited clusters included in the sample leaving off a significant proportion of
the population unsampled.

Mixed/Multi-Stage Random Sampling

This probability sampling technique involves a combination of two or more sampling techniques
enumerated above. In most of the complex researches done in the field or in the lab, it is not
suited to use just a single type of probability sampling.

Most of the researches are done in different stages with each stage applying a different random
sampling technique.

In cluster sampling, instead of selecting all the subjects from the entire population right off, the
researcher takes several steps in gathering his sample population.

First, the researcher selects groups or clusters, and then from each cluster, the researcher
selects the individual subjects by either simple random or systematic random sampling. The
researcher can even opt to include the entire cluster and not just a subset from it.
The most common cluster used in research is a geographical cluster. For example, a researcher
wants to survey academic performance of high school students in Spain.

5. He can divide the entire population (population of Spain) into different clusters (cities).
6. Then the researcher selects a number of clusters depending on his research through simple
or systematic random sampling.
7. Then, from the selected clusters (randomly selected cities) the researcher can either include
all the high school students as subjects or he can select a number of subjects from each
cluster through simple or systematic random sampling.

The important thing to remember about this sampling technique is to give all the clusters equal
chances of being selected.
Advantages:
Multi-stage sampling introduces flexibility in the sampling method which is lacking in the other
methods. It enables existing divisions and sub-divisions of the population to be used as units at
various stages, and permits the field work to be concentrated and yet large area to be covered.

Sub-division into second stage units need be carried out for only those first stage units which
are included in the sample. It is, therefore, particularly valuable in surveys of under-developed
areas where no frame is generally sufficiently detailed and accurate for subdivision of the
material into reasonably small sampling units.

Disadvantages:

A multi-stage sample is in general less accurate than a sample containing the same number of
final stage units which have been selected by some suitable single stage process.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING

Non-probability sampling is a sampling technique where the samples are gathered in a process
that does not give all the individuals in the population equal chances of being selected.

In contrast with probability sampling, non-probability sample is not a product of a randomized

selection processes. Subjects in a non-probability sample are usually selected on the basis of
their accessibility or by the purposive personal judgment of the researcher.

The downside of the non-probability sampling method is that an unknown proportion of the
entire population was not sampled. This entails that the sample may or may not represent the
entire population accurately. Therefore, the results of the research cannot be used in
generalizations pertaining to the entire population.

Types of Non-Probability Sampling Techniques

 a. Convenience
b. Sequential
c. Consecutive
d. Quota
e. Judgmental
f. Snowball /Chain Referral Sampling

Convenience Sampling
Convenience sampling is probably the most common of all sampling techniques. With
convenience sampling, the samples are selected because they are accessible to the researcher.
Subjects are chosen simply because they are easy to recruit. This technique is considered
easiest, cheapest and least time consuming.
Convenience sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where subjects are selected
because of their convenient accessibility and proximity to the researcher.
The subjects are selected just because they are easiest to recruit for the study and the
researcher did not consider selecting subjects that are representative of the entire population.

In all forms of research, it would be ideal to test the entire population, but in most cases, the
population is just too large that it is impossible to include every individual. This is the reason
why most researchers rely on sampling techniques like convenience sampling, the most
common of all sampling techniques. Many researchers prefer this sampling technique because
it is fast, inexpensive, easy and the subjects are readily available.
Examples

One of the most common examples of convenience sampling is using student volunteers as
subjects for the research. Another example is using subjects that are selected from a clinic, a
class or an institution that is easily accessible to the researcher. A more concrete example is
choosing five people from a class or choosing the first five names from the list of patients.

In these examples, the researcher inadvertently excludes a great proportion of the population.
A convenience sample is either a collection of subjects that are accessible or a self-selection of
individuals willing to participate which is exemplified by your volunteers.

Uses
Researchers use convenience sampling not just because it is easy to use, but because it also has
other research advantages.

In pilot studies, convenience sample is usually used because it allows the researcher to obtain
basic data and trends regarding his study without the complications of using a randomized
sample.
This sampling technique is also useful in documenting that a particular quality of a substance or
phenomenon occurs within a given sample. Such studies are also very useful for detecting
relationships among different phenomena.

Criticisms

The most obvious criticism about convenience sampling is sampling bias and that the sample is
not representative of the entire population. This may be the biggest disadvantage when using a
convenience sample because it leads to more problems and criticisms.

Systematic bias stems from sampling bias. This refers to a constant difference between the
results from the sample and the theoretical results from the entire population. It is not rare
that the results from a study that uses a convenience sample differ significantly with the results
from the entire population. A consequence of having systematic bias is obtaining skewed
results.
Another significant criticism about using a convenience sample is the limitation in
generalization and inference making about the entire population. Since the sample is not
representative of the population, the results of the study cannot speak for the entire
population. This results to a low external validity of the study.

Notes

When using convenience sampling, it is necessary to describe how your sample would differ
from an ideal sample that was randomly selected. It is also necessary to describe the individuals
who might be left out during the selection process or the individuals who are overrepresented
in the sample.

In connection to this, it is better if you can describe the possible effects of the people who were
left out or the subjects that are overrepresented to your results. This will allow the readers of
 your research to get a good grasp of the sample that you were testing. It will also enable them
to estimate the possible difference between your results and the results from the entire
population.

SEQUENTIAL SAMPLING
Sequential sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher picks a
single or a group of subjects in a given time interval, conducts his study, analyzes the results
then picks another group of subjects if needed and so on.
This sampling technique gives the researcher limitless chances of fine tuning his research
methods and gaining a vital insight into the study that he is currently pursuing.
Difference of Sequential Sampling from All Other Sampling Techniques

If we are to consider all the other sampling techniques in research, we will all come to a
conclusion that the experiment and the data analysis will either boil down to accepting the null
hypothesis or disproving the null hypothesis while accepting the alternative hypothesis.
In sequential sampling technique, there exists another step, a third option. The researcher can
accept the null hypothesis, accept his alternative hypothesis, or select another pool of subjects
and conduct the experiment once again. This entails that the researcher can obtain limitless
number of subjects before finally making a decision whether to accept his null or alternative
hypothesis.

Advantages of Sequential Sampling

 The researcher has a limitless option when it comes to sample size and sampling schedule.
The sample size can be relatively small of excessively large depending on the decision making
of the researcher. Sampling schedule is also completely dependent to the researcher since a
second group of samples can only be obtained after conducting the experiment to the initial
group of samples.
 As mentioned above, this sampling technique enables the researcher to fine-tune his
research methods and results analysis. Due to the repetitive nature of this sampling method,
minor changes and adjustments can be done during the initial parts of the study to correct
and hone the research method.

 There is very little effort in the part of the researcher when performing this sampling
technique. It is not expensive, not time consuming and not workforce extensive.
 Disadvantages of Sequential Sampling

 This sampling method is hardly representative of the entire population. Its only hope of
approaching representativeness is when the researcher chose to use a very large sample size
significant enough to represent a big fraction of the entire population.

 The sampling technique is also hardly randomized. This contributes to the very little degree
representativeness of the sampling technique.
 Due to the aforementioned disadvantages, results from this sampling technique cannot be
used to create conclusions and interpretations pertaining to the entire population.

Consecutive Sampling
Consecutive sampling is very similar to convenience sampling except that it seeks to include ALL
accessible subjects as part of the sample. This non-probability sampling technique can be
considered as the best of all non-probability samples because it includes all subjects that are
available that makes the sample a better representation of the entire population.

Quota Sampling
Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the researcher ensures equal
or proportionate representation of subjects depending on which trait is considered as basis of
the quota.
For example, if basis of the quota is college year level and the researcher needs equal
representation, with a sample size of 100, he must select 25 1st year students, another 25 2nd
year students, 25 3rd year and 25 4th year students. The bases of the quota are usually age,
gender, education, race, religion and socioeconomic status.

Quota sampling is a non-probability sampling technique wherein the assembled sample has
the same proportions of individuals as the entire population with respect to known
characteristics, traits or focused phenomenon.

In addition to this, the researcher must make sure that the composition of the final sample to
be used in the study meets the research's quota criteria.
 Step-by-step Quota Sampling

 The first step in non-probability quota sampling is to divide the population into exclusive
subgroups.
 Then, the researcher must identify the proportions of these subgroups in the population; this
same proportion will be applied in the sampling process.
 Finally, the researcher selects subjects from the various subgroups while taking into
consideration the proportions noted in the previous step.

 The final step ensures that the sample is representative of the entire population. It also
allows the researcher to study traits and characteristics that are noted for each subgroup.

Example of Quota Samples

In a study wherein the researcher likes to compare the academic performance of the different
high school class levels, its relationship with gender and socioeconomic status, the researcher
first identifies the subgroups.

Usually, the subgroups are the characteristics or variables of the study. The researcher divides
the entire population into class levels, intersected with gender and socioeconomic status. Then,
he takes note of the proportions of these subgroups in the entire population and then samples
each subgroup accordingly.
When to Use Quota Samples

 The main reason why researchers choose quota samples is that it allows the researchers to
sample a subgroup that is of great interest to the study. If a study aims to investigate a trait
or a characteristic of a certain subgroup, this type of sampling is the ideal technique.

 Quota sampling also allows the researchers to observe relationships between subgroups. In
some studies, traits of a certain subgroup interact with other traits of another subgroup. In
such cases, it is also necessary for the researcher to use this type of sampling technique.
Disadvantages of Quota Samples

It may appear that this type of sampling technique is totally representative of the population. In
some cases it is not. Keep in mind that only the selected traits of the population were taken
into account in forming the subgroups.
In the process of sampling these subgroups, other traits in the sample may be overrepresented.
In a study that considers gender, socioeconomic status and religion as the basis of the
subgroups, the final sample may have skewed representation of age, race, educational
attainment, marital status and a lot more.

Judgmental Sampling
Judgmental sampling is more commonly known as purposive sampling. In this type of sampling,
subjects are chosen to be part of the sample with a specific purpose in mind. With judgmental
sampling, the researcher believes that some subjects are more fit for the research compared to
other individuals. This is the reason why they are purposively chosen as subjects.
Judgmental sampling is a non-probability sampling technique where the researcher selects
units to be sampled based on their knowledge and professional judgment.
This type of sampling technique is also known as purposive sampling and authoritative
sampling.

Purposive sampling is used in cases where the specialty of an authority can select a more
representative sample that can bring more accurate results than by using other probability
sampling techniques. The process involves nothing but purposely handpicking individuals from
the population based on the authority's or the researcher's knowledge and judgment.

Example of Judgmental Sampling

In a study wherein a researcher wants to know what it takes to graduate summa cum laude in
college, the only people who can give the researcher first hand advise are the individuals who
graduated summa cum laude. With this very specific and very limited pool of individuals that
can be considered as a subject, the researcher must use judgmental sampling.
When to Use Judgmental Sampling

Judgmental sampling design is usually used when a limited number of individuals possess the
trait of interest. It is the only viable sampling technique in obtaining information from a very
specific group of people. It is also possible to use judgmental sampling if the researcher knows a
reliable professional or authority that he thinks is capable of assembling a representative
sample.
Setbacks of Judgmental Sampling

The two main weaknesses of authoritative sampling are with the authority and in the sampling
process; both of which pertains to the reliability and the bias that accompanies the sampling
technique.
Unfortunately, there is usually no way to evaluate the reliability of the expert or the authority.
The best way to avoid sampling error brought by the expert is to choose the best and most
experienced authority in the field of interest.
When it comes to the sampling process, it is usually biased since no randomization was used in
obtaining the sample. It is also worth noting that the members of the population did not have
equal chances of being selected. The consequence of this is the misrepresentation of the entire
population which will then limit generalizations of the results of the study.

Snowball Sampling OR Chain Referral Sampling

Snowball sampling is usually done when there is a very small population size. In this type of
sampling, the researcher asks the initial subject to identify another potential subject who also
meets the criteria of the research. The downside of using a snowball sample is that it is hardly
representative of the population.
Snowball sampling is a non-probability sampling technique that is used by researchers to
identify potential subjects in studies where subjects are hard to locate.

Researchers use this sampling method if the sample for the study is very rare or is limited to a
very small subgroup of the population. This type of sampling technique works like chain
referral. After observing the initial subject, the researcher asks for assistance from the subject
to help identify people with a similar trait of interest.
The process of snowball sampling is much like asking your subjects to nominate another person
with the same trait as your next subject. The researcher then observes the nominated subjects
and continues in the same way until the obtaining sufficient number of subjects.
For example, if obtaining subjects for a study that wants to observe a rare disease, the
researcher may opt to use snowball sampling since it will be difficult to obtain subjects. It is also
possible that the patients with the same disease have a support group; being able to observe
one of the members as your initial subject will then lead you to more subjects for the study.

Types of Snowball Sampling

 Linear Snowball Sampling
Exponential Non-Discriminative Snowball Sampling
Exponential Discriminative Snowball Sampling
Advantages of Snowball Sampling

 The chain referral process allows the researcher to reach populations that are difficult to
sample when using other sampling methods.

 The process is cheap, simple and cost-efficient.

 This sampling technique needs little planning and fewer workforce compared to other
sampling techniques.
Disadvantages of Snowball Sampling

 The researcher has little control over the sampling method. The subjects that the researcher
can obtain rely mainly on the previous subjects that were observed.
 Representativeness of the sample is not guaranteed. The researcher has no idea of the true
distribution of the population and of the sample.

 Sampling bias is also a fear of researchers when using this sampling technique. Initial subjects
tend to nominate people that they know well. Because of this, it is highly possible that the
subjects share the same traits and characteristics, thus, it is possible that the sample that the
researcher will obtain is only a small subgroup of the entire population.

When to Use Non-Probability Sampling

 This type of sampling can be used when demonstrating that a particular trait exists in the
population.

 It can also be used when the researcher aims to do a qualitative, pilot or exploratory study.
 It can be used when randomization is impossible like when the population is almost limitless.

 It can be used when the research does not aim to generate results that will be used to create
generalizations pertaining to the entire population.
 It is also useful when the researcher has limited budget, time and workforce.

 This technique can also be used in an initial study which will be carried out again using a
randomized, probability sampling.